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104-728: Sam ( 三 ) is a Sino-Korean word meaning "three" and Han is a Korean word meaning "great (one), grand, large, much, many". Han was transliterated into Chinese characters 韓 , 漢 , 幹 , or 刊 , but is believed by foreign linguists to be unrelated to the Han in Han Chinese and the Chinese kingdoms and dynasties also called Han (漢) and Han (韓). The word Han is still found in many Korean words such as Hangawi (한가위) — archaic native Korean for Chuseok (秋夕, 추석), Hangaram (한가람) — archaic native Korean for Hangang (漢江, 한강), Hanbat (한밭) —

208-403: A campaign against Goguryeo , he took Li Zhi with him to Ding Prefecture (定州, roughly modern Baoding , Hebei) and then left Li Zhi there to be in charge of logistics, before heading to the front himself. He also left senior officials Gao Shilian , Liu Ji, Ma Zhou, Zhang Xingcheng , and Gao Jifu to assist Li Zhi. After the campaign ended in failure later that year, as Emperor Taizong was leading

312-537: A Tang vassal state , the Tuyuhun . Tuyuhun's Ledou Khan Murong Nuohebo , unable to withstand the Tibetan attack, took his people and fled into Tang territory to seek protection, thus ending Tuyuhun's existence as a state. Meanwhile, also in 663, Liu Rengui and Liu Renyuan, in conjunction with Munmu of Silla and the former Baekje crown prince Buyeo Yung , defeated Buyeo Pung and Japanese forces sent to assist him, at

416-583: A campaign of reprisal on her behalf. Empress Wu, on the other hand, persuaded Emperor Gaozong to work with the removal of the chancellors appointed by Emperor Taizong to consolidate the emperor's power. In 657, they accused Han Yuan and Lai Ji of plotting treason with Chu Suiliang, who was then serving as the commandant at Gui Prefecture (桂州, roughly modern Guilin , Guangxi). Emperor Gaozong demoted Han and Lai to be prefects of distant prefectures, and demoted Chu and Liu Shi to even more distant prefectures—in Chu's case, to

520-529: A commandant at Tan Prefecture (roughly modern Changsha , Hunan), and then deposed both Empress Wang and Consort Xiao, putting them under arrest and creating Consort Wu, as empress (皇后, huánghòu) and the most powerful woman in the empire (天下母, Tiānxià Mǔ) instead to replace Empress Wang. (Later that year, Empress Wang and Consort Xiao were killed on orders by the new Empress Wu after Emperor Gaozong showed signs of considering their release.) Then, at Xu's suggestion, in spring 656, Emperor Gaozong demoted Li Zhong to be

624-692: A common name to refer to all of Korea. In his Ten Mandates to his descendants, Wang Geon declared that he had unified the Three Han (Samhan), referring to the Three Kingdoms of Korea. Samhan continued to be a common name for Korea during the Joseon period and was widely referenced in the Annals of the Joseon Dynasty . In China, the Three Kingdoms of Korea were collectively called Samhan since

728-494: A daughter that died shortly after birth. Evidence implicated Empress Wang as the killer, although some historians believe Consort Wu killed her own daughter in order to frame Empress Wang, but no concrete evidence of this exists. In anger, Emperor Gaozong considered deposing Empress Wang and replacing her with Consort Wu, but wanted to make sure that the chancellors would support this, and so visited Zhangsun's house with Consort Wu, awarding him with much treasure, but when he brought up

832-522: A great deal of power in affairs of state until the end of his reign while exerting her influence on him. Empress Wu was partially in control of power from November 660 and then totally from January 665 to December 683; there was an equality of power between Gaozong and Wu, which caused them to be called "two saints" (二聖, Er Sheng , literally two emperors) both inside and outside. After Emperor Gaozong died in December 683, power fell completely and solely into

936-548: A large portion of South Korean vocabulary, the remainder being native Korean words and loanwords from other languages, such as Japanese and English to a lesser extent. Sino-Korean words are typically used in formal or literary contexts, and to express abstract or complex ideas. All Korean surnames and most Korean given names are Sino-Korean. Additionally, Korean numerals can be expressed with Sino-Korean and native Korean words, though each set of numerals has different purposes. Sino-Korean words may be written either in

1040-400: A pearl screen behind him to hear the reports, and before the emperor can decide, he must ask the empress: therefore she got involved in everything pertaining to the empire and discussed and helped decide all "great and small" military and state affairs; her power is no different from that of the emperor. Since Empress Wu began to listen to politics in court, she established herself and Gaozong in

1144-599: A plea on Duman's behalf—that he had promised Duman life before Duman surrendered—and Emperor Gaozong stated that while under the law, Duman should die, he would honor Su's promise, and so he spared Duman. On the other end of the Tang atmosphere of influence, on the Korean Peninsula , Baekje had been attacking the Tang ally Silla . Once Su returned from the Esegel campaign, Emperor Gaozong commissioned him to head over

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1248-508: A relief force, and Liu Rengui and Liu Renyuan were able to fight off the Baekje resistance forces' attacks, but were themselves not strong enough to quell the rebellion, and so for some time the armies were in stalemate. Meanwhile, Su advanced on the Goguryeo capital Pyongyang and put it under siege, but was unable to capture it quickly. In spring 662, after the general Pang Xiaotai ( 龐孝泰 )

1352-463: A ruling elite, whose power was a mix of politics and shamanism . Although each state appears to have had its own ruler, there is no evidence of systematic succession . The name of the poorly understood Jin state continued to be used in the name of the Jinhan confederacy and in the name "Byeonjin," an alternate term for Byeonhan. In addition, for some time the leader of Mahan continued to call himself

1456-419: A surprise attack on Duman. When he arrived at Duman's headquarters, Duman was surprised, and after Su initially defeated Duman, Duman was forced to withdraw within the city. Su put the city under siege, and Duman surrendered. In spring 660, Su took Duman back to the eastern capital Luoyang , where Emperor Gaozong was at the time, to present Duman to him. Some officials requested that Duman be executed, but Su made

1560-518: A treasonous plot by Zhangsun. Emperor Gaozong, without meeting with Zhangsun, believed Xu, and put Zhangsun under house arrest in exile at Qian Prefecture (黔州, roughly modern southeastern Chongqing ). Xu further implicated Chu, Liu, Han, and Yu Zhining in the plot as well. Yu was removed from his post. Chu, who had died in 658, was posthumously stripped of all titles, and his sons Chu Yanfu ( 褚彥甫 ) and Chu Yanchong ( 褚彥沖 ) were executed. Orders were also issued to execute Liu and Han, although Han died before

1664-650: Is also quite likely that their boundaries changed over time. Samguk Sagi indicates that Mahan was located in the northern region later occupied by Goguryeo , Jinhan in the region later occupied by Silla , and Byeonhan in the southwestern region later occupied by Baekje . However, the earlier Chinese Records of the Three Kingdoms places Mahan in the southwest, Jinhan in the southeast, and Byeonhan between them. Villages were usually constructed deep in high mountain valleys, where they were relatively secure from attack. Mountain fortresses were also often constructed as places of refuge during war. The minor states which made up

1768-503: Is generally accepted as including Sillan , and may also have included the language(s) spoken in Baekje . A number of researchers have suggested that Baekje may have been bilingual, with the ruling class speaking a Puyŏ language and the commoners speaking a Han language. Linguistic evidence suggests that Japonic languages (see Peninsular Japonic ) were spoken in large parts of the southern Korean Peninsula , but its speakers were eventually assimilated by Koreanic-speaking peoples and

1872-482: The Battle of Baekgang . Buyeo Pung fled to Goguryeo, ending the Baekje resistance movement. Emperor Gaozong recalled Liu Renyuan, leading Liu Rengui in charge of former Baekje territory, but in 664 sent Liu Renyuan back to Baekje and tried to recall Liu Rengui. Liu Rengui petitioned to remain to prepare for another attack on Goguryeo, and Emperor Gaozong agreed to let him remain. By 664, Empress Wu, who felt that her power

1976-515: The New Book of Tang : Whenever the emperor was ill, the affairs of the state were left to the empress to decide. The court and the country called them "Two Saints" ( 二聖 , Er Sheng ). Each time the emperor personally addressed court matters, a curtain hung in the hall ( 垂簾聽政 , Chuílián tīngzhèng ), and both the emperor and empress presided over the court together. It is up to empress's to decide who will be promoted and demoted, die and survive, and

2080-585: The 3rd century, when the Yamatai federation of Kyūshū gained monopolistic control over Japanese trade with Byeonhan. Sino-Korean vocabulary Sino-Korean vocabulary or Hanja-eo ( Korean :  한자어 ; Hanja :  漢字 語 ) refers to Korean words of Chinese origin. Sino-Korean vocabulary includes words borrowed directly from Chinese, as well as new Korean words created from Chinese characters , and words borrowed from Sino-Japanese vocabulary . Many of these terms were borrowed during

2184-710: The 4th century, Mahan was fully absorbed into the Baekje kingdom, Jinhan into the Silla kingdom, and Byeonhan into the Gaya confederacy , which was later annexed by Silla. Beginning in the 7th century, the name "Samhan" became synonymous with the Three Kingdoms of Korea. The "Han" in the names of the Korean Empire , Daehan Jeguk , and the Republic of Korea (South Korea), Daehan Minguk or Hanguk , are named in reference to

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2288-575: The Buddhist monk Dochim ( 道琛 ) and the former Baekje general Gwisil Boksin rose to try to revive Baekje. They welcomed the Baekje prince Buyeo Pung back from Japan to serve as king, with Juryu (주류, 周留, now Seocheon County , South Chungcheong ) as their headquarters. They put the Tang general Liu Renyuan ( 劉仁願 ) under siege in Sabi. Emperor Gaozong sent the general Liu Rengui , who had previously been demoted to commoner rank for offending Li Yifu, with

2392-503: The Chinese commanderies in 108 BC. The Samhan languages ( Korean : 삼한어; 三韓語) were a branch of the ancient Koreanic languages , referring to the non-Buyeo Koreanic languages, once spoken in the southern Korean Peninsula , which were closely related to the Buyeo languages . The Samhan languages were spoken in the Mahan , Byeonhan and Jinhan . The extent of Han languages is unclear. It

2496-686: The Court" ( 二聖臨朝 , Er Sheng Lín cháo ). The first book: the Later Jin historian Liu Xu , in Old Book of Tang , commented: The Empress of Heaven was at the helm of the country for long years, her power is no different from that of the emperor. When emperor's could not listen to the court issues, all affairs were decided by the Empress of Heaven. Since the execution of the Shangguan Yi , whenever

2600-738: The King of Jin, asserting nominal overlordship over all of the Samhan confederations. Mahan was the largest and earliest developed of the three confederacies. It consisted of 54 minor statelets, one of which conquered or absorbed the others and became the center of the Baekje Kingdom. Mahan is usually considered to have been located in the southwest of the Korean peninsula, covering Jeolla , Chungcheong , and portions of Gyeonggi . Jinhan consisted of 12 statelets, one of which conquered or absorbed

2704-696: The Korean alphabet, known as Hangul , or in Chinese characters, known as Hanja . Sino-Korean words borrowed directly from Chinese come mainly from Chinese classics , literature , and colloquial Chinese. These words below were created in Korea using Chinese characters. They are not used in China, Japan, nor Vietnam. Sino-Korean words borrowed from Sino-Japanese are used only in Korean and Japanese, not in Chinese. The Middle Chinese final consonants were semivowels (or glides ) /j/ and /w/, nasals /m/, /n/ and /ŋ/, and stops /p/, /t/ and /k/. Sino-Korean preserves all

2808-416: The Korean peninsula. These were exchanged for local iron or raw silk . After the 2nd century CE, as Chinese influence waned, iron ingots came into use as currency for the trade based around Jinhan and Byeonhan. Trade relations also existed with the emergent states of Japan at this time, most commonly involving the exchange of ornamental Japanese bronzeware for Korean iron. These trade relations shifted in

2912-468: The Korean vocabulary. The use of Chinese and Chinese characters in Korea dates back to at least 194 BCE . While Sino-Korean words were widely used during the Three Kingdoms period, they became even more popular during the Silla period. During this time, male aristocrats changed their given names to Sino-Korean names. Additionally, the government changed all official titles and place names in

3016-528: The Prince of Jing to make Li Yuanjing emperor. Fang, knowing that Zhangsun had long been apprehensive of Li Ke, falsely implicated Li Ke in the plot as well, hoping to ingratiate Zhangsun sufficiently that he would be spared. nevertheless, in spring 653, at the suggestion of Zhangsun and Cui Dunli – despite Emperor Gaozong's initial inclination to spare Li Yuanjing and Li Ke—Emperor Gaozong ordered that Fang, Xue, and Chai be executed, and that Li Yuanjing, Li Ke, and

3120-467: The Prince of Liang and created Empress Wu's oldest son Li Hong the Prince of Dai crown prince instead. In 655 as well, Emperor Gaozong commissioned the general Cheng Zhijie ( 程知節 ) to attack Ashina Helu, but while the campaign saw some victories over Western Turkic Khaganate's substituent tribes Geluolu ( 歌邏祿 ) and Chuyue ( 處月 ), it was hindered by Cheng's inability to restrain his assistant Wang Wendu ( 王文度 ) from pillaging and inappropriately halting

3224-424: The Prince of Shu, as well as Fang's brother Fang Yizhi ( 房遺直 ) and Xue's brother Xue Wanbei ( 薛萬備 ). By 654, both Empress Wang and Consort Xiao had lost favor with Emperor Gaozong, and the former romantic rivals joined forces against Consort Wu, but to no avail, and as a sign of his love to Consort Wu, in 654 he conferred posthumous honors on her father Wu Shihuo ( 武士彠 ). Later that year, Consort Wu gave birth to

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3328-500: The Princesses Gaoyang and Baling (Chai's wife) be forced to commit suicide. Zhangsun took this opportunity to accuse several other officials friendly with Fang or hostile to him—the chancellor Yuwen Jie , Li Daozong the Prince of Jiangxia, and the general Zhishi Sili ( 執失思力 ) – of being friendly with Fang and had them exiled. He also deposed and exiled Li Ke's mother Consort Yang and Consort Yang's other son Li Yin ( 李愔 )

3432-468: The Shangguan Yi! Do you really want to abolish me when you talk about abolishing the empress in your ear? I'll go to court with you in the future to prevent such mistakes, and I will assist you in addressing government issues and analyzing suggestions from the officials and others." Therefore, after this step, every day that Emperor Gaozong presided over imperial meetings, Empress Wu would sit behind

3536-458: The Tang dynasty, including those belonging to Baekje, Goguryeo, and Silla refugees and migrants, called the Three Kingdoms of Korea "Samhan", especially Goguryeo. For example, the epitaph of Go Hyeon ( 고현 ; 高玄 ), a Tang dynasty general of Goguryeo origin who died in 690, calls him a "Liaodong Samhan man" ( 요동 삼한인 ; 遼東 三韓人 ). The History of Liao equates Byeonhan to Silla, Jinhan to Buyeo, and Mahan to Goguryeo. In 1897, Gojong changed

3640-471: The Three Kingdoms of Korea, not the ancient confederacies in the southern Korean Peninsula. "Samhan" became a name for the Three Kingdoms of Korea beginning in the 7th century. According to the Samguk Sagi and Samguk Yusa , Silla implemented a national policy, "Samhan Unification" ( 삼한일통 ; 三韓一統 ), to integrate Baekje and Goguryeo refugees. In 1982, a memorial stone dating back to 686

3744-499: The Tibetan Empire instead, and when Ashina Buzhen died later that year, Tang influence in the region was greatly reduced. During these years, Li Yifu had been, due to favors from Emperor Gaozong and Empress Wu, exceedingly powerful, and he grew particularly corrupt. In 663, after reports of Li Yifu's corruption were made to Emperor Gaozong, Emperor Gaozong had Liu Xiangdao and Li Ji investigate, finding Li Yifu guilty. Li Yifu

3848-524: The Western Turkic Khaganate prince Ashina Helu , who had sought and received protection from Emperor Taizong, broke away from Tang and defeated the Western Turkic Khaganate's Yipishekui Khan , taking over the Western Turkic Khaganate himself and no longer subordinate under Tang. In fall 651, Ashina Helu attacked Tang's Ting Prefecture (庭州, roughly Changji Hui Autonomous Prefecture , Xinjiang), and Emperor Gaozong responded by commissioning

3952-445: The Western Turkic Khaganate's subject kingdoms Shule ( 疏勒 ), Zhujupo ( 朱俱波 ), and Yebantuo ( 謁般陀 ) (all in modern Kashgar , Xinjiang). The joint forces commanded by Duman quickly defeated the Tang vassal Yutian (于田, in modern Hotan , Xinjiang). In winter 659, Emperor Gaozong sent Su Dingfang against Duman, and once he arrived in the vicinity of Duman's army, he selected 10,000 infantry soldiers and 3,000 cavalry soldiers and made

4056-429: The army back from the front, Li Zhi went to meet him at Linyu Pass (臨渝關, now Shanhai Pass ). Emperor Taizong suffered an injury during the campaign, and Li Zhi was said to have, as Emperor Taizong's conditions were getting worse, sucked the pus out of his wound, until Emperor Taizong recovered somewhat. In 646, with Emperor Taizong still recovering, he transferred some of the imperial authorities to Li Zhi. Li Zhi stayed at

4160-589: The army. After the campaign ended in early 657, both Cheng and Wang were deposed from their offices. In 657, Emperor Gaozong commissioned the general Su Dingfang , who had served under Cheng Zhijie in the earlier failed campaign, to command a campaign against Ashina Helu, assisted by Ren Yaxiang and Xiao Siye ( 蕭嗣業 ). They were joined by the Western Turkic Khaganate's leaders Ashina Mishe and Ashina Buzhen , who had submitted to Tang during Emperor Taizong's reign. The campaign caught Ashina Helu by surprise, and Su defeated him in several battles, causing him to flee to

4264-493: The beginning of the 7th century. The use of the name Samhan to indicate the Three Kingdoms of Korea was widespread in the Tang dynasty . Goguryeo was alternately called Mahan by the Tang dynasty, as evidenced by a Tang document that called Goguryeo generals "Mahan leaders" ( 마한추장 ; 馬韓酋長 ) in 645. In 651, Emperor Gaozong of Tang sent a message to the king of Baekje referring to the Three Kingdoms of Korea as Samhan. Epitaphs of

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4368-615: The conquest of Baekje , Goguryeo , and the Western Turkic Khaganate , but throughout the 670s, much of those gains were lost to the Tibetan Empire , Silla , Khitans , and Balhae . Further, territory previously conquered that belonged to both the Göktürks and the Western Turkic Khaganate were subjected to repeated rebellions. Li Zhi was born in 628. He was the ninth son of his father, Emperor Taizong , and

4472-739: The country to Sino-Korean. Sino-Korean words remained popular during the Goryeo and Joseon periods. Ultimately, the majority of Sino-Korean words were introduced before 1945, including Sino-Japanese words themselves that were introduced to Korea during Japanese Occupation . In the contemporary era, Sino-Korean vocabulary has continued to grow in South Korea , where the meanings of Chinese characters are used to produce new words in Korean that do not exist in Chinese. By contrast, North Korean policy has called for many Sino-Korean words to be replaced by native Korean terms. Sino-Korean words constitute

4576-471: The court alone and decide. As a result, she increasingly took control of great and small decisions made throughout Emperor Gaozong's reign. She and Emperor Gaozong were thereafter referred to as the "Two Saints." The extent of Empress Wu's authority from 665 until the end of Emperor Gaozong, all historians and historical yearbooks state: Hanging the curtain from behind and listening and speaking in government ( 垂簾聽政 , Chuílián tīngzhèng ); "Two Saints came to

4680-673: The distinctions between final nasals and stops. Although Old Korean had a /t/ coda, words with the Middle Chinese coda /t/ have /l/ in Sino-Korean, reflecting a northern variety of Late Middle Chinese in which final /t/ had weakened to /r/. Emperor Gaozong of Tang Emperor Gaozong of Tang (21 July 628 – 27 December 683 ), personal name Li Zhi , was the third emperor of the Chinese Tang dynasty , ruling from 649 to 683; after January 665, he handed power over

4784-431: The edict. However, during his years as crown prince, he was said to have favored his concubine Pure Consort Xiao , having two daughters (the later Princesses Yiyang and Xuan Cheng) and one son ( Li Sujie ) with her, much to the chagrin of his wife Crown Princess Wang, who was childless and jealous of Consort Xiao. Three other concubines of his bore his other sons Li Zhong , Li Xiao ( 李孝 ), and Li Shangjin ( 李上金 ). Around

4888-539: The emperor went to court, the Empress of Heaven hung a curtain behind the throne ( 垂簾聽政 , Chuílián tīngzhèng ), and there was matter of government, great or small, were settled by her, and they were called "Two Saints" ( 二聖 , Er Sheng ) inside and outside. The emperor wanted to issue an edict to make the Empress of Heaven would formally take over the throne of the empire, and Hao Chujun , persuaded him to stop this issue (appoint of regent). The second book: according to Song dynasty historians Ouyang Xiu and Song Qi , in

4992-418: The empire to his second wife Empress Wu (the future Wu Zetian ), and her decrees were carried out with greater force than the decrees of Emperor Gaozong's. Emperor Gaozong was the youngest son of Emperor Taizong and Empress Zhangsun ; his elder brothers were Li Chengqian and Li Tai . Emperor Gaozong's reign saw the primacy of Empress Wu, who became the effective power behind the Tang rule. Emperor Gaozong

5096-440: The empress. In the same year when the eunuch Wang Fusheng ( 王伏勝 ) reported to Emperor Gaozong that she had engaged the sorcerer Guo Xingzhen ( 郭行真 ) – an act that was strictly forbidden—Emperor Gaozong, in anger, summoned the chancellor Shangguan Yi to consult Shangguan. Shangguan suggested that he depose Empress Wu. He agreed, and had Shangguan draft an edict to that effect. However, Empress Wu had received information that that

5200-517: The execution order reached his location. Meanwhile, Zhangsun, once he reached his place of exile, was forced to commit suicide. It was said that after Han's and Lai's deaths, no official dared to criticize the emperor any further. Also in 659, a vassal of Western Turkic Khaganate (Pin. Tujue ), Duman ( 都曼 ), the commander of the Esegels (aka Izgil , Old Turkic : 𐰔𐰏𐰠 , Ch. Asijie , Sijie 思結) Tribe, rebelled against Tang occupation , along with

5304-576: The extremely distant Ai Prefecture (愛州, roughly modern Thanh Hóa Province , Vietnam ), and Chu's subsequent petition, sent from Ai Prefecture, pleading with Emperor Gaozong, fell on deaf ears. Empress Wu's reprisals did not end there. In 659, Zhangsun Wuji became the next target. At that time, two low level officials, Wei Jifang ( 韋季方 ) and Li Chao ( 李巢 ) had been accused of improper associations, and when Emperor Gaozong put Xu and Xin Maojiang of investigating, Xu falsely accused Wei and Li to be part of

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5408-460: The federations are usually considered to have covered about as much land as a modern-day myeon , or township. Based on historical and archeological records, river and sea routes appear to have been the primary means of long-distance transportation and trade (Yi, 2001, p. 246). It is thus not surprising that Jinhan and Byeonhan, with their coastal and river locations, became particularly prominent in international trade during this time. One of

5512-511: The former crown prince Li Zhong, Empress Wu had Xu Jingzong falsely accuse Shangguan, Wang, and Li Zhong of conspiring against Emperor Gaozong's life. Around the new year 665, Shangguan and Wang were executed, and Li Zhong was forced to commit suicide. After the events ended, Empress Wu told Emperor Gaozong: "Your Majesty, you are a wise man who manages the country in an orderly manner, but you are soft-hearted. Who do you think we are? We are husband and wife! Does our issue have anything to do with

5616-508: The general Zheng Rentai ( 鄭仁泰 ) to attack the Tiele, but while Zheng was initially victorious, his officers became bogged down in pillaging and eventually suffered great losses after being caught in poor weather. Emperor Gaozong instead sent Qibi, who was ethnically Tiele, assisted by Jiang Ke , to Tiele to try to persuade them to surrender. Qibi was able to do so, and rebel leaders were arrested and turned over to Tang. Qibi executed them and ended

5720-409: The generals Liang Jianfang ( 梁建方 ) and Qibi Heli ( 契苾何力 ) to attack Ashina Helu. Liang and Qibi achieved some victories against Ashina Helu's general Zhuxie Guzhu ( 朱邪孤注 ), but then withdrew without engaging Ashina Helu. Meanwhile, as Empress Wang was sonless, her uncle, the chancellor Liu Shi , suggested to her that she ask Emperor Gaozong to create his oldest son Li Zhong, whose mother Consort Liu

5824-407: The government was organized well and the people were comforted, much like during the reign of Emperor Taizong, although in winter 650, Chu was accused of forcibly purchasing private land and paying below-market price, and was demoted to be a prefectural prefect. (Chu eventually returned to power in 653.) Also in 650, the general Gao Kan ( 高侃 ) – whose army had been launched by Emperor Taizong against

5928-529: The hands of Empress Wu , acting as Empress Dowager-regent, "presiding over court and issuing edicts" ( lin chao chengzhi 臨朝稱制); she subsequently became the only empress regnant in Chinese history . After his death, he was interred at the Qian Mausoleum along with Wu Zetian. During the first part of his reign, Tang territorial gains, which started with his father Emperor Taizong, continued, including

6032-521: The head of Li Zhi's household. At the advice of another key official, Liu Ji , who pointed out that the crown prince needed to have a group of well-learned scholars that he was close to, Emperor Taizong appointed Liu, as well as Cen Wenben , Chu Suiliang , and Ma Zhou , to serve as Li Zhi's friends and advisors. Late in 643, Emperor Taizong issued an edict to select beautiful women among good households to serve as Li Zhi's concubines . However, after Li Zhi declined such treatment, Emperor Taizong cancelled

6136-745: The heads of the confederacies as such. In the beginning, the relationship was a political trading system in which "tribute" was exchanged for titles or prestige gifts. Official seals identified each tribal leader's authority to trade with the commandery. However, after the fall of the Kingdom of Wei in the 3rd century, San guo zhi reports that the Lelang commandery handed out official seals freely to local commoners, no longer symbolizing political authority (Yi, 2001, p. 245). The Chinese commanderies also supplied luxury goods and consumed local products. Later Han dynasty coins and beads are found throughout

6240-573: The height of Chinese-language literature on Korean culture. Subsequently, many of these words have also been truncated or altered for the Korean language. Estimates of the percentage of Sino-Korean ranges from as low as 30% to as high as 70%. According to the Standard Korean Language Dictionary published by the National Institute of Korean Language (NIKL), Sino-Korean represents approximately 57% of

6344-472: The imperial palace and attended to Emperor Taizong in his illness. That year, when Emperor Taizong was due to visit Ling Prefecture (靈州, roughly modern Yinchuan , Ningxia) to meet with a number of tribal chiefs who were formerly vassals of Xueyantuo —which had collapsed under Tang and Huige attacks earlier that year—he was set to take Li Zhi with him, but at Zhang's suggestion left Li Zhi in charge at Chang'an instead, to allow Li Zhi to become more familiar with

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6448-422: The important affairs of state in his absence. After Emperor Taizong returned from Ling Prefecture, he retained for himself the authorities over imperial worship, state guests, military, the commissioning of officers of higher than the fifth rank, and executions, and transferred all other authorities to Li Zhi. In 647, a commoner named Duan Zhichong ( 段志沖 ) submitted a petition to Emperor Taizong, asking him to pass

6552-639: The important examination bureau of the government)] and trust him after I die. If he hesitates, execute him. He then demoted Li Shiji to the post of the commandant of Die Prefecture (疊州, roughly modern Gannan Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture , Gansu). Li Shiji, realizing what was happening, after receiving the order, departed without hesitation. As Emperor Taizong's illness was getting more serious, Li Zhi continuously attended to him and wept constantly, often going without food, which touched Emperor Taizong greatly. Emperor Taizong entrusted Li Zhi to Zhangsun and Chu Suiliang, and then died on 10 July 649. Initially, Li Zhi

6656-501: The kingdom Shi (石國, centering modern Tashkent , Uzbekistan ), which arrested him and delivered him to Su, thus largely ending the Western Turkic Khaganate as an organized state. (Emperor Gaozong would try to continue the Western Turkic Khaganate's existence as a vassal stage by dividing it in half and creating Ashina Mishe and Ashina Buzhen as khans of the two halves.) Meanwhile, Xu Jingzong and Li Yifu, aligned with Empress Wu, and became strong enough to fight for power, began to carry out

6760-419: The languages replaced/supplanted. Evidence also suggests that Peninsular Japonic and Koreanic languages co-existed in the southern Korean Peninsula for an extended period of time and influenced each other. As has been suggested for the later Korean kingdom of Baekje , it is possible that the Samhan states were bilingual prior to the complete replacement of Peninsular Japonic by Koreanic languages. The Samhan saw

6864-484: The matter of changing the empress. Li Ji claimed an illness and refused to attend. At the meeting, Chu vehemently opposed deposing Empress Wang, while Zhangsun and Yu showed their disapproval by silence. Meanwhile, other chancellors Han Yuan and Lai Ji also opposed the move, but when Emperor Gaozong asked Li Ji again, Li Ji's response was, "This is your family matter, Your Imperial Majesty. Why ask anyone else?" Emperor Gaozong therefore became resolved. He demoted Chu to be

6968-451: The modern-day Jeolla area emerged as a center of rice production (Kim, 1974). Until the rise of Goguryeo , the external relations of Samhan were largely limited to the Chinese commanderies located in the former territory of Gojoseon . The longest standing of these, the Lelang commandery , appear to have maintained separate diplomatic relations with each individual state rather than with

7072-464: The most prominent leader of the Han ( Korean : 한; 韓) Immigration was King Jun of Gojoseon from the northern Korea, having lost the throne to Wiman , fled to the state of Jin in southern Korea around 194 - 180 BC. He and his followers established Mahan which was one of the Samhan ("Three Hans"), along with Byeonhan and Jinhan . Further Han(韓) migration followed the fall of Gojoseon and establishment of

7176-521: The name of Joseon to the Korean Empire , Daehan Jeguk , in reference to the Three Kingdoms of Korea. In 1919, the provisional government in exile during the Japanese occupation declared the name of Korea as the Republic of Korea, Daehan Minguk , also in reference to the Three Kingdoms of Korea. The Samhan are generally considered loose confederations of walled-town states. Each appears to have had

7280-644: The newly reconstituted Göktürk state under Chebi Khan Ashina Hubo prior to Emperor Taizong's death—captured Ashina Hubo and brought him back to Chang'an. Emperor Gaozong spared Ashina Hubo and made him a general, putting his people directly under Tang rule. Meanwhile, with two of the states of the Western Regions previously conquered by Tang and governed by Tang-installed kings, Kucha and Karasahr in disturbance, Emperor Taizong returned their previously captured kings, Bai Helibushibi ( 白訶黎布失畢 ) and Long Tuqizhi ( 龍突騎支 ) respectively, to their thrones. In 651,

7384-411: The opportunity to invite her old neighbors and relatives to a feast. Later that year, Emperor Gaozong began to suffer from an illness that carried the symptoms of painful headaches, persistent dizziness, occasional seizures and loss of vision, generally thought to be hypertension-related or stroke, and Emperor Gaozong began to have Empress Wu make rulings on petitions and suggestions made by officials. It

7488-462: The original place name in native Korean for Daejeon (大田, 대전), hanabi (하나비) — a Joseon -era (Late Middle Korean) word for "grandfather; elderly man" (most often 할아버지 harabeoji in present-day Korean, although speakers of some dialects, especially in North Korea, may still use the form hanabi ). Ma means south, Byeon means shining and Jin means east. Many historians have suggested that

7592-638: The others and became the center of the Silla Kingdom. It is usually considered to have been located to the east of the Nakdong River valley. Byeonhan consisted of 12 statelets, which later gave rise to the Gaya confederacy , subsequently annexed by Silla . It is usually considered to have been located in the south and west of the Nakdong River valley. The exact locations occupied by the different Samhan confederations are disputed. It

7696-430: The palace and demoted Liu Shi. Meanwhile, a faction of officials began to form around Consort Wu, including Li Yifu , Xu, Cui Yixuan ( 崔義玄 ), and Yuan Gongyu ( 袁公瑜 ). On an occasion in fall 655, Emperor Gaozong summoned the chancellors Zhangsun, Li Shiji (who by now was using the name Li Ji to observe naming taboo for Emperor Taizong's name Li Shimin), Yu Zhining , and Chu to the palace—which Chu deduced to be regarding

7800-455: The palace, she acted humbly and flattered Empress Wang, who trusted her greatly and recommended her to Emperor Gaozong. Soon, Emperor Gaozong became enamored with Consort Wu. Meanwhile, Emperor Gaozong's sister Princess Gaoyang and her husband Fang Yi'ai (房遺愛, Fang Xuanling's son), were implicated in 652 of conspiring with another brother-in-law Chai Lingwu ( 柴令武 ), the general Xue Wanche ( 薛萬徹 ) and Emperor Gaozong's uncle Li Yuanjing ( 李元景 )

7904-423: The plot and that he should be concerned for himself. When Emperor Taizong noticed Li Zhi worrying about this and was told by Li Zhi of Li Tai's intimidation, Emperor Taizong's mind became set. He exiled Li Tai, and on 30 April 643, he created Li Zhi the new crown prince. He made Zhangsun and two other senior chancellors, Fang Xuanling and Xiao Yu , senior advisors to Li Zhi, and made another chancellor, Li Shiji ,

8008-526: The rebellion. Meanwhile, for reasons unknown, also in 662 Emperor Gaozong sent the general Su Haizheng ( 蘇海政 ) to attack Qiuzi and ordered Ashina Mishe and Ashina Buzhen to assist him. Ashina Buzhen, who had a rivalry with Ashina Mishe, falsely informed Su that Ashina Mishe was set to rebel and would attack the Tang army, and Su responded by ambushing Ashina Mishe, killing him and his chief assistants. The Western Turkic Khaganate tribes, angry over Ashina Mishe's death, largely turned away from Tang and submitted to

8112-410: The same position in front of the civil and military ministers of the Tang dynasty. In fact, if anyone with a request to make at Court obtains an audience or is allowed to speak, the emperor hears him indeed, but will give no definite answer of "Yes or No", referring him promptly to empress. frequently Emperor Gaozong was unable to go to the court because of a headache, and Empress Wu was "obliged" to go to

8216-476: The same time, however, Emperor Taizong also became concerned that Li Zhi, who was considered kind but weak in character, would not be strong enough to be an emperor, and secretly discussed with Zhangsun Wuji the possibility of making another son by his concubine Consort Yang (daughter of Emperor Yang of Sui ), Li Ke the Prince of Wu, crown prince. Zhangsun repeatedly opposed the idea, and Emperor Taizong did not carry this out. In 645, when Emperor Taizong launched

8320-493: The sea to attack Baekje, in conjunction with Silla. Su quickly captured the Baekje capital Sabi , forcing Baekje's King Uija and his crown prince Buyeo Yung to surrender. Emperor Gaozong ordered that Baekje be annexed as Tang territory. Emperor Gaozong then followed up by commissioning Su, along with Qibi Heli, Liu Boying ( 劉伯英 ), and Cheng Mingzhen ( 程名振 ), to attack Goguryeo. In 660, Emperor Gaozong and Empress Wu toured Bian Prefecture (modern-day Taiyuan), and Empress Wu had

8424-526: The summer palace Cuiwei Palace (翠微宮, in the Qin Mountains ), Emperor Taizong was gravely ill, and he, while impressed with Li Shiji's abilities, was concerned that Li Shiji was too able and would not submit to Li Zhi. He stated to Li Zhi: Li Shiji is full of ability and wisdom, but you had done him no favors, and it may be difficult for him to be faithful to you. I am going to exile him now. If he leaves immediately, promote him to be Puye [(僕射, head of

8528-486: The systematic introduction of iron into the southern Korean peninsula. This was taken up with particular intensity by the Byeonhan states of the Nakdong River valley, which manufactured and exported iron armor and weapons throughout Northeast Asia. The introduction of iron technology also facilitated growth in agriculture, as iron tools made the clearing and cultivation of land much easier. It appears that at this time

8632-463: The third son of his mother, Emperor Taizong's wife Empress Zhangsun . In 631, he was created the Prince of Jin. In 633, he was made commandant of Bing Prefecture (并州, roughly modern Taiyuan , Shanxi), but remained at the capital Chang'an rather than reporting to Bing Prefecture. When Empress Zhangsun died in 636, Emperor Taizong was particularly touched by the grief that Li Zhi displayed, and from that point on particularly favored him. Sometime while he

8736-412: The throne to Li Zhi. Li Zhi, concerned that Emperor Taizong might be offended, was worried and grieving, and Zhangsun suggested that Duan be executed. Emperor Taizong did not take offense and did not punish Duan or Li Zhi. Meanwhile, Li Zhi began to build a Buddhist temple named Daci'en Temple ( 大慈恩寺 ) in commemoration of his mother Empress Zhangsun, and the temple was completed in 648. In 649, while at

8840-414: The time of the fall of Gojoseon in northern Korea in 108 BC. Kim Bu-sik 's Samguk Sagi , one of the two representative history books of Korea, mentions that people of Jin Han are migrants from Gojoseon, which suggests that early Han tribes who came to Southern Korean peninsula are originally Gojoseon people; this coincides with the state of Jin in southern Korea also disappearing from written records. By

8944-447: The topic that Empress Wang was sonless (as an excuse for deposing her), Zhangsun repeatedly found ways to divert the conversation, and subsequent visits by Consort Wu's mother Lady Yang and the official Xu Jingzong , who was allied with Consort Wu, to seek support from Zhangsun were also to no avail. In summer 655, Consort Wu accused Empress Wang and her mother Lady Liu of using witchcraft. In response, Emperor Gaozong barred Lady Liu from

9048-492: The word Han might have been pronounced as Gan or Kan . The Silla language had a usage of this word for king or ruler as found in the words 마립간 (麻立干; Maripgan) and 거서간 / 거슬한 (居西干 / 居瑟邯; Geoseogan / Geoseulhan ). Alexander Vovin suggests this word is related to the Mongolian Khan and Manchurian Han meaning ruler, and the ultimate origin is Xiongnu and Yeniseian . The Samhan are thought to have formed around

9152-435: Was aided in his rule by Empress Wu during the later years of his reign after a series of strokes left him incapacitated. Emperor Gaozong effectively after January 665 delegated all matters of state to his strong wife; after that Empress Wu acted as the power behind the emperor, "hanging the curtain and listening to politics" ( Chuílián tīngzhèng 垂簾聼政). Gaozong's personal illness, over-affection and trust of Wu led to her wielding

9256-468: Was completed in 663, Emperor Gaozong and Empress Wu moved to the newly remodeled palace (which was itself later renamed to Hanyuan Palace). (However, Empress Wang and Consort Xiao continued to appear in her dreams even after this, and therefore, late in Emperor Gaozong's reign, he and Empress Wu were often at the eastern capital Luoyang , not at Chang'an.) Also in 663, the Tibetan Empire attacked

9360-578: Was defeated by Goguryeo forces at Sasu River (蛇水, probably Botong River ) and was killed along with his 13 sons, Su ran into harsh snowstorms and withdrew. Around the same time, after the death of the Huige chief Yaoluoge Porun ( 藥羅葛婆閏 ), who had been obedient to Tang, Yaoluoge Porun's nephew Yaoluoge Bisudu ( 藥羅葛比粟毒 ) rose in rebellion with the Tongluo ( 同羅 ) and Pugu ( 僕固 ) tribes in conjunction with other Tiele Confederation tribes. Emperor Gaozong sent

9464-540: Was disallowed from attending Emperor Taizong's funeral, Emperor Gaozong permitted him to again have a staff and be allowed to use wagons, clothes, and foods of high quality. Emperor Gaozong created his wife Crown Princess Wang empress and made her father Wang Renyou ( 王仁祐 ) the Duke of Wei. It was said that early in Emperor Gaozong's reign, he greatly respected both his uncle Zhangsun Wuji and Chu Suiliang and followed their advice, and that therefore, during this part of his reign,

9568-528: Was discovered in Cheongju with an inscription: "The Three Han were unified and the domain was expanded." During the Later Silla period, the concepts of Samhan as the ancient confederacies and the Three Kingdoms of Korea were merged. In a letter to an imperial tutor of the Tang dynasty, Ch'oe Ch'i-wŏn equated Byeonhan to Baekje, Jinhan to Silla, and Mahan to Goguryeo. By the Goryeo period, Samhan became

9672-473: Was exploring the memorials, he had Empress Wu by his side to decide if anything went wrong, and he became very dependent on her advice over time, and, as usual, because of his illness, he allowed Empress Wu to act in his name. Thereafter, her authority rivaled Emperor Gaozong's, after this point on, Empress Wu became the undisputed power behind the throne until the death of Emperor Gaozong. Meanwhile, just after Su Dingfang left Baekje territory to attack Goguryeo,

9776-483: Was happening, and she emerged to defend herself, when she reached the main palace, she saw the emperor holding a decree and asked seriously: "What is this?" And when Empress Wu found out, she cried, which prompted Emperor Gaozong to stop. Emperor Gaozong could not carry out the removal, and instead blamed Shangguan, and Emperor Gaozong said to Empress Wu: "I did not intend to do that at first! Shangguan Yi taught me this." As both Shangguan and Wang had previously served

9880-456: Was initially going to make Li Tai the new crown prince, but later began to believe that Li Tai's machinations were responsible for Li Chengqian's downfall. The powerful chancellor Zhangsun Wuji – Empress Zhangsun's brother—suggested that he make Li Zhi crown prince, a possibility that Li Tai was apprehensive about. Li Tai tried to intimidate Li Zhi, who had been friendly with Li Yuanchang, by pointing out to Li Zhi that Li Yuanchang had been part of

9984-648: Was of low birth and therefore considered nonthreatening, crown prince so that Li Zhong would be grateful of her in the future. Liu also persuaded Zhangsun to suggest the idea as well, and in fall 652, Emperor Gaozong created Li Zhong crown prince. By this point, however, Empress Wang was facing a major threat from another romantic rival. When Emperor Gaozong was crown prince, he had an affair with one of Emperor Taizong's concubines, Consort Wu . After Emperor Taizong's death, all of his concubines who did not bear sons, which included Wu, were housed at Ganye Temple ( 感業寺 ) to be Buddhist nuns . In either 650 or 651, Emperor Gaozong

10088-418: Was officially announced. On 15 July, Li Zhi took the throne (as Emperor Gaozong). During his 34-year reign, he was unable to exercise power alone and was under the control of several of his great ministers and his wife, Empress Wu. The order of the regents were: Emperor Gaozong's first move as emperor was to cancel a second campaign against Goguryeo that Emperor Taizong had planned for later 649. While Li Tai

10192-471: Was removed from his post and exiled, and would never return to Chang'an. During the years, Empress Wu had repeatedly, in her dreams, seen Empress Wang and Consort Xiao, in the states they were after their terrible deaths, and she came to believe that their spirits were after her. For that reason, Emperor Gaozong started remodeling a secondary palace, Daming Palace ( 大明宮 ), into Penglai Palace ( 蓬萊宮 ), and when Penglai Palace's main hall, Hanyuan Hall ( 含元殿 ),

10296-435: Was said that Empress Wu had quick reactions and understood both literature and history, and therefore, she was making correct and error-free rulings. Emperor Gaozong's illness worsened over time, and lasted until his death. If he was well, he also would accept Empress Wu's help, asking her to read the documents to him, he consulted with her on important matters and write down the rulings he had issued. Even until midnight, when he

10400-601: Was so mournful that he could not carry out any actions other than holding onto the necks of Zhangsun and Chu. Zhangsun, while mourning himself, reminded Li Zhi that he was now in charge of the empire and must act accordingly. Zhangsun also ordered that Emperor Taizong's death not be announced for the time being, and then, the next day, accompanied Li Zhi back to Chang'an. Zhangsun issued several edicts in Emperor Taizong's name—including making Yu Zhining , Zhang, and Gao Jifu chancellors. Two days later, Emperor Taizong's death

10504-463: Was the Prince of Jin, at the recommendation of his grand aunt Princess Tong'an, he married the grandniece of Princess Tong'an's husband Wang Yu ( 王裕 ) as his wife and princess. Meanwhile, Li Zhi's two older brothers by Empress Zhangsun, Li Chengqian the Crown Prince and Li Tai the Prince of Wei, were locked in an intense rivalry, as Li Tai was favored by Emperor Taizong for his talent and

10608-402: Was trying to displace Li Chengqian. Li Chengqian, in fear, entered into a conspiracy with the general Hou Junji , his uncle Li Yuanchang ( 李元昌 ) the Prince of Han, the imperial guard commander Li Anyan ( 李安儼 ), and his brothers-in-law Zhao Jie (趙節, who was also his cousin) and Du He ( 杜荷 ) to overthrow Emperor Taizong. The plot was discovered in 643, and Emperor Taizong deposed Li Chengqian. He

10712-409: Was visiting Ganye Temple to offer incense to Buddha when he saw Consort Wu. Both of them wept. When Empress Wang heard this, she, wanting to divert Emperor Gaozong's favor from Consort Xiao, secretly instructed Consort Wu to grow her hair back, while suggesting to Emperor Gaozong that he take her as a concubine. Consort Wu was intelligent and full of machinations, and therefore, when she first returned to

10816-473: Was well established, was extending her influence further in the political arena and increases her controlling behavior over Emperor Gaozong and arbitrarily makes many government decisions. According to Song dynasty historian Sima Guang in the Zizhi Tongjian : When emperor's attains his will, empress specialises in power and blessings, emperor desires to do something, and his actions are controlled by

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