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50-655: Tewahedo ( Ge'ez : ተዋህዶ täwaḥədo ) is a Ge'ez word meaning "being made one", cognate to Arabic tawhid . According to the Catholic Encyclopedia (1917 edition) article on the Henoticon : around 500 bishops within the Patriarchates of Alexandria , Antioch and Jerusalem refused to accept the "two natures" doctrine decreed by the Council of Chalcedon in 451, thus separating themselves from

100-402: A Proto-Semitic voiceless lateral fricative [ɬ] . Like Arabic, Geʽez merged Proto-Semitic š and s in ሰ (also called se-isat : the se letter used for spelling the word isāt "fire"). Apart from this, Geʽez phonology is comparably conservative; the only other Proto-Semitic phonological contrasts lost may be the interdental fricatives and ghayn . There is no evidence within

150-478: A basic correspondence with Proto-Semitic short *i and *u , /æ ~ ɐ/ with short *a , the vowels /i, u, a/ with Proto-Semitic long *ī, *ū, *ā respectively, and /e, o/ with the Proto-Semitic diphthongs *ay and *aw . In Geʽez there still exist many alternations between /o/ and /aw/ , less so between /e/ and /aj/ , e.g. ተሎኩ taloku ~ ተለውኩ talawku ("I followed"). In

200-458: A city declared their support for Roman Catholic Spain. During the following months of 1579, other states signed the treaty as well, such as Ghent , cities from Friesland , as well as three of the quarters of Guelders ( Nijmegen Quarter , Veluwe Quarter , Zutphen County ). In the summer of 1579, Amersfoort from the province of Utrecht also joined, together with Ypres , Antwerp , Breda and Brussels . In February 1580, Lier , Bruges and

250-700: A pause in what became known as the Eighty Years' War , effectively acknowledging Dutch independence. As Pieter Geyl puts it, the truce marked "an astonishing victory for the Dutch," who surrendered no lands and did not agree to halt their attacks on Spanish colonies and the Spanish trade empire. In return the Spanish granted the United Provinces de facto independence by describing them as "Free lands, provinces and states against whom they make no claim" for

300-531: A possible value for ḫ ( ኀ ). These values are tentative, but based on the reconstructed Proto-Semitic consonants that they are descended from. The following table presents the consonants of the Geʽ;ez language. The reconstructed phonetic value of a phoneme is given in IPA transcription, followed by its representation in the Geʽez script and scholarly transliteration. Geʽez consonants have

350-485: A triple opposition between voiceless, voiced, and ejective (or emphatic ) obstruents. The Proto-Semitic "emphasis" in Geʽez has been generalized to include emphatic p̣ /pʼ/ . Geʽez has phonologized labiovelars , descending from Proto-Semitic biphonemes. Geʽez ś ሠ Sawt (in Amharic, also called śe-nigūś , i.e. the se letter used for spelling the word nigūś "king") is reconstructed as descended from

400-523: A word (regardless of gender, but often ኣን -ān if it is a male human noun), or by using an internal plural . Nouns also have two cases: the nominative, which is not marked, and the accusative, which is marked with final -a . As in other Semitic languages, there are at least two "states", absolute (unmarked) and construct (marked with -a as well). As in Classical/Standard Arabic , singular and plural nouns often take

450-455: Is ሊቅየ liqə́ya (i.e. the accusative is not * ሊቀየ *liqáya ), but with ከ -ka ("your", masculine singular) there's a distinction between nominative ሊቅከ liqə́ka and accusative ሊቀከ liqáka , and similarly with -hu ("his") between nominative ሊቁ liqú (< *liq-ə-hu ) and accusative ሊቆ liqó (< *liqa-hu ). Internal plurals follow certain patterns. Triconsonantal nouns follow one of

500-586: Is also seen as a first version or precursor of a later constitution. The Union of Utrecht complemented the so-called General Union of 1576 , established by the Pacification of Ghent , which is why it is also referred to as the Further Union. The signing of the treaty for the Union of Utrecht, during the Eighty Years' War (1568–1648), was preceded by a whole series of unions, edicts and covenants. At

550-757: Is an ancient South Semitic language . The language originates from what is now Ethiopia and Eritrea . Today, Geʽez is used as the main liturgical language of the Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church , the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church , Ethiopian Catholic Church , Eritrean Catholic Church , and the Beta Israel Jewish community. Hawulti Obelisk is an ancient pre-Aksumite Obelisk located in Matara , Eritrea. The monument dates to

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600-486: Is lost when a plural noun with a consonant-final stem has a pronoun suffix attached (generally replaced by the added -i- , as in -i-hu , "his"), thereby losing the case/state distinction, but the distinction may be retained in the case of consonant-final singular nouns. Furthermore, suffix pronouns may or may not attract stress to themselves. In the following table, pronouns without a stress mark (an acute) are not stressed, and vowel-initial suffixes have also been given

650-779: Is regarded as the foundation of the Republic of the Seven United Provinces , which was not recognized by the Spanish Empire until the Twelve Years' Truce in 1609. The treaty was signed on 23 January by Holland , Zeeland , Utrecht (but not all of Utrecht), and the province (but not the city) of Groningen . The treaty was a reaction of the Protestant provinces to the 1579 Union of Arras (Dutch: Unie van Atrecht ), in which two southern provinces and

700-410: Is slaughtered. Similarly, the consumption of pork is prohibited, but unlike Rabbinical Kashrut, Ethiopian cuisine allows the mixing of dairy products with meat . Women are prohibited from entering Tigrayan church temples during menses ; they are also expected to cover their hair with a large scarf (or a shash ) while they are in church, as described in 1 Corinthians, chapter 11 . The leaders of

750-853: The Books of the Maccabees , at least some of which are accepted in the Eastern Orthodox and other Oriental Orthodox churches, but not in the Tewahedo churches. The books of Meqabyan, which are accepted instead, have an etymologically connected name, but rather different content. The Tigrayana Orthodox canon, the Eritrean Orthodox canon, and the Ethiopian Orthodox canon are identical. Like the Ethiopian Church ,

800-539: The Union of Dordrecht , on 4 July 1575, William of Orange was appointed stadholder of Holland and Holland and Zeeland decided to cooperate. These areas – except for Amsterdam and Middelburg, among others – were largely free of Spanish troops in the years 1572–1576, and there leaders with the Calvinist faith gained the upper hand. The Spanish sack of Antwerp on 4 November 1576, in which Spanish troops looted and reduced

850-494: The Union of Utrecht , the Tigrayan Orthodox Tewahedo Church professes belief in the seven sacraments of baptism , confirmation , eucharist , confession , the anointing of the sick , matrimony , and holy orders . It regards the first four as being "necessary for every believer". The traditional liturgical language of the Tigrayan Orthodox Tewahedo Church is Geʽez . This was the language of

900-607: The Ethiopian Church officially apologized for their lack of action during the war, but Tigrayan leaders did not express any interest in reconciling, with some criticizing the apology for not recognizing the full magnitude of the injustices committed during the war. In common with all Eastern Orthodox , Oriental Orthodox , and Western Orthodox churches; the Catholic Church and the Old Catholic churches of

950-735: The Ethiopian Church refused to acknowledge their institution. Also in February 2023, the Tigrayan Church released its first liturgy book in Tigrinya and Ge'ez . In March 2023, the General Synod of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church released a statement saying they would send a delegation to Tigray to attempt to repair the schism between the two churches. The Tigrayan church leaders rejected

1000-747: The See of Selama Kessate Birhan, the High Administration of Tigray Orthodox Tewahedo Church. This was in response to allegations that the Ethiopia Orthodox Tewahdo Church had not appropriately opposed the war on Tigray and was too closely aligned with the war's perpetrators. They also alleged that the Synod did nothing to protect the churches and monasteries in Tigray from destruction and that they withheld financial support from

1050-481: The Spanish . Flanders was almost entirely conquered by the Spanish troops, as was half of Brabant. The United Provinces still recognized Spanish rule after the Union of Utrecht. However, the union contributed to the deterioration in the relationship between the provinces and their lord, and in 1581 the United Provinces declared their independence of the king in the Act of Abjuration . The Twelve Years' Truce of 1609 marked

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1100-511: The Tigray Orthodox Tewahdo Church’s See of Selama Kesate Birhan elected ten candidates as bishops on July 16, 2023. The new bishops will lead dioceses both in the Tigray region and abroad. Ge%27ez language Geʽez ( / ˈ ɡ iː ɛ z / or / ɡ iː ˈ ɛ z / ; ግዕዝ Gəʽ(ə)z IPA: [ˈɡɨʕ(ɨ)z] , and sometimes referred to in scholarly literature as Classical Ethiopic )

1150-408: The Tigray war, four Archbishops in Tigray announced the formation of a new and independent structure on May 7, 2021, accusing the Ethiopia Orthodox Tewahdo Church of not opposing the war on Tigray, and of being too closely aligned with the perpetrators. Following the Tigray war, four Archbishops in Tigray announced the formation of a new and independent structure on May 7, 2021, named the autocephaly of

1200-552: The Tigrayan Church places a heavier emphasis on Old Testament teachings than one might find in Eastern Orthodox , Roman Catholic , or Protestant churches and its followers adhere to certain practices that one finds in Orthodox or Conservative Judaism . Like some Eastern Christians , Tigrayan Christians traditionally follow dietary rules that are similar to Jewish Kashrut , specifically with regard to how an animal

1250-760: The Union of Utrecht actually sought to uphold the General Union / Pacification of Ghent of 1576 and did not intend to geographically limit itself to the North, but aimed to include all provinces in the Netherlands. Both the Pacification and the Union of Utrecht were, in fact, treaties between two parties: the Calvinist-governed provinces of Holland and Zeeland and the other 'fifteen' provinces dominated by Catholics. Even Alexander Farnese (Parma),

1300-552: The Union of Utrecht laid the foundation for the Dutch Republic, also known as the Seven United Provinces, which would be formed a few years later. However, these seven states within a state only became a unified state during the time of the Batavian Republic two centuries later. Until the early 20th century, most Dutch and Belgian historians, such as P. L. Muller (1867) and Henri Pirenne (1911), believed that

1350-633: The Union of Utrecht was initially intended as a "Calvinist alliance" of the "seven" "Northern provinces" that separated themselves from the General Union (the Pacification of Ghent and the Unions of Brussels), and "seceded from the South". The few Southern cities that joined the Union of Utrecht were considered more like "honorary members" rather than fully integrated members of the "Northern" Union. Flemish researcher Leo Delfos further investigated and openly challenged this view from 1929 onwards. He concluded that

1400-508: The base በ /b/ in the script. Noun phrases have the following overall order: በዛ ba-zā in-this: F ሀገር hagar city በዛ ሀገር ba-zā hagar in-this:F city in this city ንጉሥ nəguś king ክቡር kəbur glorious ንጉሥ ክቡር nəguś kəbur king glorious a/the glorious king Adjectives and determiners agree with the noun in gender and number: ዛቲ zāti this: FEM ንግሥት Union of Utrecht The Union of Utrecht ( Dutch : Unie van Utrecht )

1450-485: The city to ashes and killed thousands of citizens, caused a stir in the Netherlands. The States of Holland , the States of Zeeland and the other regions, which were predominantly Catholic , reconciled on 8 November with the Pacification of Ghent in their aversion to the Spanish presence. They declared at the Pacification that they would cooperate in resisting interventions by King Philip II but remain obedient to him. There

1500-503: The consonant transliterated ḫ . Gragg notes that it corresponds in etymology to velar or uvular fricatives in other Semitic languages, but it is pronounced exactly the same as ḥ in the traditional pronunciation. Though the use of a different letter shows that it must originally have had some other pronunciation, what that pronunciation was is not certain. The chart below lists /ɬ/ and /t͡ɬʼ/ as possible values for ś ( ሠ ) and ḍ ( ፀ ) respectively. It also lists /χ/ as

1550-494: The duration of the truce. The Union of Utrecht allowed complete personal freedom of religion and was thus one of the first unlimited edicts of religious toleration . An additional declaration allowed provinces and cities that wished to remain Roman Catholic to join the union. Many people view the Union of Utrecht as the beginning of the Netherlands as a single state. This is not entirely accurate. It can be said that

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1600-525: The early Aksumite Christians of the region. Though Geʽez no longer has native speakers, the language is still used for church liturgical functions and festivities. However, the sibket, or sermons, are normally given in the local Tigrinya language . Geʽez is currently being replaced by Tigrinya as the principal language for church services. The Tewahedo Church Biblical Canon contains 81 books, including almost all of those which are accepted by other Orthodox and Oriental Christians. The exception are

1650-488: The early Aksumite period and bears an example of the ancient Geʽez script. In one study, Tigre was found to have a 71% lexical similarity to Ge'ez, while Tigrinya had a 68% lexical similarity to Geʽez, followed by Amharic at 62%. Most linguists believe that Geʽez does not constitute a common ancestor of modern Ethio-Semitic languages but became a separate language early on from another hypothetical unattested common language. Historically, /ɨ/ has

1700-442: The following patterns. Quadriconsonantal and some triconsonantal nouns follow the following pattern. Triconsonantal nouns that take this pattern must have at least one "long" vowel (namely /i e o u/ ). In the independent pronouns, gender is not distinguished in the 1st person, and case is only distinguished in the 3rd person singular. Suffix pronouns attach at the end of a noun, preposition or verb. The accusative/construct -a

1750-472: The graphemes ś (Geʽez ሠ ) and ḍ (Geʽez ፀ ) have merged with ሰ and ጸ respectively in the phonological system represented by the traditional pronunciation—and indeed in all modern Ethiopian Semitic. ... There is, however, no evidence either in the tradition or in Ethiopian Semitic [for] what value these consonants may have had in Geʽez." A similar problem is found for

1800-548: The latter of which is sometimes marked with the suffix ት -t , e.g. እኅት ʼəxt ("sister"). These are less strongly distinguished than in other Semitic languages, as many nouns not denoting humans can be used in either gender: in translated Christian texts there is even a tendency for nouns to follow the gender of the noun with a corresponding meaning in Greek. There are two numbers, singular and plural. The plural can be constructed either by suffixing ኣት -āt to

1850-424: The principal lords and noblemen.’ Rather than break the Pacification, the prince wanted to raise a second line of defence in a ‘further union’. The concept of the Union of Utrecht was already contained in this proposal to Gelre. However, the predominantly Catholic Gelre saw little point in it; it did not want to depend on intransigent, Calvinist Holland for a possible reconciliation with the king. The Union of Utrecht

1900-616: The region. The Axum massacre in November 2020, when 100–800 civilians in Axum were killed by the Eritrean forces, was commonly cited as one example. The massacre was carried out in the center of Axum, near the Church of Our Lady of Zion, one of the most important holy sites in the Tigrayan Orthodox Tewahedo Church. The church was also looted and damaged. The first formal communication between

1950-902: The rest of Christianity since that time. This separate Christian communion came to be known as Oriental Orthodoxy . The Oriental Orthodox Churches, which today include the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria , the Armenian Apostolic Church , the Syriac Orthodox Church , the Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church of India, the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church , and the Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church , are referred to as " Non-Chalcedonian ". These churches themselves describe their Christology as miaphysite , but outsiders often describe them as monophysite . Following

2000-402: The same final inflectional affixes for case and state, as number morphology is achieved via attaching a suffix to the stem and/or an internal change in the stem. There is some morphological interaction between consonant-final nouns and a pronoun suffix (see the table of suffix pronouns below). For example, when followed by የ -ya ("my"), in both nominative and accusative the resulting form

2050-463: The script of stress rules in the ancient period, but stress patterns exist within the liturgical tradition(s). Accounts of these patterns are, however, contradictory. One early 20th-century account may be broadly summarized as follows: As one example of a discrepancy, a different late 19th-century account says the masculine singular imperative is stressed on the ultima (e.g. ንግር nəgə́r , "speak!"), and that, in some patterns, words can be stressed on

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2100-547: The statement, with some priests saying it did not include an apology for the Ethiopian Church's actions. That same month, the Tigrayan bishops appointed a bishop to oversee Tigrayan church members in the diaspora; this move was criticized by the Ethiopian Church. On July 16, 2023, the Tigray Orthodox Tewahdo Church council nominated 10 episcopates five in Tigray and five abroad. Early in the month,

2150-486: The surrounding area also signed the treaty. The city of Groningen shifted in favor under influence of the stadtholder for Friesland, George van Rennenberg , and also signed the treaty. The fourth quarter of Guelders, Upper Guelders , never signed the treaty. In April 1580, Overijssel and Drenthe signed on. The parts of the Low Countries that joined: Antwerp was the capital of the union until its fall to

2200-433: The then church- and king-faithful regions outside Holland and Zeeland after 1576. The agreements of the Pacification of Ghent were confirmed at the first Union of Brussels on 6 January 1577, by which the regions wanted to force the new governor Don Juan of Austria to recognise the Pacification; the Spanish soldiers were to leave the country and the regions themselves would take care of maintaining Catholicism, much against

2250-454: The third-, fourth- or even fifth-to-last syllable (e.g. በረከተ bárakata ). Due to the high predictability of stress location in most words, textbooks, dictionaries and grammars generally do not mark it. Minimal pairs do exist, however, such as yənaggərā́ ("he speaks to her", with the pronoun suffix -(h)ā́ "her") vs. yənaggə́rā ("they speak", feminine plural), both written ይነግራ . Geʽez distinguishes two genders, masculine and feminine,

2300-548: The transcription employed by the Encyclopaedia Aethiopica , which is widely employed in academia, the contrast here represented as a/ā is represented as ä/a. Geʽez is transliterated according to the following system (see the phoneme table below for IPA values): Because Geʽez is no longer spoken in daily life by large communities, the early pronunciation of some consonants is not completely certain. Gragg writes that "[t]he consonants corresponding to

2350-492: The two churches occurred in February 2023, when the Ethiopian Church released a letter in which they requested to talk to the Tigrayan church leaders about reconciliation. Rather than being addressed to the See of Selama Kessate Birhan, Patriarchate of the Tigray Orthodox Tewahedo Church, the letter was addressed to individual archbishops, which caused further irritation amongst the Tigray leaders, as

2400-583: The wishes of the Calvinists. The governor finally agreed by signing the Eternal Edict on 12 February, after which Spanish troops began to withdraw, largely to the Duchy of Luxembourg , which had always remained royalist. That same month, William of Orange was already urging Gelre to ‘make a good, firm alliance and alliance in private with those of Hollant and Zeelant, etlycke other provinces with some of

2450-473: Was an alliance based on an agreement concluded on 23 January 1579 between a number of Dutch provinces and cities, to reach a joint commitment against the Habsburg prince Philip II . By joining forces, they hoped to force him to stop his harsh administrative measures. In addition, some important political matters were regulated in areas such as defence, taxation and religion, which is why the treaty in question

2500-591: Was no final settlement of the religious issue. For the time being, the Calvinist religion would be leading in Holland and Zeeland, the Catholic religion in the other regions, but religious peace would be sought in all regions. In Holland and Zeeland, however, Calvinists took little notice of the agreements. And returning Calvinist exiles who had once fled from Alva sometimes caused serious religious disturbances in

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