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100-722: The Mishnah and Talmud go to great lengths to carefully define and precisely determine the observance of the Sabbath. The tractate is thus one of the longest in terms of chapters in the Mishnah, and folio pages in the Talmud. It comprises 24 chapters and has a Gemara – rabbinical analysis of and commentary on the Mishnah – in both the Babylonian Talmud and all but the last four chapters of the Jerusalem Talmud . There

200-527: A Babylonian amora (3rd C.). Later editions of the Talmud frequently substitute for the word "Gemara" the Aramaic abbreviation for "the six orders of the Mishnah," pronunced as "Shas," which has become a popular designation for the Babylonian Talmud. The building block of gemara is known as a sugya, "a self-contained basic unit of Talmudic discussion" (p.203) that often centers on a statement from

300-509: A bulwark for the preservation of the Jewish people. The Mishna and the Gemara define the rituals that continue to be observed by traditional Jewish communities until modern times, with some elaboration, to both "remember" and "keep" the Sabbath and to sanctify it at home and in the synagogue. In addition to refraining from creative work, the sanctification of the day through blessings over wine ,

400-640: A conclusion from a prooftext is often logically complex and indirect. "Confronted with a statement on any subject, the Talmudic student will proceed to raise a series of questions before he satisfies himself of having understood its full meaning." This analysis has been described as "mathematical" in approach; Adin Steinsaltz makes the analogy of the Amoraim as scientists investigating the Halakha , where

500-472: A designation of the Talmud. In the modern editions, the term gemara occurs frequently in this sense -- but in nearly every case it was substituted at a later time for the objectionable word talmud , which was prohibited by the Christian censors . The only passage in which gemara occurs with the meaning of "Talmud" in the strict sense, and not censored, is Eruvin 32b, where it is used by Rav Nahman ,

600-502: A more orthodox author than the original writer (that the epilogue was added later was first proposed by Samuel ibn Tibbon ); others think it is likely the work of the original author. The book takes its name from the Greek ekklēsiastēs , a translation of the title by which the central figure refers to himself: "Kohelet", meaning something like "one who convenes or addresses an assembly". According to rabbinic tradition, Ecclesiastes

700-489: A parable of wise and foolish people invited to a royal feast. The Torah is extolled in an aggadic passage which says that God specified that the world would return to primordial chaos unless Israel accepted the Torah, that Israel accepted it joyfully and Moses fought to obtain it, in appreciation of an understanding that God's kingdom on earth can be established only after struggle. The Gemara also elucidates that hatred of

800-665: A particular law. See Talmudic hermeneutics and Oral Torah § The interplay of the Oral and Written Law . [REDACTED]  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain :  Singer, Isidore ; et al., eds. (1901–1906). " Talmud ". The Jewish Encyclopedia . New York: Funk & Wagnalls. Ecclesiastes Ecclesiastes ( / ɪ ˌ k l iː z i ˈ æ s t iː z / ih- KLEE -zee- ASS -teez ; Biblical Hebrew : קֹהֶלֶת , romanized:  Qōheleṯ , Ancient Greek : Ἐκκλησιαστής , romanized :  Ekklēsiastēs )

900-510: A statement is true, and what qualifications are permissible. All statements are examined for internal consistency. See: List of Talmudic principles and Category:Talmud concepts and terminology Resolving contradictions, perceived or actual, between different statements in the Mishnah , or between the Mishnah and other traditions; e.g., by stating that: two conflicting sources are dealing with differing circumstances; or that they represent

1000-551: A time may come when no one can. The world is full of risk: he gives advice on living with risk, both political and economic. Kohelet's words finish with imagery of nature languishing and humanity marching to the grave. The frame narrator returns with an epilogue: the words of the wise are hard, but they are applied as the shepherd applies goads and pricks to his flock. The ending of the book sums up its message: "Fear God and keep his commandments for God will bring every deed to judgment." Some scholars suggest 12:13–14 were an addition by

1100-405: A time to build up; A time to weep, and a time to laugh; a time to mourn, and a time to dance; A time to cast away stones, and a time to gather stones together; A time to embrace, and a time to refrain from embracing; A time to get, and a time to lose; a time to keep, and a time to cast away; A time to rend, and a time to sew; a time to keep silence, and a time to speak; A time to love, and

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1200-494: A time to hate; a time of war, and a time of peace. ( King James Version 3 :1–8) After the introduction come the words of Kohelet. As king, he has experienced everything and done everything, but concludes that nothing is ultimately reliable, as death levels all. Kohelet states that the only good is to partake of life in the present, for enjoyment is from the hand of God. Everything is ordered in time and people are subject to time in contrast to God's eternal character. The world

1300-531: Is a sugya ( סוגיא ‎; plural sugyot ). A sugya will typically comprise a detailed proof-based elaboration of the Mishna . Every aspect of the Mishnaic text is treated as a subject of close investigation. This analysis is aimed at an exhaustive understanding of the Mishna's full meaning. In the Talmud, a sugya is presented as a series of responsive hypotheses and questions – with

1400-475: Is a Tosefta of 18 chapters on this tractate. As its name implies, the tractate deals primarily with the laws and regulations for observing the Sabbath, which is the fourth of the Ten Commandments and one of the central religious practices of Judaism . As such, it is dealt with at length in the Mishnah and the Gemara, and many subsequent commentaries have also been written on this tractate, from

1500-413: Is because, even as a woman births and raises children, Qoheleth revealed and organized wisdom". According to Yefet b. Ali (also adopted by Abraham ibn Ezra and Joseph Ibn Kaspi ), "He ascribed this activity to his wisdom, and because Wisdom is female, he used a feminine name". This last opinion is accepted by a wide variety of modern scholars, including C. D. Ginsburg . Ecclesiastes is presented as

1600-450: Is filled with injustice, which only God will adjudicate. God and humans do not belong in the same realm, and it is therefore necessary to have a right attitude before God. People should enjoy, but should not be greedy; no one knows what is good for humanity; righteousness and wisdom escape humanity. Kohelet reflects on the limits of human power: all people face death, and death is better than life, but people should enjoy life when they can, for

1700-478: Is infinite.") in his Summa Theologica . The 20th-century Catholic theologian and cardinal-elect Hans Urs von Balthasar discussed Ecclesiastes in his work on theological aesthetics, The Glory of the Lord . He describes Qoheleth as "a critical transcendentalist avant la lettre ", whose God is distant from the world, and whose kairos is a "form of time which is itself empty of meaning". For Balthasar,

1800-459: Is no intermediate Shabbat of Sukkot, Ashkenazim too read it on Shemini Atzeret (or, in Israel, on the first Shabbat of Sukkot). It is read on Sukkot as a reminder to not get too caught up in the festivities of the holiday and to carry over the happiness of Sukkot to the rest of the year by telling the listeners that, without God, life is meaningless. The final poem of Kohelet has been interpreted in

1900-845: Is one of the Ketuvim ("Writings") of the Hebrew Bible and part of the Wisdom literature of the Christian Old Testament . The title commonly used in English is a Latin transliteration of the Greek translation of the Hebrew word קֹהֶלֶת ( Kohelet, Koheleth, Qoheleth or Qohelet ). An unnamed author introduces "The words of Kohelet, son of David, king in Jerusalem" ( 1:1 ) and does not use his own voice again until

2000-412: Is organized into six sedarim , or "orders," which include Zeraim, Moed, Nashim, Nezikin, Kodshim, and Taharot. In 1923, Polish Rabbi Meir Shapiro introduced a contemporary practice called " Daf Yomi ," or "daily page," wherein participants study one page of the Talmud daily in cycles lasting seven and a half years each. This initiative ensures that both scholars and laypeople across the globe engage in

2100-653: Is recited during the Kabbalat Shabbat service on Friday evenings in both the Ashkenazi and Sefardi liturgies. The recitation of this chapter referenced the disagreement with the Sadducees and Karaites , who rejected the Oral Tradition codified in the Mishnah, and held that the commandment "Do not light a fire in any of your dwellings on the Sabbath day" ( Exodus 35:3 ) meant that the use of any light

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2200-415: Is that all is meaningless. This distinction first appeared in the commentaries of Samuel ibn Tibbon (d. 1230) and Aaron ben Joseph of Constantinople (d. 1320). To every thing there is a season, and a time to every purpose under the heaven: A time to be born, and a time to die; a time to plant, and a time to pluck up that which is planted; A time to kill, and a time to heal; a time to break down, and

2300-455: Is the tradition that two angels accompany a Jew home from the synagogue on Friday evening after the evening service. The tractate consists of 24 chapters and 138 paragraphs ( mishnayot ) and has a Gemara – rabbinical analysis of and commentary on the Mishnah – in both the Babylonian Talmud and all but the last four chapters of the Jerusalem Talmud . There is also a Tosefta of 18 chapters for this tractate. In standard printed editions of

2400-509: Is to be observed. This concern was a reflection of its importance in the Biblical sources, in which there are more reminders about Sabbath observance than about any other matter, with the possible exception of the prohibitions against idolatry . Biblical passages concerning the topics discussed in this tractate include references to the foundational concept of the Sabbath in Genesis 2:2–3 ,

2500-432: Is whether the author and narrator of Kohelet are identical. Ecclesiastes regularly switches between third-person quotations of Kohelet and first-person reflections on Kohelet's words, which would indicate the book was written as a commentary on Kohelet's parables rather than a personally-authored repository of his sayings. Some scholars have argued that the third-person narrative structure is an artificial literary device along

2600-436: The gemara derives largely from the intricate use of argumentation and debate, described above; these "back and forth" analytics are characterized by the Talmudic phrase shakla v'tarya (שקלא וטריא; lit. "taking and throwing"). In each sugya , either participant may cite scriptural, Mishnaic and Amoraic proof to build a logical support for their respective opinions. The process of deduction required to derive

2700-520: The 39 categories of activity prohibited on Shabbat include the following: The morning service in both the Ashkenazi and Sefardi liturgy begins with recital of blessings over the Torah, followed by brief selections from the Hebrew Bible, Mishna and Gemara, in accordance with a statement in the Talmud ( Kiddushin 30a) that Torah learning comprises these three elements. The biblical text are

2800-524: The Hellenistic periods (i.e., the earlier or later part of this period) revolves around the degree of Hellenization (influence of Greek culture and thought) present in the book. Scholars arguing for a Persian date ( c.  450–330 BCE ) hold that there is a complete lack of Greek influence; those who argue for a Hellenistic date ( c.  330–180 BCE ) argue that it shows internal evidence of Greek thought and social setting. Also unresolved

2900-619: The Mishnah and presented in 63 books. The term is derived from the Aramaic word גמרא ‎ and rooted in the Semitic word ג-מ-ר (gamar), which means "to finish" or "complete". Initially, the Gemara was transmitted orally and not permitted to be written down. However, after Judah the Prince compiled the Mishnah around 200 CE, rabbis from Babylonia and the Land of Israel extensively studied

3000-519: The Tanakh , Mishnah , Tosefta and midrash are the phenomena studied. Prooftexts quoted to corroborate or disprove the respective opinions and theories will include: The actual debate will usually centre on the following categories: Why does the Mishna use one word rather than another? If a statement is not clear enough, the Gemara seeks to clarify the Mishna's intention. Exploring

3100-606: The Targum , Talmud and Midrash , and by the rabbis Rashi , Rashbam and ibn Ezra , as an allegory of old age. Ecclesiastes has been cited in the writings of past and current Catholic Church leaders. For example, Doctors of the Church have cited Ecclesiastes. Augustine of Hippo cited Ecclesiastes in Book XX of City of God . Jerome wrote a commentary on Ecclesiastes. Thomas Aquinas cited Ecclesiastes ("The number of fools

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3200-474: The futility of human effort ". Ecclesiastes has taken its literary form from the Middle Eastern tradition of the fictional autobiography, in which a character, often a king, relates his experiences and draws lessons from them, often self-critical: Kohelet likewise identifies himself as a king, speaks of his search for wisdom, relates his conclusions, and recognises his limitations. The book belongs to

3300-537: The proselyte ) in the verses of the song, is based on the statement in this tractate (118a) that the best food should be prepared for the Sabbath, for "one who delights in the Sabbath is granted their heart's desires". Gemara The Gemara (also transliterated Gemarah , or in Yiddish Gemore ) is an essential component of the Talmud , comprising a collection of rabbinical analyses and commentaries on

3400-413: The semantic disagreements between Tannaim and Amoraim . Some of these debates were actually conducted by the Amoraim , though many of them are hypothetically reconstructed by the Talmud's redactors. (Often imputing a view to an earlier authority as to how he may have answered a question: "This is what Rabbi X could have argued ...") Only rarely are debates formally closed. The distinctive character of

3500-415: The writer of the epilogue ), who speaks proverbially in the third person. The epilogist is most identified in the book's first and final verses. Kyle R. Greenwood suggests that following this structure, Ecclesiastes should be read as a dialogue between these voices. The ten-verse introduction in verses 1:2–11 are the words of the frame narrator; they set the mood for what is to follow. Kohelet's message

3600-579: The Amoraim, recorded as gemara , is thus focused on clarifying the positions, views, and word choice of the Tannaim. Because there are two Gemaras, as mentioned above, there are in fact two Talmuds: the Jerusalem Talmud (Hebrew: תלמוד ירושלמי ‎, "Talmud Yerushalmi"), and the Babylonian Talmud (Hebrew: תלמוד בבלי ‎, "Talmud Bavli"), corresponding to the Jerusalem Gemara and

3700-777: The Babylonian Gemara; both share the same Mishnah. The Gemara is mostly written in Aramaic , the Jerusalem Gemara in Western Aramaic and the Babylonian in Eastern Aramaic , but both contain portions in Hebrew . Sometimes the language changes in the middle of a story. In a narrow sense, the word gemara refers to the mastery and transmission of existing tradition, as opposed to sevara , which means

3800-519: The Babylonian Talmud, the Gemara contains 157 folio (double-sided) pages and is the longest tractate by page count after Baba Batra , which has 176 folio pages. There are 92 folio pages of Gemara in the Jerusalem Talmud. In the Jerusalem Talmud, the Gemara for the last four chapters of the Mishna no longer exist. It is likely that handwritten manuscripts of these four chapters existed before

3900-528: The Ecclesiastical philosophy of futility. Wisdom was a popular genre in the ancient world, where it was cultivated in scribal circles and directed towards young men who would take up careers in high officialdom and royal courts; there is strong evidence that some of these books, or at least sayings and teachings, were translated into Hebrew and influenced the Book of Proverbs, and the author of Ecclesiastes

4000-545: The Hebrew canon—a God who reveals and redeems, who elects and cares for a chosen people—are absent from it, which suggests that Kohelet had lost his faith in his old age. Understanding the book was a topic of the earliest recorded discussions (the hypothetical Council of Jamnia in the 1st century CE). One argument advanced at that time was that the name of Solomon carried enough authority to ensure its inclusion; however, other works which appeared with Solomon's name were excluded despite being more orthodox than Ecclesiastes. Another

4100-474: The Hebrew word derives from kahal "assembly," but while the Greek word means 'member of an assembly', the meaning of the original Hebrew word it translates is less certain. As Strong's Concordance mentions, it is a female active participle of the verb kahal in its simple ( qal ) paradigm, a form not used elsewhere in the Bible and which is sometimes understood as active or passive depending on

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4200-539: The Jewish people is a religious animosity dating from the time when the Revelation at Sinai gave the people of Israel a faith which differentiated it from other nations. In relation to the Sabbath, the primary theme of this tractate, an aggadah relates that the Sages found the spiritual significance of the sanctity of the Sabbath in the desire to be at harmony with God as the core and essence of Judaism. Also recounted

4300-483: The Mishna were appropriate for ancient Israel 's largely rural society whose economic base was farming. As Jewish society evolved in the Land of Israel , and then also in the Roman and Persian Empires , particularly Babylonia , the Gemara and subsequent legal literature elaborated on the basic foundations and principles laid out in the Mishnah to address new and different circumstances than those originally encountered in

4400-548: The Roman conquerors and rulers of the Land of Israel . The gentleness of the sage Hillel contrasted with the severity of Shammai is illustrated by several examples. Among the sayings and ethical teachings are Hillel's famous distillation of Judaism — "What is hateful to you, do not do to your neighbor." Other aggadic sayings cited are: ' Truth' is the seal of God ; and "Repent one day before your death" – meaning always be ready to appear before God, an idea also illustrated by

4500-539: The Sabbath as a day of eating and drinking was meant, according to some scholars, to counteract the ascetic tendencies of the Essenes . Among traditional Jewish communities, and in the modern State of Israel , where the Sabbath is the official day of rest, contemporary responsa , based on the application of the principles of the Mishnah, as interpreted by the Gemara, and subsequently expounded upon by halakhic authorities , focus mostly on technological advances in terms of

4600-414: The Sabbath eve before nightfall, to ensure one is not carrying anything, and Rabbi Yosef commenting that this is an important law about the Sabbath, as it is easy to forget and accidentally violate the sanctity of the day of rest. The Sabbath hymn Yom Zeh M’khubad ("this day is the most precious of all days"), composed by an unidentified poet whose name appears in the acrostic as Yisrael Ha’Ger (Israel

4700-401: The Sages considered excluding the books of Ezekiel , Ecclesiastes and Proverbs from the canon of the Hebrew Bible ; however, once interpretations and explanations for the passages that appear contradictory were provided, decided that they should be included. Also discussed is Rabbi Simeon bar Yohai , who was forced to flee and lived in a cave for twelve years following his criticism of

4800-539: The Shabbat candles , discussing the oils and wicks that may be used for the Sabbath lights; it goes on to discuss matters concerning food on the Sabbath such as which food may be stored for the Sabbath, and keeping food hot for the Shabbat meals by leaving it on top of a stove from before Shabbat and insulating hot food before the beginning of Shabbat; and then continues to discuss the laws of carrying, mentioned first at

4900-497: The Sun, has no meaning or purpose: the wise man and the man who does not study wisdom will both die and be forgotten: man should be reverent (i.e., fear God), but in this life it is best to simply enjoy God's gifts. In Judaism, Ecclesiastes is read either on Shemini Atzeret (by Yemenites, Italians, some Sephardim , and the mediaeval French Jewish rite) or on the Shabbat of the intermediate days of Sukkot (by Ashkenazim ). If there

5000-526: The Talmudic text as a record of each step in the process of reasoning and derivation. The Gemara thus takes the form of a dialectical exchange (by contrast, the Mishnah states concluded legal opinions – and often differences in opinion between the Tannaim . There is little dialogue). The disputants here are termed the makshan (questioner, "one who raises a difficulty") and tartzan (answerer, "one who puts straight"). The Gemara records

5100-433: The Torah, and rabbinic rulings designed to safeguard or enhance the practices of the cessation of labor and Sabbath rest, are as follows: In addition to the legal discussions and analysis of the Mishnah, the Gemara in this tractate contains a considerable amount of Aggadah , including narratives and historical stories, as well as moral tales, exegetical interpretations, and sayings. A significant narrative section describes

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5200-564: The academies of Sura , Pumbedita , and Nehardea , is the more commonly cited version when referring to the "Gemara" or "Talmud" without further qualification. The main compilers of the Babylonian Talmud were Ravina and Rav Ashi . The Jerusalem Talmud, also known as the Palestinian Talmud, was compiled by Jewish scholars in the Land of Israel, primarily from the academies of Tiberias and Caesarea , around 350–400 CE. The Talmud

5300-413: The acceptance by some of this structure, there have been many criticisms, such as that of Fox: "[Addison G. Wright's] proposed structure has no more effect on interpretation than a ghost in the attic. A literary or rhetorical structure should not merely 'be there'; it must do something. It should guide readers in recognizing and remembering the author's train of thought." Verse 1:1 is a superscription,

5400-689: The age of printing but that all the copies were destroyed in periodic acts of antisemitic violence, as well as by acts of deliberate destruction and suppression of the Talmud, such as at the Disputation of Paris . The mishnayot in the tractate are arranged in a sequential order, apart from the first one, which addresses the topic of carrying, but which can, however, be relevant right at the beginning of Shabbat. The tractate then continues to discuss what may not be done on Friday afternoon, and goes on to topics relevant to actions and preparations immediately before Shabbat. The tractate then deals with lighting

5500-445: The ancient equivalent of a title page: it introduces the book as "the words of Kohelet, son of David, king in Jerusalem." Most, though not all, modern commentators regard the epilogue (12:9–14) as an addition by a later scribe. Some have identified certain other statements as further additions intended to make the book more religiously orthodox (e.g., the affirmations of God's justice and the need for piety). It has been proposed that

5600-586: The author of Ecclesiastes "an ancient biblical sage" whose description of death "makes frantic clinging to earthly things completely pointless". Pope Francis cited Ecclesiastes in his address on September 9, 2014. Speaking of vain people, he said, "How many Christians live for appearances? Their life seems like a soap bubble ." Ecclesiastes has had a deep influence on Western literature. It contains several phrases that have resonated in British and American culture, such as "eat, drink and be merry", "nothing new under

5700-560: The author of a comprehensive commentary on the Talmud, and the Tosafot , the collected "additional" commentaries of numerous rabbis from the 12th to the mid-15th centuries in France and Germany. The Rambam , Maimonides ' Commentary on the Mishnah composed in c.1158−c.1168, provides a running commentary on the entire Mishnah, and often includes a halakhic ruling based on the Talmud's conclusion. Commentaries of other early Rishonim include

5800-495: The beginning of the tractate, for transferring from one domain to another . The Mishnah then lists the 39 principal categories of work , derived from the Torah and known as melakhot , and these are discussed in detail in the subsequent chapters. After that, the tractate covers several subjects, including those actions which are rabbinical injunctions, such as shevut and muktzeh . The tractate concludes with laws applicable at

5900-520: The biography of "Kohelet" or "Qoheleth"; his story is framed by the voice of the narrator, who refers to Kohelet in the third person , praises his wisdom, but reminds the reader that wisdom has its limitations and is not man's main concern. Kohelet reports what he planned, did, experienced and thought, but his journey to knowledge is, in the end, incomplete; the reader is not only to hear Kohelet's wisdom, but to observe his journey towards understanding and acceptance of life's frustrations and uncertainties:

6000-607: The book, as there are (for example) in the Book of Job. Yet another suggestion is that Ecclesiastes is simply the most extreme example of a tradition of skepticism, but none of the proposed examples match Ecclesiastes for a sustained denial of faith and doubt in the goodness of God. Martin A. Shields, in his 2006 book The End of Wisdom: A Reappraisal of the Historical and Canonical Function of Ecclesiastes , summarized that "In short, we do not know why or how this book found its way into such esteemed company". Scholars disagree about

6100-454: The by now traditional idea of divine justice for individuals". Some passages of Ecclesiastes seem to contradict other portions of the Hebrew Bible, and even itself. The Talmud even suggests that the rabbis considered censoring Ecclesiastes due to its seeming contradictions. One suggestion for resolving the contradictions is to read the book as the record of Kohelet's quest for knowledge: opposing judgments (e.g., "the dead are better off than

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6200-589: The category of wisdom literature , the body of biblical writings which give advice on life, together with reflections on its problems and meanings—other examples include the Book of Job , Proverbs , and some of the Psalms . Ecclesiastes differs from the other biblical Wisdom books in being deeply skeptical of the usefulness of wisdom itself. Ecclesiastes in turn influenced the deuterocanonical works, Wisdom of Solomon and Sirach , both of which contain vocal rejections of

6300-558: The comprehensive study of the entire Talmud. The Gemara and the Mishnah together make up the Talmud . The Talmud thus comprises two components: the Mishnah – the core text; and the Gemara – analysis and commentary which "completes" the Talmud (see Structure of the Talmud ). Maimonides describes the Gemara component as: understanding and conceptualizing the ultimate derivation of a concept from its roots, inferring one concept from another and comparing concepts, understanding [the Law] based on

6400-406: The confusion with the other definition of vanity. Given this, the next verse presents the basic existential question with which the rest of the book is concerned: "What profit hath a man for all his toil, in which he toils under the sun?", expressing that the lives of both wise and foolish people all end in death. In light of this perceived meaninglessness, he suggests that human beings should enjoy

6500-568: The correct practice according to Jewish law. Examples of these issues include a wide variety of subjects, such as using electricity , how crossing the International Date Line affects the observance of Sabbaths and festivals, the use of elevators , and medical questions ranging from whether hearing aids may be worn on the Sabbath to driving a vehicle on Shabbat for an emergency. The primary commentators on this tractate are Rabbi Shlomo Yitzchaki, known as Rashi (1040 – 1105),

6600-420: The deriving of new results by logic. Both activities are represented in the Gemara as one literary work. The Aramaic noun gemar (and gemara ) was formed from the verb that means "learn." This substantive noun thus designates what was learned, and the learning transmitted to scholars by tradition, though it connotes in a more limited sense to exposition of the Mishnah. The word therefore gained currency as

6700-493: The distortions and inequities pervading the world, the uselessness of human ambition, and the limitations of worldly wisdom and righteousness. The phrase "under the sun" appears twenty-nine times in connection with these observations; all this coexists with a firm belief in God, whose power, justice and unpredictability are sovereign. History and nature move in cycles, so that all events are predictable and unchangeable, and life, without

6800-407: The early Middle Ages until the present. In the Babylonian Talmud, the Gemara also contains a discussion of the laws of Hanukkah . The Jewish religious laws detailed in this tractate, and the subsequent legal codes based on it continue to be followed by observant and traditional Jewish communities in modern Israel and throughout the world. Six days you shall labor and do all your work; but on

6900-532: The end of the Shabbat, such as walking to the furthest extent of the Shabbat border to get an early start on a journey, and the laws of taking care of animals on Shabbat. An overview of the chapters is as follows: The Mishna was composed towards the end of the Mishnaic period ( c. 30 BCE - 200 CE ) in the Roman province of Judaea and forms an early part in the lengthy development of Jewish law regarding Sabbath observance. The categories of work defined in

7000-405: The final verses (12:9–14), where he gives his own thoughts and summarises the statements of Kohelet ; the main body of the text is ascribed to Kohelet. Kohelet proclaims (1:2) "Vanity of vanities! All is futile!"; the Hebrew word hevel , "vapor" or "breath", can figuratively mean "insubstantial", "vain", "futile", or "meaningless". In some versions vanity is translated as "meaningless" to avoid

7100-433: The following: Sefer ha'Mafte'ach and Megilat Setarim and the commentary of Rabeinu Chananel were reprinted from manuscripts, with footnotes by rabbi David Metzger, in Jerusalem in 1990. Sefer ha'Yashar was reprinted in 1980 in Jerusalem, based on two original manuscripts, with footnotes by Rabbi Shimon Schlesinger. Commentaries of Rishonim who lived in the medieval kingdoms of Aragon , Provence and Narvona include

7200-479: The following: Commentaries of Rishonim who lived in medieval France, Germany and other locations include the following: There are many commentaries by the Acharonim ("later scholars") on tractate Shabbat. Some of the classic works include the following: Anthologies on the tractate include the following: Halakhic discussions of the issues of the tractate include the following: Works focused particularly on

7300-401: The journey itself is important. The Jerusalem Bible divides the book into two parts, part one comprising Ecclesiastes 1:4–6:12, part two consisting of chapters 7 to 12, each commencing with a separate prologue. Few of the many attempts to uncover an underlying structure to Ecclesiastes have met with widespread acceptance; among them, the following is one of the more influential: Despite

7400-457: The lines of Uncle Remus , although the description of the Kohelet in 12:8–14 seems to favour a historical person whose thoughts are presented by the narrator. It has been argued, however, that the question has no theological importance; one scholar (Roland Murphy) has commented that Kohelet himself would have regarded the time and ingenuity put into interpreting his book as "one more example of

7500-447: The living" (4:2) vs. "a living dog is better off than a dead lion" (9:4)) are therefore provisional, and it is only at the conclusion that the verdict is delivered (11–12:7). On this reading, Kohelet's sayings are goads , designed to provoke dialogue and reflection in his readers, rather than to reach premature and self-assured conclusions. The subjects of Ecclesiastes are the pain and frustration engendered by observing and meditating on

7600-445: The logical principles underlying the Mishnah's statements, and showing how different understandings of the Mishnah's reasons could lead to differences in their practical application. What underlying principle is entailed in a statement of fact or in a specific instance brought as an illustration? If a statement appears obvious, the Gemara seeks the logical reason for its necessity. It seeks to answer under which circumstances

7700-413: The mishnah, the amoraic rabbis (memra), or simply independent of these. They vary in size and complexity and, though self-contained, may mention or assume knowledge of other sugiyot. The analysis of the Amoraim is generally focused on clarifying the positions, words and views of the Tannaim . These debates and exchanges form the "building-blocks" of the Gemara ; the name for such a passage of Gemara

7800-682: The origin of Hanukkah , relating that when the Hasmoneans defeated the Seleucid overlords and purified the Temple in Jerusalem , they found only one small jar of pure oil sealed with the High Priest 's seal and apparently sufficient for a single day only; but by a miracle it lasted for eight days, so that the Festival of Hanukkah is celebrated for eight days. Other narratives describe how

7900-427: The preparation of special Sabbath meals , and engaging in prayer and Torah study were required as an active part of Shabbat observance to promote intellectual activity and spiritual regeneration on the day of rest from physical creation. The Talmud states that the best food should be prepared for the Sabbath, for "one who delights in the Sabbath is granted their heart's desires" ( BT , Shabbat 118a-b). The emphasis on

8000-479: The presence of Persian loanwords and Aramaisms points to a date no earlier than about 450 BCE, while the latest possible date for its composition is 180 BCE. Ecclesiastes is a phonetic transliteration of the Greek word Ἐκκλησιαστής ( Ekklēsiastēs ), which in the Septuagint translates the Hebrew name of its stated author, Kohelet ( קֹהֶלֶת ). The Greek word derives from ekklesia "assembly," as

8100-415: The principles of Torah exegesis , until one appreciates the essence of those principles and how the prohibitions and the other decisions which one received according to the oral tradition (i.e. Mishnah) can be derived using them.... The rabbis of the Mishnah are known as Tannaim (sing. Tanna תנא ‎). The rabbis of the Gemara are referred to as Amoraim (sing. Amora אמורא). The analysis of

8200-546: The role of Ecclesiastes in the Biblical canon is to represent the "final dance on the part of wisdom, [the] conclusion of the ways of man", a logical end-point to the unfolding of human wisdom in the Old Testament that paves the way for the advent of the New. The book continues to be cited by recent popes , including Pope John Paul II and Pope Francis . Pope John Paul II, in his general audience of October 20, 2004, called

8300-412: The seventh day, which is a Sabbath in honor of the Lord your God, you shall not do any work, neither you, nor your son, nor your daughter, nor your male or female servant, nor your cattle, nor the stranger who is within your gates. This tractate primarily covers the laws of observing Shabbat , the weekly day of rest. It provides comprehensive explanations of the types of activities prohibited on Shabbat ,

8400-462: The simple pleasures of daily life, such as eating, drinking, and taking enjoyment in one's work, which are gifts from the hand of God. The book concludes with the injunction to "Fear God and keep his commandments; for that is the duty of all of mankind. Since every deed will God bring to judgment, for every hidden act, be it good or evil." According to rabbinic tradition the book was written by King Solomon (reigned c. 970–931 BCE) in his old age, but

8500-472: The sources in the Torah for these prohibitions, the details of the laws, and the rabbinic rulings connected with them. It also deals with matters concerning other mitzvot that apply on Shabbat. In addition, the main discussion about the laws of Hanukkah are included in the Babylonian Talmud. The Sabbath is one of the most important religious practices of Judaism, and the Mishnah and Talmud go to great lengths to carefully define and precisely determine how it

8600-470: The sun", "a time to be born and a time to die", and " vanity of vanities; all is vanity". American novelist Thomas Wolfe wrote: "[O]f all I have ever seen or learned, that book seems to me the noblest, the wisest, and the most powerful expression of man's life upon this earth—and also the highest flower of poetry, eloquence, and truth. I am not given to dogmatic judgments in the matter of literary creation, but if I had to make one I could say that Ecclesiastes

8700-534: The text is 'someone speaking before an assembly'; hence 'Teacher' or 'Preacher'. This was the position of the Midrash and of Jerome . Commentators struggle to explain why a man was given an apparently feminine name. According to Isaiah di Trani , "He authored this work in his old age, when he was weak like a woman, and therefore he received a feminine name," an opinion likewise held by Johann Simonis . According to Solomon b. Jeroham (also Lorinus, Zirkel), "This

8800-401: The text is composed of three distinct voices. The first belongs to Qoheleth as the prophet, the "true voice of wisdom", which speaks in the first person, recounting wisdom through his own experience. The second voice belongs to Qoheleth as the king of Jerusalem, who is more didactic and thus speaks primarily in second-person imperative statements. The third voice is that of the epilogist ( i.e. ,

8900-405: The themes of Ecclesiastes: whether it is positive and life-affirming, or deeply pessimistic ; whether it is coherent or incoherent, insightful or confused, orthodox or heterodox; whether the ultimate message of the book is to copy Kohelet, "the wise man," or to avoid his errors. At times, Kohelet raises deep questions; he "doubted every aspect of religion, from the very ideal of righteousness, to

9000-493: The three verses of the Priestly Blessing , the Mishna is from tractate Peah , about commandments that have no fixed measures, including the mitzvah of Peah, and of learning Torah ), and the passage from the Gemara is from this tractate, BT Shabbat 127a, about the reward for good deeds in this world and the next. The second chapter of the Mishna of this tractate, called Ba'meh Madlikin ("With what may we light?"),

9100-564: The time of the Mishnah. As one of the distinguishing features of Jewish society from ancient times, the Talmud views Shabbat observance as an institution upholding basic teachings of Judaism – belief in God's acts of creation , God's role in history, and God's covenant with Israel – and after the loss of Jewish sovereignty and the destruction of the Temple by the Romans in the first century CE , as

9200-547: The two iterations of the Fourth Commandment prohibiting creative work in Exodus 20:7–10 and Deut 5:12–14 , other actions such as desisting from weekday pursuits ( Isaiah 58:13–14 ) or carrying ( Jeremiah 17:21–22 ), and numerous other references. Jewish law relating to Shabbat and the activities prohibited on Shabbat in particular, are the primary subject matter of this tractate. Prohibited actions derived from

9300-473: The verb, so that Kohelet would mean '(female) assembler' in the active case (recorded as such by Strong's Concordance ), and '(female) assembled, member of an assembly' in the passive case (as per the Septuagint translators). According to the majority understanding today, the word is a more general ( mishkal , מִשְׁקָל ) form rather than a literal participle, and the intended meaning of Kohelet in

9400-419: The views of different rabbis. Do certain authorities differ or not? If they do, why do they differ? If a principle is presented as a generalization, the Gemara clarifies how much is included; if an exception, how much is excluded. Demonstrating how the Mishnah's rulings or disputes derive from interpretations of Biblical texts, the Gemara will often ask where in the Torah the Mishnah derives

9500-515: The work. Their discussions were eventually documented in a series of books, which would come to be known as the Gemara. The Gemara, when combined with the Mishnah, forms the full Talmud. There are two versions of the Gemara: the Babylonian Talmud (Talmud Bavli) and the Jerusalem Talmud (Talmud Yerushalmi). The Babylonian Talmud, compiled by scholars in Babylonia around 500 CE and primarily from

9600-621: Was forbidden, while the followers of Rabbinic Judaism , who accepted the authority of the Oral Tradition, held that the verse excluded kindling on the Sabbath but not the use of a light that had been lit before the Sabbath began. Immediately following this chapter, in the Ashkenazi liturgy, but not the Sephardi, additional passages from the Babylonian Talmud are recited, including a paragraph from tractate Shabbat (12a), quoting Rabbi Haninah saying that one should examine one's clothing on

9700-413: Was probably familiar with examples from Egypt and Mesopotamia. He may also have been influenced by Greek philosophy, specifically the schools of Stoicism , which held that all things are fated, and Epicureanism , which held that happiness was best pursued through the quiet cultivation of life's simpler pleasures. The presence of Ecclesiastes in the Bible is something of a puzzle, as the common themes of

9800-446: Was that the words of the epilogue, in which the reader is told to fear God and keep his commands, made it orthodox; but all later attempts to find anything in the rest of the book that would reflect this orthodoxy have failed. A modern suggestion treats the book as a dialogue in which different statements belong to different voices, with Kohelet himself answering and refuting unorthodox opinions, but there are no explicit markers for this in

9900-483: Was written by King Solomon in his old age (an alternative tradition that " Hezekiah and his colleagues wrote Isaiah , Proverbs , the Song of Songs and Ecclesiastes" probably means simply that the book was edited under Hezekiah), but critical scholars have long rejected the idea of a pre-exilic origin. According to Christian tradition, the book was probably written by another Solomon ( Gregory of Nyssa wrote that it

10000-506: Was written by another Solomon; Didymus the Blind wrote that it was probably written by several authors ). The presence of Persian loanwords and numerous Aramaisms points to a date no earlier than about 450 BCE, while the latest possible date for its composition is 180 BCE, when the Jewish writer Ben Sira quotes from it. The dispute as to whether Ecclesiastes belongs to the Persian or

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