Gunpowder Empires :
154-786: The Timurid Renaissance was a historical period in Asian and Islamic history spanning the late 14th, the 15th, and the early 16th centuries. Following the gradual downturn of the Islamic Golden Age , the Timurid Empire , based in Central Asia ruled by the Timurid dynasty , witnessed the revival of arts and sciences . Its movement spread across the Muslim world . The French word renaissance means "rebirth", and defines
308-528: A consulate in Herat to help further strengthen its relations with Afghanistan . In addition to the usual services, the consulate works with the local officials on development projects and with security issues in the region. On 12 August 2021, the city was captured by the Taliban during the 2021 Taliban offensive . Herat has a cold semi-arid climate ( Köppen climate classification BSk ). Precipitation
462-563: A darwish convent and a fire temple". There were about 444,000 houses occupied by a settled population. The men were described as "warlike and carry arms", and they were Sunni Muslims . The great mosque of Herāt was built by Ghiyasuddin Ghori in 1201. In this period Herāt became an important center for the production of metal goods, especially in bronze , often decorated with elaborate inlays in precious metals. Mongols The Mongols laid siege to Herat twice. The first siege resulted in
616-519: A tunic and trousers tucked into high boots ) and a twisted Bashlyk that covers their head, chin and neck. Hamdallah Mustawfi , composer of the 14th-century geographical work Nuzhat al-Qulub writes that: Herāt was the name of one of the chiefs among the followers of the hero Narīmān , and it was he who first founded the city. After it had fallen to ruin Alexander the Great rebuilt it, and
770-679: A "Persian style mosque" by Timurid Sultan Ulugh Beg is observed. The mausoleums of Timurid princes, with their turquoise and blue-tiled domes, remain among the most refined and exquisite Persian architecture . Axial symmetry is a characteristic of all major Timurid structures, notably the Shāh-e Zenda in Samarkand , the Musallah complex in Herat, and the mosque of Gawhar Shad in Mashhad . Double domes of various shapes abound, perfused on
924-566: A benefactor and patron of learning in his kingdom. Sultan Husayn built numerous structures including a famous school. He has been described as "the quintessential Timurid ruler of the later period in Transoxiana ." His sophisticated court and generous artistic patronage was a source of admiration, particularly from his cousin, Babur of Mughal India . Timurid architecture drew on aspects of Seljuk architecture . Turquoise and blue tiles forming intricate linear and geometric patterns decorated
1078-551: A center for arts and culture. Soon, many of the Timurid cultural expressions became mixed with those of other traditions. Timurid art absorbed and improved upon the traditional Persian concept of the "Arts of the Book". The new, Timurid-inflected works of art saw illustrated paper (as opposed to parchment ) manuscripts produced by the empire's artists. These illustrations were notable for their rich colors and elaborate designs. Due to
1232-600: A city-state and made an alliance with Mahmud of Ghazni. Yet, in 1175, it was captured by the Ghurids of Ghor and then came under the Khawarazm Empire in 1214. According to the account of Mustawfi, Herat flourished especially under the Ghurid dynasty in the 12th century. Mustawfi reported that there were "359 colleges in Herat, 12,000 shops all fully occupied, 6,000 bath-houses; besides caravanserais and mills, also
1386-455: A contrasting independent nature compared to the Chinese women who continued to be suppressed. Mongol women often rode out on hunts or even to war. Kublai's wife, Chabi , was a perfect example of this; Chabi advised her husband on several political and diplomatic matters; she convinced him that the Chinese were to be respected and well-treated in order to make them easier to rule. However, this
1540-560: A curfew. In May 1999, a rebellion in Herat was crushed by the Taliban, who blamed Iran for causing it. After the U.S. invasion of Afghanistan , on 12 November 2001, it was captured from the Taliban by forces loyal to the Northern Alliance and Ismail Khan returned to power (see Battle of Herat ). The state of the city was reportedly much better than that of Kabul. In 2004, Mirwais Sadiq , Aviation Minister of Afghanistan and
1694-696: A decline in its popularity occurred. The Kushan Empire would fall apart by 220 AD, creating more political turmoil in India. Then in 320, the Gupta Empire (Sanskrit: गुप्त राजवंश, Gupta Rājavanśha) was established and covered much of the Indian Subcontinent. Founded by Maharaja Sri-Gupta , the dynasty was the model of a classical civilization. Gupta kings united the area primarily through negotiation of local leaders and families as well as strategical intermarriage. Their rule covered less land than
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#17327655989901848-587: A few years later. The city reached its greatest glory under the Timurid princes , especially Sultan Husayn Bayqara who ruled Herat from 1469 until 4 May 1506. His chief minister, the poet and author in Persian and Turkish, Mir Ali-Shir Nava'i was a great builder and patron of the arts. Under the Timurids, Herat assumed the role of the main capital of an empire that extended in the West as far as central Persia . As
2002-629: A head." The city remained in ruins from 1222 to about 1236. In 1244, a local prince Shams al-Din Kart was named ruler of Herāt by the Mongol governor of Khorāsān and in 1255 he was confirmed in his rule by the founder of the Il-Khan dynasty Hulagu . Shamsuddin Kart founded a new dynasty and his successors, especially Fakhruddin Kart and Ghiyasuddin Kart, built many mosques and other buildings. The members of this dynasty were great patrons of literature and
2156-522: A high level of town planning and arts. The cause of the destruction of these regions around 1700 BC is debatable, although evidence suggests it was caused by natural disasters (especially flooding). This era marks Vedic period in India, which lasted from roughly 1500 to 500 BC. During this period, the Sanskrit language developed and the Vedas were written, epic hymns that told tales of gods and wars. This
2310-457: A highly centralized government , and significant infrastructure developments. Later, in Darius the Great 's rule, the territories were integrated, a bureaucracy was developed, nobility were assigned military positions, tax collection was carefully organized, and spies were used to ensure the loyalty of regional officials. The primary religion of Persia at this time was Zoroastrianism , developed by
2464-585: A period as one of cultural revival. The use of the term for the description of this period has raised reservations among scholars, some of whom see it as a swan song of Timurid culture. The Timurid Renaissance was marked slightly earlier than the Renaissance movement in Europe . Some have described it as equal in glory to the Italian Quattrocento . The Timurid Renaissance reached its peak in
2618-408: A philosophy). Shrines devoted to Confucius were built and Confucian philosophy was taught to all scholars who entered the Chinese bureaucracy. The bureaucracy was further improved with the introduction of an examination system that selected scholars of high merit. These bureaucrats were often upper-class people educated in special schools, but whose power was often checked by the lower-class brought into
2772-711: A reflection of the rivalry between the Roman Empire and the Persian Empire seen during the previous five hundred years. The fighting weakened both states, leaving the stage open to a new power. Meanwhile, the nomadic Bedouin tribes who dominated the Arabian desert saw a period of tribal stability, greater trade networking and a familiarity with Abrahamic religions or monotheism. While the Byzantine Roman and Sassanid Persian empires were both weakened by
2926-474: A result, the Chinese government at this time tended to be very decentralized and weak, and there was often little the emperor could do to resolve national issues. Nonetheless, the government was able to retain its position with the creation of the Mandate of Heaven , which could establish an emperor as divinely chosen to rule. The Zhou additionally discouraged the human sacrifice of the preceding eras and unified
3080-430: A woman ruler, which was rare at the time. However, Buddhism would also experience some backlash, especially from Confucianists and Taoists. This would usually involve criticism about how it was costing the state money, since the government was unable to tax Buddhist monasteries, and additionally sent many grants and gifts to them. The Tang dynasty began to decline under the rule of Emperor Xuanzong , who began to neglect
3234-480: Is Concerning the Supposed Dependence of Astronomy upon Philosophy . Under the influence of Islamic theologians who opposed the interference of Aristotelianism in astronomy, Qushji rejected Aristotelian physics and completely separated natural philosophy from Islamic astronomy , allowing astronomy to become a purely empirical and mathematical science. This allowed him to explore alternatives to
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#17327655989903388-530: Is a derivative from that of the local river, the Herey River (from Old Iranian Harayu , meaning "with velocity"), which goes through the district and ends 5 km (3.1 mi) south of Herat. Herey is mentioned in Sanskrit as a yellow or golden color equivalent to Persian "Zard" meaning Gold (yellow). The naming of a region and its principal town after the main river is a common feature in this part of
3542-639: Is commonly known as that of the Six Dynasties . The first part of this included the Three Kingdoms which started in 220 and describes the brief and weak successor "dynasties" that followed the Han. In 265, the Jin dynasty of China was started and this soon split into two different empires in control of northwestern and southeastern China. In 420, the conquest and abdication of those two dynasties resulted in
3696-402: Is described by Estakhri and Ibn Hawqal in the 10th century as a prosperous town surrounded by strong walls with plenty of water sources, extensive suburbs, an inner citadel, a congregational mosque, and four gates, each gate opening to a thriving market place. The government building was outside the city at a distance of about a mile in a place called Khorāsānābād. A church was still visible in
3850-631: Is first recorded in ancient times, but its precise date of foundation is unknown. Under the Persian Achaemenid Empire (550–330 BC), the surrounding district was known by the Old Persian name of Haraiva (𐏃𐎼𐎡𐎺), and in classical sources, the region was correspondingly known as Areia ( Aria ). In the Zoroastrian collection of Avesta , the district is referred as Haroiva . The name of the district and its principal town
4004-594: Is just as likely to be true as the stationary Earth theory. Following the decline of the Timurid Empire in the late 15th century, the Gunpowder empires , which were the Ottomans , Safavid dynasty , Mughal India and other empires co-opted Timurid artistic traditions into their own. Asian history The history of Asia can be seen as the collective history of several distinct peripheral coastal regions such as East Asia , South Asia , Southeast Asia and
4158-646: Is mentioned in the Pahlavi catalogue of the provincial capitals of the empire. In around 430, the town is also listed as having a Christian community, with a Nestorian bishop. In the last two centuries of Sasanian rule, Aria (Herat) had great strategic importance in the endless wars between the Sasanians, the Chionites and the Hephthalites who had been settled in the northern section of Afghanistan since
4312-533: Is still currently broad (3500–500 BC). The Iron Age saw the widespread use of iron tools, weaponry, and armor throughout the major civilizations of Asia. The Achaemenid dynasty of the Persian Empire , founded by Cyrus the Great , ruled an area from Greece and Turkey to the Indus River and Central Asia during the 6th to 4th centuries BC. Persian politics included a tolerance for other cultures,
4466-468: Is the native language of Herat and the local dialect – known by natives as Herātī – belongs to the Khorāsānī cluster within Persian. It is akin to the Persian dialects of eastern Iran, notably those of Mashhad and Khorasan Province , which borders Herat. This Persian dialect serves as the lingua franca of the city. The second language that is understood by many is Pashto , which is the native language of
4620-415: Is very low, and mostly falls in winter. Although Herāt is approximately 240 m (790 ft) lower than Kandahar , the summer climate is more temperate, and the climate throughout the year is far from disagreeable, although winter temperatures are comparably lower. From May to September, the wind blows from the northwest with great force. The winter is tolerably mild; snow melts rather quickly, and even on
4774-456: The 2001 war , the city had been relatively safe from Taliban insurgent attacks. In 2021, it was announced that Herat would be listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site . On 12 August 2021, the city was seized by Taliban fighters as part of the Taliban's summer offensive . The area of Herat, along with areas like Piranshahr , Damghan and Aleppo , are noted to be sites for archaeological interests and exploration. Ancient Herat
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4928-588: The Afghan National Army (ANA) 207th Corps . Herat was one of the first seven areas that transitioned security responsibility from NATO to Afghanistan. In July 2011, the Afghan security forces assumed security responsibility from NATO. Due to their close relations, Iran began investing in the development of Herat's power, economy and education sectors. In the meantime, the United States built
5082-555: The Bronze Age began about 3500 BC, replacing the Neolithic cultures. The Indus Valley civilization (IVC) was a Bronze Age civilization (3300–1300 BC; mature period 2600–1900 BC) which was centered mostly in the western part of the Indian Subcontinent; it is considered that an early form of Hinduism was performed during this civilization. Some of the great cities of this civilization include Harappa and Mohenjo-daro , which had
5236-763: The Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628 , a new power in the form of Islam grew in the Middle East under Muhammad in Medina . In a series of rapid Muslim conquests , the Rashidun army , led by the Caliphs and skilled military commanders such as Khalid ibn al-Walid , swept through most of the Middle East, taking more than half of Byzantine territory in the Arab–Byzantine wars and completely engulfing Persia in
5390-717: The Chinese language . Finally, the Zhou government encouraged settlers to move into the Yangtze River valley, thus creating the Chinese Middle Kingdom. But by 500 BC, its political stability began to decline due to repeated nomadic incursions and internal conflict derived from the fighting princes and families. This was lessened by the many philosophical movements, starting with the life of Confucius . His philosophical writings (called Confucianism ) concerning
5544-568: The Earth's rotation in his treatise, Concerning the Supposed Dependence of Astronomy upon Philosophy . In addition to his contributions to Ulugh Beg's famous work Zij-i-Sultani and to the founding of Sahn-ı Seman Medrese , one of the first centers for the study of various traditional Islamic sciences in the Ottoman caliphate, Ali Kuşçu was also the author of several scientific works and textbooks on astronomy. Qushji's most important astronomical work
5698-541: The Islamic Golden Age and the Timurid Renaissance , which later influenced the age of Islamic gunpowder empires . Asia's history features major developments seen in other parts of the world, as well as events that have affected those other regions. These include the trade of the Silk Road , which spread cultures, languages, religions, and diseases throughout Afro-Eurasian trade. Another major advancement
5852-659: The Kingdom of Jerusalem , which survived until 1187, when Saladin retook the city. Smaller crusader fiefdoms survived until 1291. In the early 13th century, a new wave of invaders, the armies of the Mongol Empire , swept through the region, sacking Baghdad in the Siege of Baghdad (1258) and advancing as far south as the border of Egypt in what became known as the Mongol conquests . The Mongols eventually retreated in 1335, but
6006-660: The Middle Ages , Herat became one of the important cities of Khorasan , as it was known as the Pearl of Khorasan . After its conquest by Tamerlane , the city became an important center of intellectual and artistic life in the Islamic world. Under the rule of Shah Rukh , the city served as the focal point of the Timurid Renaissance , whose glory is thought to have matched Florence of the Italian Renaissance as
6160-525: The Middle East linked by the interior mass of the Eurasian steppe . See History of the Middle East and History of the Indian Subcontinent for further details on those regions. The coastal periphery was the home to some of the world's earliest known civilizations and religions, with each of three regions developing early civilizations around fertile river valleys. These valleys were fertile because
6314-563: The Mongol conquest of Khwarezmia , became the center of the Renaissance and Islamic civilization in general due to the reconstruction during the period. The Timurid Renaissance differed from previous Buyid dynasty cultural and artistic developments in that it was not a direct revival of classical models, but rather a broadening of their cultural appeal by including more colloquial styles in Persian language . The Timurid Renaissance
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6468-683: The Muslim conquest of Persia . It would be the Arab Caliphates of the Middle Ages that would first unify the entire Middle East as a distinct region and create the dominant ethnic identity that persists today. These Caliphates included the Rashidun Caliphate , Umayyad Caliphate , Abbasid Caliphate , and later the Seljuq Empire . After Muhammad introduced Islam, it jump-started Middle Eastern culture into an Islamic Golden Age , inspiring achievements in architecture ,
6622-602: The Pala . Under Rajendra Chola the Cholas created the first notable navy of Indian subcontinent. The Chola navy extended the influence of Chola empire to southeast asia . During this time, pastoral peoples whose land had been cleared to make way for the growing agricultural economy were accommodated within caste society, as were new non-traditional ruling classes. The Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent mainly took place from
6776-440: The South China Sea and northern Vietnam . Greater organization brought a uniform tax system, a national census, regulated road building (and cart width), standard measurements, standard coinage, and an official written and spoken language. Further reforms included new irrigation projects, the encouragement of silk manufacturing, and (most famously) the beginning of the construction of the Great Wall of China—designed to keep out
6930-650: The Sun and Moon , and the planets in terms of elliptical orbits ; the latitudes of the Sun, Moon, and planets; and the ecliptic of the Sun. The instrument also incorporated an alhidade and ruler . Ulugh Begh founded an institute in Samarkand which soon became a prominent university. Students from all over Central Asia, and beyond, flocked to this academy in the capital city of his sultanate. Consequently, Ulugh Beg gathered many great mathematicians and scientists, including Ali Qushji . Ali made significant development of astronomical physics independent from natural philosophy , and for providing empirical evidence for
7084-435: The Taika Reform and imperial centralization, both of which were a direct result of growing Chinese contact and influences. In 603, Prince Shōtoku of the Yamato dynasty began significant political and cultural changes. He issued the Seventeen-article constitution in 604, centralizing power towards the emperor (under the title tenno , or heavenly sovereign) and removing the power to levy taxes from provincial lords. Shōtoku
7238-409: The celestial sphere , such as the transformation from the ecliptic coordinate system to the equatorial coordinate system . The Sullam al-Sama was authored, which provided the resolution of difficulties met by predecessors in the determination of distances and sizes of heavenly bodies such as the Earth , the Moon , the Sun and the Stars . The Treatise on Astronomical Observational Instruments
7392-439: The 12th century onwards, though earlier Muslim conquests include the limited inroads into modern Afghanistan and Pakistan and the Umayyad campaigns in India, during the time of the Rajput kingdoms in the 8th century. Major economic and military powers like the Delhi Sultanate and Bengal Sultanate , were seen to be established. The search of their wealth led the Voyages of Christopher Columbus . The Vijayanagara Empire based in
7546-408: The 15th century, after the end of the period of Mongol invasions and conquests . Based on Islamic ideals, the foundations of the Timurid Renaissance include the rebuilding of Samarkand and the invention of Tamerlane Chess by Timur , the reign of Shah Rukh and his consort Gawhar Shad in Herat (a city which rivaled Florence of the Italian Renaissance as the center of a cultural rebirth),
7700-416: The Arian capital that was called Artacoana . The town was rebuilt and the citadel was constructed. Afghanistan became part of the Seleucid Empire . However, most sources suggest that Herat was predominantly Zoroastrian . It became part of the Parthian Empire in 167 BC. In the Sasanian period (226–652), 𐭧𐭥𐭩𐭥 Harēv is listed in an inscription on the Ka'ba-i Zartosht at Naqsh-e Rustam ; and Hariy
7854-410: The Aristotelian notion of a stationary Earth, as he explored the idea of a moving Earth instead (though Emilie Savage-Smith asserts that no Islamic astronomers proposed a heliocentric universe). He also found empirical evidence for the Earth's rotation through his observation on comets and concluded, on the basis of empirical evidence rather than speculative philosophy, that the moving Earth theory
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#17327655989908008-455: The Chinese bureaucracy. A Ministry of Rites was established and the examination system was improved to better qualify scholars for their jobs. In addition, Buddhism became popular in China with two different strains between the peasantry and the elite, the Pure Land and Zen strains, respectively. Greatly supporting the spread of Buddhism was Empress Wu , who additionally claimed an unofficial "Zhou dynasty" and displayed China's tolerance of
8162-446: The Deccan Plateau region of South India, was established in 1336 by the brothers Harihara I and Bukka Raya I of the Sangama dynasty, patronized by saint Vidyaranya, the 12th Shankaracharya of Sringeri in Karnataka. The empire rose to prominence as a result of attempts by the southern powers to resist and ward off Turkic Islamic invasions by the end of the 13th century. At its peak, it subjugated almost all of South India's rulers and pushed
8316-485: The Golden Age of India and were marked by extensive inventions and discoveries in science, technology, art, religion, and philosophy that crystallized the elements of what is generally known as Indian culture. The religions of Hinduism and Buddhism , which began in Indian sub-continent, were an important influence on South, East and Southeast Asia. By 600 BC, India had been divided into 17 regional states that would occasionally feud amongst themselves. In 327 BC, Alexander
8470-407: The Great came to India with a vision of conquering the whole world. He crossed northwestern India and created the province Bactria but could not move further because his army wanted to go back to their family. Shortly prior, the soldier Chandragupta Maurya began to take control of the Ganges river and soon established the Maurya Empire . The Maurya Empire (Sanskrit: मौर्य राजवंश, Maurya Rājavaṃśa)
8624-418: The Great was born in Herat, and in Safavid texts, Herat is referred to as a'zam-i bilād-i īrān , meaning "the greatest of the cities of Iran". In the 16th century, all future Safavid Persian rulers, from Tahmasp I to Abbas I, were governors of Herat in their youth. By the early 18th century Herat was governed by the Abdali Afghans . After Nader Shah 's death in 1747, Ahmad Shah Durrani took possession of
8778-490: The Maurya Empire, but established the greatest stability. In 535, the empire ended when India was overrun by the Hunas . Since 1029 BC, the Zhou dynasty ( Chinese : 周朝 ; pinyin : Zhōu Cháo ; Wade–Giles : Chou Ch'ao [tʂóʊ tʂʰɑ̌ʊ] ), had existed in China and it would continue to until 258 BC. The Zhou dynasty had been using a feudal system by giving power to local nobility and relying on their loyalty in order to control its large territory. As
8932-412: The Medieval era caused primarily by the spread of Islam and the establishment of the Arabian Empires. In the 5th century, the Middle East was separated into small, weak states; the two most prominent were the Sassanian Empire of the Persians in what is now Iran and Iraq , and the Byzantine Empire in Anatolia (modern-day Turkey ). The Byzantines and Sassanians fought with each other continually,
9086-403: The Middle East and the Romans, through the Silk Road , with which they were able to trade many commodities—primarily silk. Many ancient civilizations were influenced by the Silk Road , which connected China, India , the Middle East and Europe. Han emperors like Wu also promoted Confucianism as the national "religion" (although it is debated by theologians as to whether it is defined as such or as
9240-428: The Middle East, and Eastern Europe. Genghis Khan was a Khagan who tolerated nearly every religion. The Indian early medieval age, 600 to 1200, is defined by regional kingdoms and cultural diversity. When Harsha of Kannauj , who ruled much of the Indo-Gangetic Plain from 606 to 647, attempted to expand southwards, he was defeated by the Chalukya ruler of the Deccan. When his successor attempted to expand eastwards, he
9394-404: The Mongol hordes that showed little mercy for those who resisted and the Southern Song Chinese were quickly losing territory. In 1271 the current great khan, Kublai Khan , claimed himself Emperor of China and officially established the Yuan dynasty. By 1290, all of China was under control of the Mongols, marking the first time they were ever completely conquered by a foreign invader; the new capital
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#17327655989909548-406: The Northern Zhou dynasty. He proclaimed himself Emperor Wen of Sui and appeased the nomadic military by abandoning the Confucian scholar-gentry. Emperor Wen soon led the conquest of the southern Chen dynasty and united China once more under the Sui dynasty . The emperor lowered taxes and constructed granaries that he used to prevent famine and control the market. Later Wen's son would murder him for
9702-455: The Pashtuns. The local Pashto dialect spoken in Herat is a variant of western Pashto , which is also spoken in Kandahar and southern and western Afghanistan. Religiously, Sunni Islam is practiced by the majority, while Shias make up the minority. The city has high residential density clustered around the core of the city. However, vacant plots account for a higher percentage of the city (21%) than residential land use (18%) and agricultural
9856-438: The Persian language are in the majority. There is no current data on the precise ethnic composition of the city's population, but according to a 2003 map found in the National Geographic Magazine , Persian-speaking Tajik and Farsiwan peoples form the majority of the city, comprising around 85% of the population. The remaining population comprises Pashtuns (10%), Hazaras (2%), Uzbeks (2%) and Turkmens (1%). Persian
10010-406: The Plate of Conjunctions was seen, an analog computing instrument used to determine the time of day at which planetary conjunctions will occur, and for performing linear interpolation . Invented was also a mechanical planetary computer which he called the Plate of Zones, which could graphically solve a number of planetary problems, including the prediction of the true positions in longitude of
10164-412: The Sui dynasty. Fortunately, one of Yang's most respectable advisors, Li Yuan, was able to claim the throne quickly, preventing a chaotic collapse. He proclaimed himself Emperor Gaozu , and established the Tang dynasty in 623. The Tang saw expansion of China through conquest to Tibet in the west, Vietnam in the south, and Manchuria in the north. Tang emperors also improved the education of scholars in
10318-458: The Taherids from Khorasan in 873. The Sāmānid dynasty was established in Transoxiana by three brothers, Nuh , Yahyā , and Ahmad . Ahmad Sāmāni opened the way for the Samanid dynasty to the conquest of Khorāsān, including Herāt, which they were to rule for one century. The centralized Samanid administration served as a model for later dynasties. The Samanid power was destroyed in 999 by the Qarakhanids , who were advancing on Transoxiana from
10472-419: The Three Kingdoms (220–265 AD). Spanning over four centuries, the period of the Han dynasty is considered a golden age in Chinese history. One of the Han dynasty's greatest emperors, Emperor Wu of Han , established a peace throughout China comparable to the Pax Romana seen in the Mediterranean a hundred years later. To this day, China's majority ethnic group refers to itself as the "Han people". The Han dynasty
10626-465: The Timurids conquered Persia in the early 15th century, many Islamic artistic traits became interwoven with existing Mongol art . Timur's establishment of the Islamic Sharia law later in life made Samarkand one of the centers of Islamic art . In the mid 15th century the empire moved its capital to Herat , which became a focal point for Timurid art. As with Samarkand, artisans and intellectuals of various ethnic backgrounds soon established Herat as
10780-422: The Turkic homelands in Central Asia. They conquered Persia, Iraq (capturing Baghdad in 1055), Syria, Palestine, and the Hejaz . This was followed by a series of Christian Western Europe invasions. The fragmentation of the Middle East allowed joined forces, mainly from England, France, and the emerging Holy Roman Empire , to enter the region. In 1099 the knights of the First Crusade captured Jerusalem and founded
10934-443: The aforementioned nomadic tribes and local leaders would fight for control of China in the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period . By 960, most of China proper had been reunited under the Song dynasty , although it lost territories in the north and could not defeat one of the nomadic tribes there—the Liao dynasty of the highly sinicized Khitan people . From then on, the Song would have to pay tribute to avoid invasion and thus set
11088-459: The arts. By this time Herāt became known as the pearl of Khorasan . If anyone asks thee which is the pleasantest of cities, Thou mayest answer him aright that it is Herāt. For the world is like the sea, and the province of Khurāsān like a pearl-oyster therein, The city of Herāt being as the pearl in the middle of the oyster. Timur took Herat in 1380 and he brought the Kartid dynasty to an end
11242-694: The beginning of the 16th century, mastering firearms was achieved. Major commissions from the Timur's lifetime were the Summer Palace in Shahrisabz , Bibi-Khanym Mosque , and the construction of the Registan . The city of Herat became an important center of intellectual and artistic life in the Muslim world during this time. Samarkand , a center of scholarly study which was previously destroyed during
11396-785: The brief Hellenistic period . He was unable to establish stability and after his death, Persia broke into small, weak dynasties including the Seleucid Empire , followed by the Parthian Empire . By the end of the Classical age, Persia had been reconsolidated into the Sassanid Empire , also known as the second Persian Empire. The Roman Empire would later control parts of Western Asia. The Seleucid , Parthian and Sassanid dynasties of Persia dominated Western Asia for centuries. The Maurya and Gupta empires are called
11550-570: The bureaucracy through their skill. The Chinese imperial bureaucracy was very effective and highly respected by all in the realm and would last over 2,000 years. The Han government was highly organized and it commanded the military, judicial law (which used a system of courts and strict laws), agricultural production, the economy, and the general lives of its people. The government also promoted intellectual philosophy, scientific research, and detailed historical records. However, despite all of this impressive stability, central power began to lose control by
11704-437: The capital of the Timurid empire, it boasted many fine religious buildings and was famous for its sumptuous court life and musical performance and its tradition of miniature paintings. On the whole, the period was one of relative stability, prosperity, and development of economy and cultural activities. It began with the nomination of Shahrokh , the youngest son of Timur, as governor of Herat in 1397. The reign of Shahrokh in Herat
11858-624: The capital to Heian-kyō to avoid a Buddhist takeover. This marked the beginning of the Heian period and the end of Taika reform. Herat Herāt ( / h ɛ ˈ r ɑː t / ; [Dari]) is an oasis city and the third-largest city in Afghanistan . In 2020, it had an estimated population of 574,276, and serves as the capital of Herat Province , situated south of the Paropamisus Mountains ( Selseleh-ye Safēd Kōh ) in
12012-427: The celebrated Mughal (or Mongol ) school of architecture . Timurid architecture started with the sanctuary of Ahmed Yasawi in present-day Kazakhstan and culminated in Timur's mausoleum Gur-e Amir in Samarkand . Timur's Gur-I Amir , the 14th-century mausoleum of the conqueror is covered with "turquoise Persian tiles". Nearby, in the center of the ancient town, a "Persian style madrassa" (religious school) and
12166-708: The center of a cultural rebirth. After the fall of the Timurid Empire , Herat has been governed by various Afghan rulers since the early 18th century. In 1716, the Abdali Afghans inhabiting the city revolted and formed their own Sultanate, the Sadozai Sultanate of Herat . They were conquered by the Afsharid Persia in 1732. After Nader Shah 's death and Ahmad Shah Durrani 's rise to power in 1747, Herat separated from Persia became part of Afghanistan . It became an independent city-state in
12320-537: The central steppes, they could reach all areas of the Asian continent. The northern part of the continent, covering much of Siberia was also inaccessible to the steppe nomads due to the dense forests and the tundra . These areas in Siberia were very sparsely populated. The centre and periphery were kept separate by mountains and deserts. The Caucasus , Himalaya , Karakum Desert , and Gobi Desert formed barriers that
12474-879: The chaos that ensued throughout the empire deposed the Seljuq Turks. In 1401, the region was further plagued by the Turko-Mongol, Timur , and his ferocious raids. By then, another group of Turks had arisen as well, the Ottomans . The Mongol Empire conquered a large part of Asia in the 13th century, an area extending from China to Europe. Medieval Asia was the kingdom of the Khans. Never before had any person controlled as much land as Genghis Khan . He built his power unifying separate Mongol tribes before expanding his kingdom south and west. He and his grandson, Kublai Khan, controlled lands in China, Burma, Central Asia, Russia, Iran,
12628-546: The circuit of its walls was 9000 paces. Herodotus described Herat as the bread-basket of Central Asia . At the time of Alexander the Great in 330 BC, Aria was obviously an important district. It was administered by a satrap called Satibarzanes , who was one of the three main Persian officials in the East of the Empire, together with the satrap Bessus of Bactria and Barsaentes of Arachosia. In late 330 BC, Alexander captured
12782-642: The city and became part of the Durrani Empire . In 1793, Herat became independent for several years when Afghanistan underwent a civil war between different sons of Timur Shah . The Iranians had multiple wars with Herat between 1801 and 1837 (1804, 1807, 1811, 1814, 1817, 1818, 1821, 1822, 1825, 1833). The Iranians besieged the city in 1837 , but the British helped the Heratis in repelling them. In 1856, they invaded again, and briefly managed to take
12936-733: The city on 25 October; it led directly to the Anglo-Persian War . In 1857 hostilities between the Iranians and the British ended after the Treaty of Paris was signed, and the Persian troops withdrew from Herat in September 1857. Afghanistan conquered Herat on 26 May 1863, under Dost Muhammad Khan , two weeks before his death. The famous Musalla of Gawhar Shah of Herat, a large Islamic religious complex consisting of five minarets, several mausoleums along with mosques and madrasas
13090-589: The city with their families. Between 10 and 20 March 1979, the Afghan Army in Herāt under the control of commander Ismail Khan mutinied. Thousands of protesters took to the streets against the Khalq communist regime's oppression led by Nur Mohammad Taraki . The new rebels led by Khan managed to oust the communists and take control of the city for 3 days, with some protesters murdering any Soviet advisers. This shocked
13244-499: The collapse of the Timurid Empire, several Iranian and Mesopotamian cultures co-opted Timurid metalwork. Chinese-style ceramics were produced by Timurid artisans. Jade carving also had some presence in Timurid art. Jamshid al-Kashi was one of the most influential contributors in the fields of mathematics and astronomy. He got immense support from both Emperor Shah Rukh and Queen Goharshad , who were very interested in
13398-595: The collection of neolithic findings at the site consists of two phases. Around 5500 BC the Halafian culture appeared in Lebanon , Israel , Syria , Anatolia , and northern Mesopotamia , based upon dryland agriculture. In southern Mesopotamia were the alluvial plains of Sumer and Elam . Since there was little rainfall, irrigation systems were necessary. The Ubaid culture flourished from 5500 BC. The Chalcolithic period (or Copper Age) began about 4500 BC, then
13552-699: The cost of thousands of civilians killed. This massacre was the first of its kind since the Third Anglo-Afghan War in 1919, and was the bloodiest event preceding the Soviet–Afghan War . Herat received damage during the Soviet–Afghan War in the 1980s, especially its western side. The province as a whole was one of the worst-hit. In April 1983, a series of Soviet bombings damaged half of the city and killed around 3,000 civilians, described as "extremely heavy, brutal and prolonged". Ismail Khan
13706-678: The countryside northeast of the town on the road to Balkh , and farther away on a hilltop stood a flourishing fire temple , called Sereshk, or Arshak according to Mustawfi . Herat was a part of the Taherid dominion in Khorāsān until the rise of the Saffarids in Sistān under Ya'qub-i Laith in 861, who, in 862, started launching raids on Herat before besieging and capturing it on 16 August 867, and again in 872. The Saffarids succeeded in expelling
13860-627: The decline. They started to proclaim magical powers and promised to save China with them; the Taoist Yellow Turban Rebellion in 184 (led by rebels in yellow scarves) failed but was able to weaken the government. The aforementioned Huns combined with diseases killed up to half of the population and officially ended the Han dynasty by 220. The ensuing period of chaos was so terrible it lasted for three centuries, where many weak regional rulers and dynasties failed to establish order in China. This period of chaos and attempts at order
14014-588: The dominant philosophies of the Far East during the Middle Ages. Marco Polo was not the first Westerner to travel to the Orient and return with amazing stories of this different culture, but his accounts published in the late 13th and early 14th centuries were the first to be widely read throughout Europe. The Arabian peninsula and the surrounding Middle East and Near East regions saw dramatic change during
14168-474: The economy and military and caused unrest amongst the court officials due to the excessive influence of his concubine, Yang Guifei , and her family. This eventually sparked a revolt in 755. Although the revolt failed, subduing it required involvement with the unruly nomadic tribes outside of China and distributing more power to local leaders—leaving the government and economy in a degraded state. The Tang dynasty officially ended in 907 and various factions led by
14322-522: The facades of buildings. Sometimes building interiors were decorated similarly, with painting and stucco relief further enriching the effect. Timurid architecture was the pinnacle of Islamic art in Central Asia . There were spectacular and stately edifices erected by Tamerlane and his successors in Samarkand and Herat . These monumental works helped to disseminate the influence of the Ilkhanid school of art as far as India , where it gave rise to
14476-595: The fertile valley of the Hari River in the western part of the country. An ancient civilization on the Silk Road between West Asia , Central Asia , and South Asia , it serves as a regional hub in the country's west. Herat dates back to Avestan times and was traditionally known for its wine . The city has a number of historic sites, including the Herat Citadel and the Musalla Complex . During
14630-514: The first Persian-speaking city to be captured by the Taliban. The Taliban's strict enforcement of laws confining women at home and closing girls' schools alienated Heratis who are traditionally more liberal and educated, like the Kabulis, than other urban populations in the country. Two days of anti-Taliban protests occurred in December 1996 which was violently dispersed and led to the imposition of
14784-431: The first half of the 19th century, facing several Qajar Iranian invasions until being incorporated into Afghanistan in 1863. The roads from Herat to Iran (through the border town of Islam Qala ) and Turkmenistan (through the border town of Torghundi ) are still strategically important. As the gateway to Iran, it collects high amount of customs revenue for Afghanistan. It also has an international airport . Following
14938-750: The first of the Southern and Northern dynasties . The Northern and Southern dynasties passed through until finally, by 557, the Northern Zhou dynasty ruled the north and the Chen dynasty ruled the south. During this period, the Eastern world empires continued to expand through trade, migration and conquests of neighboring areas. Gunpowder was widely used as early as the 11th century and they were using moveable type printing five hundred years before Gutenberg created his press. Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism were
15092-482: The general command of Ahnaf ibn Qais in its conquest of Khorāsān in 652 seems to have avoided Herāt, but it can be assumed that the city eventually submitted to the Arabs, since shortly afterward an Arab governor is mentioned there. A treaty was drawn in which the regions of Bādghis and Bushanj were included. As did many other places in Khorāsān, Herāt rebelled and had to be re-conquered several times. Another power that
15246-528: The government, who blamed the new administration of Iran following the Iranian Revolution for influencing the uprising. Reprisals by the government followed, and between 3,000 and 24,000 people (according to different sources) were killed, in what is called the 1979 Herat uprising , or in Persian as the Qiam-e Herat . The city itself was recaptured with tanks and airborne forces , but at
15400-581: The hands of Faik to whom the defense of Herāt had been entrusted by Nuh III. In 994, Nuh III invited Alptegin to come to his aid. Alptegin, along with Mahmud of Ghazni, defeated Faik and annexed Herāt, Nishapur and Tous . Herat was a great trading center strategically located on trade routes from Mediterranean to India or to China. The city was noted for its textiles during the Abbasid Caliphate , according to many references by geographers. Herāt also had many learned sons such as Ansārī . The city
15554-462: The last Zhou emperor and established the Qin dynasty. The Qin dynasty (Chinese: 秦朝; pinyin: Qín Cháo) was the first ruling dynasty of Imperial China, lasting from 221 to 207 BC. The new Emperor abolished the feudal system and directly appointed a bureaucracy that would rely on him for power. Huang's imperial forces crushed any regional resistance, and they furthered the Chinese empire by expanding down to
15708-563: The late 4th century. At the time of the Arab invasion in the middle of the 7th century, the Sasanian central power seemed already largely nominal in the province in contrast with the role of the Hephthalites tribal lords, who were settled in the Herat region and in the neighboring districts, mainly in pastoral Bādghis and in Qohestān . It must be underlined, however, that Herat remained one of
15862-442: The mountains does not lie long. The eastern reaches of the Hari River , including the rapids, are frozen hard in the winter, and people travel on it as on a road. India, Iran and Pakistan operate their consulate here for trade, military and political links. Of the more than dozen minarets that once stood in Herāt, many have been toppled from war and neglect over the past century. Recently, however, everyday traffic threatens many of
16016-605: The name of Islam. The region of Herāt was under the rule of King Nuh III , the seventh of the Samanid line—at the time of Sebük Tigin and his older son, Mahmud of Ghazni . The governor of Herāt was a noble by the name of Faik , who was appointed by Nuh III. It is said that Faik was a powerful, but insubordinate governor of Nuh III, and had been punished by Nuh III. Faik made overtures to Bogra Khan and Ughar Khan of Khorasan . Bogra Khan answered Faik's call, came to Herāt, and became its ruler. The Samanids fled, betrayed at
16170-488: The nomadic raiders who'd constantly badger the Chinese people. However, Shi Huang was infamous for his tyranny, forcing laborers to build the Wall, ordering heavy taxes, and severely punishing all who opposed him. He oppressed Confucians and promoted Legalism , the idea that people were inherently evil, and that a strong, forceful government was needed to control them. Legalism was infused with realistic, logical views and rejected
16324-843: The north was overthrown by the Jin dynasty of the Manchu-related Jurchen people . The new Jin kingdom invaded northern China , leaving the Song to flee farther south and creating the Southern Song dynasty in 1126. There, cultural life flourished. By 1227, the Mongols had conquered the Western Xia kingdom northwest of China. Soon the Mongols incurred upon the Jin empire of the Jurchens. Chinese cities were soon besieged by
16478-539: The northeast, and by the Ghaznavids , former Samanid retainers, attacking from the southeast. Ghaznavid Era Sultan Maḥmud of Ghazni officially took control of Khorāsān in 998. Herat was one of the six Ghaznavid mints in the region. In 1040, Herat was captured by the Seljuk Empire . During this change of power in Herat, there was supposedly a power vacuum which was filled by Abdullah Awn , who established
16632-469: The outside with brilliant colors. Timur's dominance of the region strengthened the influence of his capital and Persian architecture upon the Indian Subcontinent . The Timurid Empire also produced quality pieces of metalwork. Steel , iron , brass , and bronze were commonly used as mediums. Timurid silver- inlaid steel is often being cited as being of particularly high quality. Following
16786-482: The period of the astronomer and mathematician Ulugh Begh (along with notable polymaths and Islamic scholars ), and the construction of additional learning centers by the art patron Sultan Husayn Bayqara . The Timur reign experienced revived interest in classical Persian art . Large-scale building projects were undertaken, creating mausoleums , madrasas , and kitabhane - medieval Islamic book workshops. Mathematical and astronomical studies were reinvigorated, and at
16940-402: The philosopher Zoroaster . It introduced an early form of monotheism to the area. The religion banned animal sacrifice and the use of intoxicants in rituals; and introduced the concept of spiritual salvation through personal moral action, an end time , and both general and Particular judgment with a heaven or hell . These concepts would heavily influence later emperors and the masses. It
17094-416: The pleasures of educated conversation as frivolous. All of this made Shi Huang extremely unpopular with the people. As the Qin began to weaken, various factions began to fight for control of China. The Han dynasty ( simplified Chinese : 汉朝 ; traditional Chinese : 漢朝 ; pinyin : Hàn Cháo ; 206 BC – 220 AD) was the second imperial dynasty of China, preceded by the Qin dynasty and succeeded by
17248-512: The precedent for other nomadic kingdoms to oppress them. The Song also saw the revival of Confucianism in the form of Neo-Confucianism . This had the effect of putting the Confucian scholars at a higher status than aristocrats or Buddhists and also intensified the reduction of power in women. The infamous practice of foot binding developed in this period as a result. Eventually the Liao dynasty in
17402-629: The quality of the miniature paintings found in these manuscripts, archaeologist and art historian Suzan Yalman of the Metropolitan Museum of Art noted that "the Herat school [of manuscript painting] is often regarded as the apogee of Persian painting. Timurid silver- inlaid steel is often cited as being of particularly high quality. Painting was not limited to manuscripts. Many Timurid artists also created intricate wall paintings . Many of these wall paintings depicted landscapes derived from both Persian and Chinese artistic tradition. While
17556-484: The remaining unique towers by shaking the very foundations they stand on. Cars and trucks that drive on a road encircling the ancient city rumble the ground every time they pass these historic structures. UNESCO personnel and Afghan authorities have been working to stabilize the Fifth Minaret. The population of Herat numbered approximately 592,902 in 2021. The city houses a multi-ethnic society and speakers of
17710-671: The respect of elders and of the state would later be popularly used in the Han dynasty. Additionally, Laozi 's concepts of Taoism , including yin and yang and the innate duality and balance of nature and the universe, became popular throughout this period. Nevertheless, the Zhou dynasty eventually disintegrated as the local nobles began to gain more power and their conflict devolved into the Warring States period , from 402 to 201 BC. One leader eventually came on top, Qin Shi Huang ( Chinese : 始皇帝 , Shǐ Huángdì ), who overthrew
17864-463: The revival of old advances in science and technology, and the formation of a distinct way of life. Muslims saved and spread Greek advances in medicine , algebra , geometry , astronomy , anatomy , and ethics that would later finds it way back to Western Europe. The dominance of the Arabs came to a sudden end in the mid-11th century with the arrival of the Seljuq Turks , migrating south from
18018-513: The sciences and encouraged theirs court to study the various fields in great depth. Consequently, the period of their power became one of many scholarly achievements. The reign of Sultan Ulugh Begh saw the scientific peak of the empire. During his rule, al-Kashi produced sine tables to four sexagesimal digits (equivalent to eight decimal places) of accuracy for each degree and includes differences for each minute. He also produced tables dealing with transformations between coordinate systems on
18172-507: The soil there was rich and could bear many root crops. The civilizations in Mesopotamia , ancient India , and ancient China shared many similarities and likely exchanged technologies and ideas such as mathematics and the wheel. Other notions such as that of writing likely developed individually in each area. Cities, states, and then empires developed in these lowlands. The steppe region had long been inhabited by mounted nomads, and from
18326-619: The son of Ismail Khan, was ambushed and killed in Herāt by a local rival group. More than 200 people were arrested under suspicion of involvement. In 2005, the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) began establishing bases in and around the city. Its main mission was to train the Afghan National Security Forces (ANSF) and help with the rebuilding process of the country. Regional Command West , led by Italy, assisted
18480-533: The southern tip). He eventually converted to Buddhism, though, and began a peaceful life where he promoted the religion as well as humane methods throughout India. The Maurya Empire would disintegrate soon after Ashoka's death and was conquered by the Kushan invaders from the northwest, establishing the Kushan Empire . Their conversion to Buddhism caused the religion to be associated with foreigners and therefore
18634-705: The spread of Buddhism , and the advent of Neo-Confucianism . It was an unsurpassed era for Chinese ceramics and painting. Medieval architectural masterpieces the Great South Gate in Todaiji, Japan, and the Tien-ning Temple in Peking, China are some of the surviving constructs from this era. A new powerful dynasty began to rise in the 580s, amongst the divided factions of China. This was started when an aristocrat named Yang Jian married his daughter into
18788-443: The steppe horsemen could only cross with difficulty. While technologically and culturally the city dwellers were more advanced, they could do little militarily to defend against the mounted hordes of the steppe. However, the lowlands did not have enough open grasslands to support a large horsebound force. Thus the nomads who conquered states in the Middle East were soon forced to adapt to the local societies. The spread of Islam waved
18942-671: The subcontinent in the western margins of the Indus River alluvium approximately 9,000 years ago, evolving gradually into the Indus Valley Civilisation of the third millennium BC. Göbekli Tepe is a Neolithic site in the Southeastern Anatolia Region of Turkey . Dated to the Pre-Pottery Neolithic , between c. 9500 and 8000 BC, the site comprises a number of large circular structures supported by massive stone pillars –
19096-408: The subject matter of these paintings was borrowed from other cultures, Timurid wall paintings were eventually refined into their own, unique style. Mongol artistic traditions were not entirely phased out, as the highly stylized depictions of human figures seen in 15th century Timurid art are derived from this culture. Sultan Husayn Bayqara 's reign saw a further rise in the arts. He was renowned as
19250-780: The sultans of the Deccan beyond the Tungabhadra-Krishna river region. After annexing modern day Odisha (ancient Kalinga) from the Gajapati Empire, became a notable power. The empire lasted until 1646 after a major military defeat in the Battle of Talikota in 1565 by the combined armies of the Deccan sultanates . China saw the rise and fall of the Sui, Tang, Song, and Yuan dynasties and therefore improvements in its bureaucracy,
19404-414: The surrender of the city, the slaughter of the local sultan's army of 12,000, and the appointment of two governors, one Mongol and one Muslim. The second, prompted by a rebellion against Mongol rule, lasted seven months and ended in June 1222 with, according to one account, the beheading of the entire population of 1,600,000 people by the victorious Mongols, such that "no head was left on a body, nor body with
19558-429: The three Sasanian mint centers in the east, the other two beings Balkh and Marv . The Hephthalites from Herat and some unidentified Turks opposed the Arab forces in a battle of Qohestān in 651-52 AD, trying to block their advance on Nishāpur , but they were defeated. When the Arab armies appeared in Khorāsān in the 650s AD, Herāt was counted among the twelve capital towns of the Sasanian Empire. The Arab army under
19712-430: The throne and declare himself Emperor Yang of Sui . Emperor Yang revived the Confucian scholars and the bureaucracy, much to anger of the aristocrats and nomadic military leaders. Yang became an excessive leader who overused China's resources for personal luxury and perpetuated exhaustive attempts to conquer Goguryeo . His military failures and neglect of the empire forced his own ministers to assassinate him in 618, ending
19866-428: The turn of the Common Era . As the Han dynasty declined, many factors continued to pummel it into submission until China was left in a state of chaos. By 100 AD, philosophical activity slowed, and corruption ran rampant in the bureaucracy. Local landlords began to take control as the scholars neglected their duties, and this resulted in heavy taxation of the peasantry. Taoists began to gain significant ground and protested
20020-473: The wake of the 735–737 Japanese smallpox epidemic , Buddhism gained the status of state religion and the government ordered the construction of numerous Buddhist temples, monasteries, and statues. The lavish spending combined with the fact that many aristocrats did not pay taxes, put a heavy burden on peasantry that caused poverty and famine. Eventually the Buddhist position got out of control, threatening to seize imperial power and causing Emperor Kanmu to move
20174-429: The waning power of the Caliphate became apparent, native rulers once again established themselves independent. Among these, the Saffarids of Seistan shone briefly in the Afghan area. The fanatic founder of this dynasty, the coppersmith's apprentice Yaqub ibn Layth Saffari, came forth from his capital at Zaranj in 870 AD and marched through Bost , Kandahar , Ghazni , Kabul , Bamiyan , Balkh and Herat, conquering in
20328-453: The west to defeat the Sasanians in 642 AD and then they marched with confidence to the east. On the western periphery of the Afghan area, the princes of Herat and Seistan gave way to rule by Arab governors but in the east, in the mountains, cities submitted only to rise in revolt, and the hastily converted returned to their old beliefs once the armies passed. The harshness and avariciousness of Arab rule produced such unrest, however, that once
20482-476: The world— compare the adjoining districts/rivers/towns of Arachosia and Bactria . The district Aria of the Achaemenid Empire is mentioned in the provincial lists that are included in various royal inscriptions, for instance, in the Behistun inscription of Darius I (ca. 520 BC). Representatives from the district are depicted in reliefs, e.g., at the royal Achaemenid tombs of Naqsh-e Rustam and Persepolis . They are wearing Scythian -style dress (with
20636-412: The world's oldest known megaliths . The prehistoric Beifudi site near Yixian in Hebei Province, China, contains relics of a culture contemporaneous with the Cishan and Xinglongwa cultures of about 8000–7000 BC, neolithic cultures east of the Taihang Mountains , filling in an archaeological gap between the two Northern Chinese cultures. The total excavated area is more than 1,200 square meters and
20790-523: Was active in the area in the 650s was Tang dynasty China which had embarked on a campaign that culminated in the Conquest of the Western Turks . By 659–661, the Tang claimed a tenuous suzerainty over Herat, the westernmost point of Chinese power in its long history. This hold however would be ephemeral with local Turkish tribes rising in rebellion in 665 and driving out the Tang. In 702 AD Yazid ibn al-Muhallab defeated certain Arab rebels, followers of Ibn al-Ash'ath , and forced them out of Herat. The city
20944-464: Was also a patron of Buddhism and he encouraged building temples competitively. Shōtoku's reforms transitioned Japan to the Nara period (c. 710 to c. 794), with the moving of the Japanese capital to Nara in Honshu . This period saw the culmination of Chinese-style writing, etiquette, and architecture in Japan along with Confucian ideals to supplement the already present Buddhism. Peasants revered both Confucian scholars and Buddhist monks. However, in
21098-485: Was also written which described a variety of different instruments, including the triquetrum and armillary sphere , the equinoctial armillary and solsticial armillary of Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi , the sine and versine instrument of Urdi, the sextant of al-Khujandi , the Fakhri sextant at the Samarqand observatory, a double quadrant Azimuth - altitude instrument he invented, and a small armillary sphere incorporating an alhidade which he invented. The invention of
21252-413: Was defeated by the Pala king of Bengal . When the Chalukyas attempted to expand southwards, they were defeated by the Pallavas from farther south, who in turn were opposed by the Pandyas and the Cholas from still farther south. The Cholas could under the rule of Raja Raja Chola defeat their rivals and rise to a regional power. Cholas expanded northward and defeated Eastern Chalukya , Kalinga and
21406-435: Was dynamited during the Panjdeh incident to prevent their usage by the advancing Russian forces . Some emergency preservation work was carried out at the site in 2001 which included building protective walls around the Gawhar Shad Mausoleum and Sultan Husain Madrasa, repairing the remaining minaret of Gawhar Shad's Madrasa, and replanting the mausoleum garden. In the aftermath of the Afghan Civil War (1928–1929) , Herat
21560-435: Was enlarged and embellished under the Timurids. The tomb of the poet and mystic Khwājah Abdullāh Ansārī (d. 1088), was first rebuilt by Shahrokh about 1425, and other famous men were buried in the shrine area. In the summer of 1458, the Qara Qoyunlu under Jahan Shah advanced as far as Herat, but had to turn back soon because of a revolt by his son Hasan Ali and also because Abu Said 's march on Tabriz. In 1507, Herat
21714-505: Was established at Khanbaliq (modern-day Beijing ). Kublai Khan segregated Mongol culture from Chinese culture by discouraging interactions between the two peoples, separating living spaces and places of worship, and reserving top administrative positions to Mongols, thus preventing Confucian scholars to continue the bureaucratic system. Nevertheless, Kublai remained fascinated with Chinese thinking, surrounding himself with Chinese Buddhist, Taoist, or Confucian advisors. Mongol women displayed
21868-415: Was established when two peasants succeeded in rising up against Shi Huang's significantly weaker successor-son. The new Han government retained the centralization and bureaucracy of the Qin, but greatly reduced the repression seen before. They expanded their territory into Korea , Vietnam , and Central Asia , creating an even larger empire than the Qin. The Han developed contacts with the Persian Empire in
22022-431: Was inherited by Mughal India and had significant influence on the other states of the Age of the Islamic Gunpowders ( Ottoman Turkey and Safavid Iran ). The Timurid Empire was founded by Amir Tamerlane in 1370 after the conquest of several Ilkhanate successor states. After conquering a city, the Timurids commonly spared the lives of the local artisans and deported them to the Timurid capital of Samarkand . After
22176-413: Was itself heavily influenced by earlier much older ancient religious beliefs and practices dating to the beginning of known history and before. The Persian Empire was successful in establishing peace and stability throughout the Middle East and were a major influence in art, politics (affecting Hellenistic leaders), and religion. Alexander the Great conquered this dynasty in the 4th century BC, creating
22330-412: Was marked by intense royal patronage, building activities, and the promotion of manufacturing and trade, especially through the restoration and enlargement of the Herat's bāzār. The present Musallah Complex, and many buildings such as the madrasa of Gawhar Shad , Ali Shir mahāl, many gardens, and others, date from this time. The village of Gazar Gah , over two km northeast of Herat, contained a shrine that
22484-412: Was not enough to affect Chinese women's position, and the increasingly Neo-Confucian successors of Kublai further repressed Chinese and even Mongol women. The Black Death, which would later ravage Western Europe, had its beginnings in Asia, where it wiped out large populations in China in 1331. Japan's medieval history began with the Asuka period , from around 600 to 710. The time was characterized by
22638-464: Was occupied by the Uzbeks but after much fighting the city was taken by Shah Isma'il , the founder of the Safavid dynasty , in 1510 and the Shamlu Qizilbash assumed the governorship of the area. Under the Safavids, Herat was again relegated to the position of a provincial capital, albeit one of particular importance. At the death of Shah Isma'il the Uzbeks again took Herat and held it until Shah Tahmasp retook it in 1528. The Persian king, Shah Abbas
22792-436: Was the Tamilakam , an independent country dominated by three dynasties, the Pandyans , Cholas and Cheras . The government established by Chandragupta was led by an autocratic king, who primarily relied on the military to assert his power. It also applied the use of a bureaucracy and even sponsored a postal service. Chandragupta's grandson, Ashoka , greatly extended the empire by conquering most of modern-day India (save for
22946-602: Was the basis for the Vedic religion, which would eventually sophisticate and develop into Hinduism . China and Vietnam were also centres of metalworking. Dating back to the Neolithic Age, the first bronze drums, called the Dong Son drums have been uncovered in and around the Red River Delta regions of Vietnam and Southern China. These relate to the prehistoric Dong Son Culture of Vietnam. In Ban Chiang, Thailand (Southeast Asia), bronze artifacts have been discovered dating to 2100 BC. In Nyaunggan, Burma bronze tools have been excavated along with ceramics and stone artifacts. Dating
23100-412: Was the geographically extensive and powerful empire in ancient India, ruled by the Mauryan dynasty from 321 to 185 BC. It was one of the world's largest empires in its time, stretching to the Himalayas in the north, what is now Assam in the east, probably beyond modern Pakistan in the west, and annexing Balochistan and much of what is now Afghanistan , at its greatest extent. South of Mauryan empire
23254-429: Was the innovation of gunpowder in medieval China, later developed by the Gunpowder empires, mainly by the Mughals and Safavids , which led to advanced warfare through the use of guns. A report by archaeologist Rakesh Tewari on Lahuradewa, India shows new C14 datings that range between 9000 and 8000 BC associated with rice, making Lahuradewa the earliest Neolithic site in entire South Asia. Settled life emerged on
23408-417: Was the last stronghold of Saqqawist resistance, holding out until 1931 when it was retaken by forces loyal to Mohammad Nadir Shah . In the 1960s, engineers from the United States built Herat Airport , which was used by the Soviet forces during the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan in the 1980s. Even before the Soviet invasion at the end of 1979, there was a substantial presence of Soviet advisors in
23562-469: Was the leading mujahideen commander in Herāt fighting against the Soviet-backed government. After the communist government's collapse in 1992, Khan joined the new government and he became governor of Herat Province . The city was relatively safe and it was recovering and rebuilding from the damage caused in the Soviet–Afghan War. However, on 5 September 1995, the city was captured by the Taliban without much resistance, forcing Khan to flee. Herat became
23716-424: Was the scene of conflicts between different groups of Muslims and Arab tribes in the disorders leading to the establishment of the Abbasid Caliphate . Herat was also a center of the followers of Ustadh Sis . In 870 AD, Yaqub ibn Layth Saffari , a local ruler of the Saffarid dynasty conquered Herat and the rest of the nearby regions in the name of Islam. ...Arab armies carrying the banner of Islam came out of
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