Traceability is the capability to trace something. In some cases, it is interpreted as the ability to verify the history, location, or application of an item by means of documented recorded identification.
72-422: Other common definitions include the capability (and implementation) of keeping track of a given set or type of information to a given degree, or the ability to chronologically interrelate uniquely identifiable entities in a way that is verifiable. Traceability is applicable to measurement, supply chain, software development, healthcare and security. The term measurement traceability or metrological traceability
144-471: A "fourth big scientific revolution" after World War II is the development of scientific instrumentation, not only in chemistry but across the sciences. In chemistry, the introduction of new instrumentation in the 1940s was "nothing less than a scientific and technological revolution" in which classical wet-and-dry methods of structural organic chemistry were discarded, and new areas of research opened up. As early as 1954, W. A. Wildhack discussed both
216-925: A National Metrological Institute (NMI) which provides the highest level of standards for the calibration / measurement traceability infrastructure in that country. Examples of government agencies include the National Physical Laboratory, UK (NPL) the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) in the USA, the Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt (PTB) in Germany, the Instituto Nazionale di Ricerca Metrologica (INRiM) in Italy, and
288-505: A central control focus, this arrangement was inflexible as each control loop had its own controller hardware, and continual operator movement within the control room was required to view different parts of the process. With coming of electronic processors and graphic displays it became possible to replace these discrete controllers with computer-based algorithms, hosted on a network of input/output racks with their own control processors. These could be distributed around plant, and communicate with
360-513: A central database to track movement of animals within the EU and from third countries. Australia has its National Livestock Identification System to keep track of livestock from birth to slaughterhouse. India has started taking initiatives for setting up traceability systems at Government and Corporate levels. Grapenet, an initiative by Agriculture and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority (APEDA), Ministry of Commerce, Government of India
432-501: A collection of equipment might be used to automate the testing of drinking water for pollutants. Instrumentation engineering is the engineering specialization focused on the principle and operation of measuring instruments that are used in design and configuration of automated systems in areas such as electrical and pneumatic domains, and the control of quantities being measured. They typically work for industries with automated processes, such as chemical or manufacturing plants, with
504-673: A core element of the EPCglobal Network, an architecture of open standards developed by the GS1 EPCglobal community. Most currently deployed EPC RFID tags comply with ISO / IEC 18000-6C for the RFID air interface standard. The canonical representation of an EPC is a URI - the 'pure-identity URI' that is intended for use when referring to a specific physical object in communications about EPCs among information systems and business application software. Each coding scheme within
576-449: A desired output variable, and provide either remote monitoring or automated control capabilities. Each instrument company introduced their own standard instrumentation signal, causing confusion until the 4–20 mA range was used as the standard electronic instrument signal for transmitters and valves. This signal was eventually standardized as ANSI/ISA S50, "Compatibility of Analog Signals for Electronic Industrial Process Instruments", in
648-536: A destination. Automotive instrumentation must be cheap and reliable over long periods in harsh environments. There may be independent airbag systems that contain sensors, logic and actuators. Anti-skid braking systems use sensors to control the brakes, while cruise control affects throttle position. A wide variety of services can be provided via communication links on the OnStar system. Autonomous cars (with exotic instrumentation) have been shown. Early aircraft had
720-575: A few sensors. "Steam gauges" converted air pressures into needle deflections that could be interpreted as altitude and airspeed. A magnetic compass provided a sense of direction. The displays to the pilot were as critical as the measurements. A modern aircraft has a far more sophisticated suite of sensors and displays, which are embedded into avionics systems. The aircraft may contain inertial navigation systems , global positioning systems , weather radar , autopilots, and aircraft stabilization systems. Redundant sensors are used for reliability. A subset of
792-451: A pressurized bellows displaces a pen. Integrating sensors, displays, recorders, and controls was uncommon until the industrial revolution, limited by both need and practicality. Early systems used direct process connections to local control panels for control and indication, which from the early 1930s saw the introduction of pneumatic transmitters and automatic 3-term (PID) controllers . The ranges of pneumatic transmitters were defined by
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#1732797721249864-511: A product's supply chain , traceability may be both a regulatory and an ethical or environmental issue. Traceability is increasingly becoming a core criterion for sustainability efforts related to supply chains wherein knowing the producer, workers and other links stands as a necessary factor that underlies credible claims of social, economic, or environmental impacts. Environmentally friendly retailers may choose to make information regarding their supply chain freely available to customers, illustrating
936-413: A test performed on a sample from the same melt identified by the unique lot number of the material. Destructive tests typically include chemical composition and mechanical strength tests. A heat number is usually marked on the part or raw material which identifies the ingot it came from, and a lot number may identify the group of parts that experienced the same heat treatment (i.e., were in the same oven at
1008-542: A unique piece of data (e.g., order date/time or a serialized sequence number) which can be traced through the entire software flow of all relevant application programs. Messages and files at any point in the system can then be audited for correctness and completeness, using the traceability key to find the particular transaction. This is also sometimes referred to as the transaction footprint. Patient safety during healthcare service plays an important role in preventing delayed recovery or even mortality, by increasing and improving
1080-720: Is a collective term for measuring instruments , used for indicating, measuring, and recording physical quantities . It is also a field of study about the art and science about making measurement instruments, involving the related areas of metrology , automation , and control theory . The term has its origins in the art and science of scientific instrument-making . Instrumentation can refer to devices as simple as direct-reading thermometers , or as complex as multi- sensor components of industrial control systems . Instruments can be found in laboratories , refineries , factories and vehicles , as well as in everyday household use (e.g., smoke detectors and thermostats ). Instrumentation
1152-451: Is a device that produces an output signal, often in the form of a 4–20 mA electrical current signal, although many other options using voltage , frequency , pressure , or ethernet are possible. The transistor was commercialized by the mid-1950s. Instruments attached to a control system provided signals used to operate solenoids , valves , regulators , circuit breakers , relays and other devices. Such devices could control
1224-514: Is agnostic to the data carrier technology that was used to attach the unique identifier to the individual physical object. The EPC is designed to meet the needs of various industries, while guaranteeing uniqueness for all EPC-compliant tags. Some of the existing GS1 identification keys (such as the Global Returnable Asset Identifier ( GRAI )) already provide for unique identification of individual objects. However,
1296-575: Is an example in this direction. GrapeNet is an internet based traceability software system for monitoring fresh grapes exported from India to the European Union. GrapeNet is a first of its kind initiative in India that has put in place an end-to-end system for monitoring pesticide residue, achieve product standardization and facilitate tracing back from pallets to the farm of the Indian grower, through
1368-449: Is based on sensed antenna direction and sensed time delay. The other information is embedded in the transponder transmission. Among the possible uses of the term is a collection of laboratory test equipment controlled by a computer through an IEEE-488 bus (also known as GPIB for General Purpose Instrument Bus or HPIB for Hewlitt Packard Instrument Bus). Laboratory equipment is available to measure many electrical and chemical quantities. Such
1440-527: Is defined in the EPCglobal Tag Data Standard, which is a freely available standard. The canonical representation of an EPC is a URI , namely the 'pure-identity URI' representation that is intended for use when referring to a specific physical object in communications about EPCs among information systems and business application software. The EPCglobal Tag Data Standard also defines additional representations of an EPC identifier, such as
1512-776: Is designed as a flexible framework that can support many existing coding schemes, including many coding schemes currently in use with barcode technology. EPC identifiers currently support 7 identification keys from the GS1 system of identifiers, as well as a General Identifier and EPC identifiers that can be used for encoding supplies to the US Department of Defense . EPCs are not designed exclusively for use with RFID data carriers. They can indeed be constructed based on reading of optical data carriers, such as linear bar codes and two-dimensional bar codes, such as Data Matrix symbols. The 'pure identity URI' canonical representation of an EPC
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#17327977212491584-407: Is often knowledgeable of techniques to minimize temperature gradients that cause air turbulence within the telescope. Instrumentation technologists, technicians and mechanics specialize in troubleshooting, repairing and maintaining instruments and instrumentation systems. Ralph Müller (1940) stated, "That the history of physical science is largely the history of instruments and their intelligent use
1656-498: Is permitted subject to registration with APEDA, thereby making Grapenet mandatory for all exports of fresh grapes from India to Europe. Uruguay has also designed a system called "Traceability & Electronic Information System of the Beef Industry". Within the context of supporting legal and sustainable forest supply chains , traceability has emerged in the last decade as a new tool to verify claims and assure buyers about
1728-463: Is sometimes arranged that stolen banknotes are marked with indelible dye to show that they are stolen; they can be identified by their unique serial numbers. Announcing that cash machines were fitted with sprayers of SmartWater , an invisible gel detectable for years, to mark thieves and their clothing when breaking into or tampering with the machine was found in a 2016 pilot scheme to reduce theft by 90%. Measuring instrument Instrumentation
1800-502: Is used to measure many parameters (physical values), including: The history of instrumentation can be divided into several phases. Elements of industrial instrumentation have long histories. Scales for comparing weights and simple pointers to indicate position are ancient technologies. Some of the earliest measurements were of time. One of the oldest water clocks was found in the tomb of the ancient Egyptian pharaoh Amenhotep I , buried around 1500 BCE. Improvements were incorporated in
1872-491: Is used to refer to an unbroken chain of comparisons relating an instrument 's measurements to a known standard . Calibration to a traceable standard can be used to determine an instrument's bias, precision , and accuracy . It may also be used to show a chain of custody - from current interpretation of evidence to the actual evidence in a legal context, or history of handling of any information. In many countries, national standards for weights and measures are maintained by
1944-493: Is usually accomplished in the form of a matrix created for the verification and validation of the project. Unfortunately, the practice of constructing and maintaining a requirements trace matrix (RTM) can be very arduous and over time the traces tend to erode into an inaccurate state unless date/time stamped. Alternate automated approaches for generating traces using information retrieval methods have been developed. In transaction processing software, traceability implies use of
2016-470: Is well known. The broad generalizations and theories which have arisen from time to time have stood or fallen on the basis of accurate measurement, and in several instances new instruments have had to be devised for the purpose. There is little evidence to show that the mind of modern man is superior to that of the ancients. His tools are incomparably better." Davis Baird has argued that the major change associated with Floris Cohen ' s identification of
2088-662: The EPCglobal Network standards (especially the EPC Information Services EPCIS standard) which codify the syntax and semantics for supply chain events and the secure method for selectively sharing supply chain events with trading partners. These standards for traceability have been used in successful deployments in many industries and there are now a wide range of products that are certified as being compatible with these standards. In food processing ( meat processing , fresh produce processing),
2160-540: The Global Trade Item Number ( GTIN ) only identifies the product type or stock-keeping unit rather than an individual instance of a particular product type. To ensure that an EPC always uniquely identifies an individual physical object, in the case of a GTIN, the EPC is constructed as a Serialised Global Trade Item Number ( SGTIN ) by combining a GTIN product identifier with a unique serial number. Both
2232-697: The ISO 22000 family of standards , has been developed to define the principles for food traceability and specifies the basic requirements for the design and implementation of a feed and food traceability system. It can be applied by an organization operating at any step in the feed and food chain. The European Union 's General Food Law came into force in 2002, making traceability compulsory for food and feed operators and requiring those businesses to implement traceability systems. The EU introduced its Trade Control and Expert System, or TRACES , in April 2004. The system provides
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2304-506: The National Research Council of Canada (NRC). As defined by NIST, "Traceability of measurement requires the establishment of an unbroken chain of comparisons to stated references each with a stated uncertainty." A clock providing traceable time is traceable to a time standard such as Coordinated Universal Time or International Atomic Time . The Global Positioning System is a source of traceable time. Within
2376-584: The Universal Product Code and EAN-13 identifiers that are still found on many trade items can be mapped into a 14-digit GTIN identifier, by padding to the left with zero digits to reach a total of 14 digits. An SGTIN EPC identifier can therefore be constructed by combining the resulting GTIN with a unique serial number and following the encoding rules in the EPCglobal Tag Data Standard. The EPC accommodates existing coding schemes and defines new schemes where necessary. Each coding scheme within
2448-423: The fastener industry. In logistics , traceability refers to the capability for tracing goods along the distribution chain on a batch number or series number basis. Traceability is an important aspect for example in the automotive industry, where it makes recalls possible, or in the food industry where it contributes to food safety . The international standards organization EPCglobal under GS1 has ratified
2520-417: The 1970s. The transformation of instrumentation from mechanical pneumatic transmitters, controllers, and valves to electronic instruments reduced maintenance costs as electronic instruments were more dependable than mechanical instruments. This also increased efficiency and production due to their increase in accuracy. Pneumatics enjoyed some advantages, being favored in corrosive and explosive atmospheres. In
2592-496: The EPC identifier framework is distinguished through the use of a separate namespace. In the URI notations, this is indicated using a URI prefix such as urn:epc:id:sgtin or urn:epc:id:sscc In the compact binary encoding of an EPC identifier, the namespace is instead indicated using a compact binary header (typically the first 8 bits of the binary encoding of an EPC identifier). The EPCglobal Tag Data Standard provides details of
2664-445: The EPC identifier framework is distinguished through the use of a separate namespace. In the URI notations, this is indicated using a URI prefix such as urn:epc:id:sgtin or urn:epc:id:sscc In the compact binary encoding of an EPC identifier, the namespace is instead indicated using a compact binary header (typically the first 8 bits of the binary encoding of an EPC identifier). The EPCglobal Tag Data Standard provides details of
2736-492: The EPC tag, as liability obligations for the producer require durable and sufficiently fail-safe labels. Currently (2010) there are no applications in which RFID tags have completely replaced conventional labeling. The EPC was the creation of the MIT Auto-ID Center , a consortium of over 120 global corporations and university labs. EPC identifiers were designed to identify each item manufactured, as opposed to just
2808-434: The URI prefixes and corresponding binary header values. Low-cost passive RFID tags were designed to uniquely identify each item manufactured. In contrast, bar codes for trade items and consumer products have limited capacity and typically only identify the manufacturer and class of products. Although RFID tags are currently still more expensive than a simple optically readable label, they offer additional capabilities such as
2880-662: The URI prefixes and corresponding binary header values. This namespace indicator (URI prefix or compact binary header value) in turn dictates the length, type and structure of the EPC. EPC encoding schemes are used to uniquely identify one object. Most EPCs include an element within their structure that corresponds to a serial number. EPC Version 1.3 supports the following alternative coding schemes: From Version 1.4 these new coding schemas are also additionally supported: GS1 identification keys includes detailed information about 12 GS1 ID keys, their purpose, use, allocation and maintenance rules, etc. GS1 Application Identifiers defines
2952-475: The ability to be read by radio waves, without requiring 'line of sight' between the reader or interrogator and the tag; this enables individual items within a large cardboard box (case) to be read without first unpacking each individual item from the box. Some RFID tags offer additional read/write user memory that could be used for storage of additional information, such as an expiry date or date of manufacture. Plain text and barcoding are still useful in addition to
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3024-600: The biomedical instrumentation of laboratory rats has very different concerns than the expert in rocket instrumentation. Common concerns of both are the selection of appropriate sensors based on size, weight, cost, reliability, accuracy, longevity, environmental robustness, and frequency response. Some sensors are literally fired in artillery shells. Others sense thermonuclear explosions until destroyed. Invariably sensor data must be recorded, transmitted or displayed. Recording rates and capacities vary enormously. Transmission can be trivial or can be clandestine, encrypted and low power in
3096-491: The clocks. By 270 BCE they had the rudiments of an automatic control system device. In 1663 Christopher Wren presented the Royal Society with a design for a "weather clock". A drawing shows meteorological sensors moving pens over paper driven by clockwork. Such devices did not become standard in meteorology for two centuries. The concept has remained virtually unchanged as evidenced by pneumatic chart recorders, where
3168-479: The control racks to be networked and thereby located locally to plant to reduce cabling runs, and provided high level overviews of plant status and production levels. In some cases, the sensor is a very minor element of the mechanism. Digital cameras and wristwatches might technically meet the loose definition of instrumentation because they record and/or display sensed information. Under most circumstances neither would be called instrumentation, but when used to measure
3240-435: The early years of process control , process indicators and control elements such as valves were monitored by an operator, that walked around the unit adjusting the valves to obtain the desired temperatures, pressures, and flows. As technology evolved pneumatic controllers were invented and mounted in the field that monitored the process and controlled the valves. This reduced the amount of time process operators needed to monitor
3312-409: The elapsed time of a race and to document the winner at the finish line, both would be called instrumentation. A very simple example of an instrumentation system is a mechanical thermostat , used to control a household furnace and thus to control room temperature. A typical unit senses temperature with a bi-metallic strip . It displays temperature by a needle on the free end of the strip. It activates
3384-416: The examples of DDT monitoring and the use of UV spectrophotometry and gas chromatography to monitor water pollutants . EPCglobal Network The Electronic Product Code ( EPC ) is designed as a universal identifier (using an idiosyncratic numerical code for each different commodity ) that provides a unique identity for every physical object anywhere in the world, for all time. The EPC structure
3456-425: The fact that the products they sell are manufactured in factories with safe working conditions, by workers that earn a fair wage, using methods that do not damage the environment. In regard to materials , traceability refers to the capability to associate a finished part with destructive test results performed on material from the same ingot with the same heat treatment, or to associate a finished part with results of
3528-406: The furnace by a mercury switch . As the switch is rotated by the strip, the mercury makes physical (and thus electrical) contact between electrodes. Another example of an instrumentation system is a home security system . Such a system consists of sensors (motion detection, switches to detect door openings), simple algorithms to detect intrusion, local control (arm/disarm) and remote monitoring of
3600-408: The goal of improving system productivity , reliability, safety, optimization and stability. To control the parameters in a process or in a particular system, devices such as microprocessors, microcontrollers or PLCs are used, but their ultimate aim is to control the parameters of a system. Instrumentation engineering is loosely defined because the required tasks are very domain dependent. An expert in
3672-446: The graphic display in the control room or rooms. The distributed control concept was born. The introduction of DCSs and SCADA allowed easy interconnection and re-configuration of plant controls such as cascaded loops and interlocks, and easy interfacing with other production computer systems. It enabled sophisticated alarm handling, introduced automatic event logging, removed the need for physical records such as chart recorders, allowed
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#17327977212493744-464: The healthcare industry emphasizes the significant impact of Blockchain Technology (BCT) on improving the performance of healthcare supply chain management. It highlights BCT's role in enhancing transparency, data immutability, and efficient management, leading to better cooperation among stakeholders and effective risk mitigation in healthcare services. The World Health Organization has recognized
3816-421: The importance of traceability for medical products of human origin (MPHO) and urged member states "to encourage the implementation of globally consistent coding systems to facilitate national and international traceability". To prevent theft, and assist in locating stolen objects, goods may be marked indelibly or undetectably so that they may be determined to be stolen, and in some cases identified. For example, it
3888-496: The information may be transferred to a crash recorder to aid mishap investigations. Modern pilot displays now include computer displays including head-up displays . Air traffic control radar is a distributed instrumentation system. The ground part sends an electromagnetic pulse and receives an echo (at least). Aircraft carry transponders that transmit codes on reception of the pulse. The system displays an aircraft map location, an identifier and optionally altitude. The map location
3960-456: The manufacturer and class of products, as bar codes do today. The EPC system is currently managed by EPCglobal, Inc., a subsidiary of GS1 . The specifications for the EPC identifiers can be found in the EPCglobal, Inc. Tag Data Standard, which is an open standard, freely available for anyone to download. The Electronic Product Code is one of the industrial standards for global RFID usage, and
4032-439: The need to control valves and actuators in the field. Typically, a signal ranged from 3 to 15 psi (20 to 100kPa or 0.2 to 1.0 kg/cm2) as a standard, was standardized with 6 to 30 psi occasionally being used for larger valves. Transistor electronics enabled wiring to replace pipes, initially with a range of 20 to 100mA at up to 90V for loop powered devices, reducing to 4 to 20mA at 12 to 24V in more modern systems. A transmitter
4104-597: The presence of jamming. Displays can be trivially simple or can require consultation with human factors experts. Control system design varies from trivial to a separate specialty. Instrumentation engineers are responsible for integrating the sensors with the recorders, transmitters, displays or control systems, and producing the Piping and instrumentation diagram for the process. They may design or specify installation, wiring and signal conditioning. They may be responsible for commissioning, calibration, testing and maintenance of
4176-451: The process indicators. This again reduced the number and amount of time process operators were needed to walk around the units. The most standard pneumatic signal level used during these years was 3–15 psig. Process control of large industrial plants has evolved through many stages. Initially, control would be from panels local to the process plant. However, this required a large manpower resource to attend to these dispersed panels, and there
4248-410: The process. Latter years, the actual controllers were moved to a central room and signals were sent into the control room to monitor the process and outputs signals were sent to the final control element such as a valve to adjust the process as needed. These controllers and indicators were mounted on a wall called a control board. The operators stood in front of this board walking back and forth monitoring
4320-408: The productive and destructive potential inherent in process control. The ability to make precise, verifiable and reproducible measurements of the natural world, at levels that were not previously observable, using scientific instrumentation, has "provided a different texture of the world". This instrumentation revolution fundamentally changes human abilities to monitor and respond, as is illustrated in
4392-399: The quality of life of citizens, and is considered an indicator of the quality status of health services Maintaining patient safety is a complex task and involves factors inherent to the environment and human actions. New technologies facilitate the traceability tools of patients and medications. This is particularly relevant for drugs that are considered high risk and cost. Recent research in
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#17327977212494464-406: The recall process. Traceability within the food processing industry is also utilised to identify key high production and quality areas of a business, versus those of low return, and where points in the production process may be improved. In food processing software , traceability systems imply the use of a unique piece of data (e.g., order date/time or a serialized sequence number, generally through
4536-422: The same time). Material traceability is important to the aerospace, nuclear, and process industry because they frequently make use of high strength materials that look identical to commercial low strength versions. In these industries, a part made of the wrong material is called "counterfeit", even if the substitution was accidental. This same practice extends throughout industries using military hardware, including
4608-476: The source of their materials. Mostly led out of Europe, and targeting countries where illegal logging has been a key problem ( FLEGT countries), timber tracking is now part of daily business for many enterprises and jurisdictions. Full traceability offers advantages for multiple partners along the supply chain beyond certification systems, including: A number of timber tracking companies are in operation to service global demand. Enhanced traceability ensures that
4680-662: The supply chain data is 100% accurate from the forest to the point of export. Nowadays, there are techniques to predict geographical provenance of wood and contribute to the fight against illegal logging. In systems and software development , the term traceability (or requirements traceability ) refers to the ability to link product requirements back to stakeholders' rationales and forward to corresponding design artifacts, code, and test cases . Traceability supports numerous software engineering activities such as change impact analysis , compliance verification or traceback of code, regression test selection, and requirements validation. It
4752-731: The system so that the police can be summoned. Communication is an inherent part of the design. Kitchen appliances use sensors for control. Modern automobiles have complex instrumentation. In addition to displays of engine rotational speed and vehicle linear speed, there are also displays of battery voltage and current, fluid levels, fluid temperatures, distance traveled, and feedback of various controls (turn signals, parking brake, headlights, transmission position). Cautions may be displayed for special problems (fuel low, check engine, tire pressure low, door ajar, seat belt unfastened). Problems are recorded so they can be reported to diagnostic equipment . Navigation systems can provide voice commands to reach
4824-408: The system. In a research environment it is common for subject matter experts to have substantial instrumentation system expertise. An astronomer knows the structure of the universe and a great deal about telescopes – optics, pointing and cameras (or other sensing elements). That often includes the hard-won knowledge of the operational procedures that provide the best results. For example, an astronomer
4896-544: The tag-encoding URI format and a compact binary format suitable for storing an EPC identifier efficiently within RFID tags (for which the low-cost passive RFID tags typically have limited memory capacity available for the EPC/UII memory bank). The EPCglobal Tag Data Standard defines the structure of the URI syntax and binary format, as well as the encoding and decoding rules to allow conversion between these representations. The EPC
4968-518: The term traceability refers to the recording through means of barcodes or RFID tags and other tracking media, all movement of product and steps within the production process. One of the key reasons this is such a critical point is in instances where an issue of contamination arises, and a recall is required. Where traceability has been closely adhered to, it is possible to identify, by precise date/time and exact location which goods must be recalled, and which are safe, potentially saving millions of dollars in
5040-439: The use of a barcode / RFID ) which can be traced through the entire production flow, linking all sections of the business, including suppliers and future sales through the supply chain. Messages and files at any point in the system can then be audited for correctness and completeness, using the traceability software to find the particular transaction and/or product within the supply chain. In food systems , ISO 22005, as part of
5112-613: The various stages of sampling, testing, certification and packing. Grapenet won the National Award (Gold), in the winners announced for the best e-Governance initiatives undertaken in India in 2007. The Directorate Generate Foreign Trade (DGFT), Government of India, through its notification dated 04.02.2009 relating to Amendment in Foreign Trade Policy (RE2008)has mandated that Export to the European Union
5184-469: Was no overall view of the process. The next logical development was the transmission of all plant measurements to a permanently staffed central control room. Effectively this was the centralization of all the localized panels, with the advantages of lower manning levels and easy overview of the process. Often the controllers were behind the control room panels, and all automatic and manual control outputs were transmitted back to plant. However, whilst providing
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