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70-767: The Australian Trade and Investment Commission ( Austrade ) has 80 global offices, employing diplomatically accredited Trade Commissioners and large teams of highly experienced local staff. The Brazilian Trade Promotion and Investment Sector (SECOM) employs both Brazilian citizens and foreign nationals with this title. The Canadian Trade Commissioner Service has over 160 offices in Canada and abroad, employing both Canadian citizens and foreign nationals with this title. The following international organizations have commissioners for trade and related issues: Austrade The Australian Trade and Investment Commission , or Austrade ( / ˈ ɒ z ˌ t r eɪ d / OZ -trayd ),

140-512: A "paternalistic vision" of "defending and reforming China." This vision defined China in terms of two struggles, first, a Chinese domestic struggle between progressive reform and feudal inertia, and the second an international struggle which pitted the "selfish imperialism" of Britain, Russia, and Japan against the supposedly benevolent policies of the United States. Over the next decades, American diplomats, missionaries, and businessmen took

210-543: A Vietnamese spy chief to secure contracts for printing banknotes. Open Door Policy The Open Door Policy ( Chinese : 門戶開放政策 ) is the United States diplomatic policy established in the late 19th and early 20th century that called for a system of equal trade and investment and to guarantee the territorial integrity of Qing China . The policy was created in U.S. Secretary of State John Hay 's Open Door Note , dated September 6, 1899, and circulated to

280-524: A business in Australia. Austrade also assists international buyers to source goods and services from Australia or to identify strategic Australian business partners. Areas of development such as mining which has historically elevated Australia's economy continue to be a main policy objective for Austrade moving forward. Austrade's role includes the international marketing and promotion of Australian education and training. Austrade co-ordinates and promotes

350-456: A correspondent with offshore initiatives with regions such as Latin America and South Asia describes how an extensive review found that Austrade was too ambitious in priorities and did not direct engage enough with growth markets. Brewer (2010) says that Austrade's focus on tackling large economies led to the program employing “aspirational” targets that were not tangible within an organisation in

420-510: A fee-for-service basis. Organising initiatives with other countries that share attuned roadmaps to growth has been necessary in expanding Austrade's global footprint. Landis (2012) explains Austrade's new streamlined structure following reforms due to the difficulty exporters faced accessing foreign markets. Introduced in 2011, Austrade has moved from regional to global management with oversight of its international network based in Sydney. Landis,

490-414: A focus on transitioning these respective industries or at the very minimum restructuring them. The restructuring would provide potential jobs for Australian's following the development and export of manufactured goods. This historical overview is closely related the transformation of China's economy to a heavy manufacturing based industry. With tourism being a growing and significant export, in 2013 Austrade

560-746: A more contemporary and sustainable Austrade and to deliver greater value for the business community and for the Government". On 23 March 2016, the Trade Legislation Amendment Act (No. 1) 2016 was passed, which amended various acts to facilitate the agency's name change from "Australian Trade Commission" to "Australian Trade and Investment Commission", with the governing act title also changed accordingly to "Australian Trade and Investment Commission Act 1985". Schedvin provides further historical insight in his Emissaries of trade piece on how legislation has changed over time whereby

630-488: A national network of offices and TradeStart locations in metropolitan and regional areas, operating in partnership with Australian state and territory governments, industry associations and regional development bodies. Austrade was established in 1986 initially tasked with coordinating and facilitating the country's export promotion schemes (Fletcher, as cited in Chung and Mascitelli, 2017, p. 417). Since then, it lies at

700-786: A special interest in China, many of them envisioning that China would follow the American example. However these dreams proved difficult to realize. American investments, while considerable, did not reach major proportions; the Open Door policy could not protect China against Japanese interference, first the Manchurian Incident of 1931, then the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945), and Chinese leaders, while willing to seek American aid, were not willing to play

770-415: A sprawling bureaucracy. Before Lindsay MacAlister ( who was a former GE Australia Manager ) was appointed as the managing director of Austrade, most of the employees that were in the main civil servants had limited or no business understanding. His appointment marked a significant change in the commission's culture. However, there have been difficulties in managing Austrade in that its "effectiveness depends on

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840-406: A volatile global economy. This often involves helping remove external barriers that prohibit international expansion and initiating long term trade agreements or exchange programs. There are many export sectors that Austrade pools its resources toward from mining to education. From a historical perspective, Downey (2005) details the process of nurturing Australia's export shares globally and highlights

910-563: Is described as one of the most ambitious changes on the government trade promotion landscape since the creation of the Trade Commissioner Service in 1933 (Nicholls, as cited in Chung and Mascitelli, 2017, p. 417). There are four separate government entities under the original export promotion scheme, including a segment of the Department of Trade, Trade Commissioner Service, Export Finance Insurance Corporation and

980-427: Is held to an extremely high standard for the prospective economic growth it has garnered through opportunities; especially for a small nation such as Australia. Mascitelli (2015) writes that at the time of its establishment only 137 out of 1327 staff were Trade Commissioners, outlining  the fact that it has become a blueprint for developing commissions under limited resources and personnel as well as being absent from

1050-791: Is made for general information which includes extensive online information, though fees may be required for specific tailored advice. Austrade provides information and advice to assist Australian companies in exporting goods and services to markets including Asia, Africa, Latin America, the Middle East and Russia. For Australian exporters and education providers, Austrade has a comprehensive mix of information and customised services to assist doing business within overseas markets and to understand foreign regulations and business practices. Historically, Austrade has concentrated most of its initiatives in North America, Western Europe and Japan due to

1120-780: Is part of the Foreign Affairs and Trade portfolio. Under Austrade's corporate structure, its chief executive officer is accountable to the Federal Minister for Tourism, Trade and Investment . Mr Xavier Simonet was appointed chief executive officer of Austrade in November 2020. Through a global network of offices, Austrade aims to assist Australian companies to connect with buyers in offshore markets, attract foreign direct investment into Australia, and promote Australia's education sector internationally. In Australia, Austrade's services and programs are delivered through

1190-435: Is responsible for the promotion, attraction and facilitation of productive foreign direct investment (FDI) into Australia, and is the first national point of contact for all investment enquiries. Services to international companies are free, comprehensive and confidential. Working in partnership with Australian state and territory governments, Austrade provides international investors with information needed to establish or expand

1260-723: Is the Australian Government's trade, investment and education promotion agency which was also given responsibility for tourism policy, programs and research from 2013. Austrade was established under the Australian Trade Commission Act 1985. It is a non-corporate Commonwealth entity under the Public Governance, Performance and Accountability Act 2013 , and a statutory agency under the Public Service Act 1999 . Austrade

1330-727: The Philippine Islands , the United States increased its Asian presence and expected to further its commercial and political interests in China. It felt threatened by other powers' much larger spheres of influence in China and worried that it might lose access to the Chinese market if it were to be partitioned. As a response, William Woodville Rockhill formulated the Open Door Policy to safeguard American business opportunities and other interests in China. On September 6, 1899, U.S. Secretary of State John Hay sent notes to

1400-666: The Qing dynasty China after the First Opium War (1839–1842) which included most favored nation provisions designed to keep any one nation from gaining an advantage. The concept was seen at the Berlin Conference of 1885, which declared that no power could levy preferential duties in the Congo . As a concept and policy, the Open Door Policy was a principle that was never formally adopted via treaty or international law. It

1470-473: The "Exporting for the Future" initiative whereby he lists key indicators of Australia's growth: These indicators remain relevant to Australia's continued reliance on their huge export base in sectors such as mining. Austrade provides advice to exporters on prospective markets and opportunities; on-the-ground support in target countries; trade exhibitions; and assistance in finding potential investors. No charge

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1540-608: The 1930s depression which saw an unprecedented need for aggregate demand stimulation. Between 2004 and 2006, Austrade reportedly granted special access privileges and funds totalling $ 394,009 to the fraudulent company Firepower International , which also provided employment to two former senior Austrade managers in Europe and Russia. The agency denied Firepower had received special treatment. However, perceived legitimation of Firepower's activities by Austrade undoubtedly helped promote tens of millions of dollars in fraudulent share sales to

1610-410: The 20th and 21st centuries, scholars such as Christopher Layne in the neorealist school have generalized the use of the term to applications in 'political' open door policies and 'economic' open door policies of nations in general, which interact on a global or international basis. The theory of the Open Door Policy originated with British commercial practice, as reflected in treaties concluded with

1680-469: The Australian context due to its position of being a government agency that works alongside businesses with the aim of developing their international competitiveness. Historically, this relationship is considered rare due to the changing government policy stances regarding how much export orientated activity it should undergo. The broader objective of Austrade is to enable service exporters to thrive in

1750-422: The Australian economy through trade initiatives in the form of export programs. This sentiment was the main proponent that allowed for the expansion of the commission as a substitute for more flexible tariff and exchange rate policies. An overview of Austrade's broader vision has reveals concerns have arisen regarding what exactly role Austrade was supposedly created for. Charles Jameson, who was managing director at

1820-575: The Australian public "without proper disclosure documents in breach of the Corporations Act". Possibly because of the close involvement of senior diplomats and politicians, including then prime minister John Howard and senior minister Julie Bishop , in the scandal, Austrade did not initiate prosecutions against Tim Johnston and other Firepower principals, as it had previously done against relatively minor perceived offenders such as Western Australian town planner and inventor Paul Ritter , who

1890-478: The Commonwealth government initially took over the responsibility from independent agencies in the 1920s before Austrade's official enactment in 1985. However, broader criticism emerged from commercial interests which led to the experiment being discontinued as a result of the government's inapt legislation to provide a suitable legal framework. Approximately a decade onward, it was revived in an attempt to cure

1960-504: The Export Market Development Grant scheme (Dawkins, as cited in Chung and Mascitelli, 2017, p. 417). Dawkins was a key proponent for focusing on markets that needed assistance and has stressed the importance of directing attention to sunrise industries in order to help them compete on a global scale. According to Ferris in Chung and Mascitelli (2017), under these goals; the Australian economy and many around

2030-470: The Hawke government in 1983 meant an inevitable change in Australia's approach toward trade. The first structural change of both the trade commissioner service and the department of trade was a resource shift from the trade portfolio to create a new department. This specialisation resulted in the formation of a resources and energy sector led by former senator Peter Walsh and deputy prime minister Lionel Bowen. As

2100-421: The Open Door Policy as a basic doctrine, and Chinese diplomats appealed to it as they sought American support, but critics pointed out that the policy had little practical effect. The term "Open Door" also describes the economic policy initiated by Deng Xiaoping in 1978 to open China to foreign businesses that wanted to invest in the country. The policy set into motion the economic transformation of China. In

2170-491: The Open Door Policy refers to the new policy announced by Deng Xiaoping in December 1978 to open the door to foreign businesses that wanted to set up in China. Special Economic Zones (SEZ) were set up in 1980 in his belief that to modernize China's industry and boost its economy, he needed to welcome foreign direct investment. Chinese economic policy then shifted to encouraging and supporting foreign trade and investment. It

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2240-470: The Open Door Policy, competition continued abated among the various powers for special concessions within China for railroad rights, mining rights, loans, foreign trade ports, and so forth. On October 6, 1900, Britain and Germany signed the Yangtze Agreement to oppose the partition of China into spheres of influence. The agreement, signed by Lord Salisbury and Ambassador Paul von Hatzfeldt ,

2310-591: The United States and Japan. There were renewed assurances that the Open Door Policy would be respected, but the United States would recognize Japan's special interests in China (the Lansing–Ishii Agreement ). The Open Door Policy had been further weakened by a series of secret treaties in 1917 between Japan and the Allied Triple Entente that promised Japan the German possessions in China after

2380-461: The United States and became the world's biggest trading nation in goods, with a total for imports and exports valued at US$ 4.16 trillion for the year. On 21 July 2020, Chinese Communist Party general secretary Xi Jinping made a speech to a group of public and private business leaders at the entrepreneur forum in Beijing. Xi emphasized that "We must gradually form a new development pattern with

2450-511: The United States policy had consistently maintained fundamental principles, "which include the doctrine of the Open Door...." Since the policy effectively hindered Chinese sovereignty, the government of the Republic of China endeavored to revise the related treaties with foreign powers in the 1920s and 1930s. However, only after the conclusion of World War II would China manage to regain its full sovereignty. In China's modern economic history,

2520-451: The acting minister for trade, Bowen was tasked with his first economic portfolio and at the time he showed limited interest in growing the economy through trade policy. Instead, Bowen remained adamant that the political legitimacy of the department of trade was in fact in question. Jim Cairns who was the preceding minister echoed these same sentiments albeit to a much lesser extent. Bowen and many of his ministerial colleagues insisted that trade

2590-511: The average annual rate of trade expansion was above 15 percent, and a high rate of growth continued for the next decade. In 1978, its exports in the world market share was negligible and in 1998, it still had less than 2%, but by 2010, it had a world market share of 10.4% according to the World Trade Organization (WTO), with merchandise export sales of more than $ 1.5 trillion, the highest in the world. In 2013, China overtook

2660-479: The barriers preventing entry. Access to global markets is reliant on a multitude of chained issues including reputation, financial risk including market volatility, short-term contracts, loss of intellectual property and limited opportunity. Among Australian firms, foreign direct investment (FDI) has evolved into an increasingly popular solution to bypass these restrictions. Preceding Downey's view on export expansion theories, O’Byrne (2002) goes into further detail about

2730-627: The brand programs "Future Unlimited" which advertises Australian education and training institutions, and "Australia Unlimited" which promotes awareness of Australian skills and capabilities. It previously co-ordinated the "Building Brand Australia" program, a 4-year, A$ 20-million program to promote Australia's credentials as a "global citizen, global business partner and world class destination". Austrade provides information, support and grants to tourism businesses. Austrade's Tourism Research Australia provides free statistics, information and insights and can provide specific tourism research and analysis on

2800-496: The closeness of the working relationship between government – basically the trade minister – and the organisation's leadership" (Adams, as cited in Chung and Mascitelli, 2017, p. 419). Schedvin (2008) references the environment within which the Trade Commissioner Service operated changing fundamentally and permanently in the 1970s as a sign of the inevitable shift that Austrade similarly experienced. Facilitating investment, particularly within industries of potential growth lies at

2870-547: The country, which set into motion the economic transformation of modern China. With its defeat in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895), China faced an imminent threat of being partitioned and colonized by imperial powers with a presence in China (which included France, Germany, Britain, Italy, Japan, and Russia). After winning the Spanish–American War of 1898, with the newly acquired territory of

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2940-415: The domestic internal circulation as the main body and the domestic and international dual circulations mutually promoting each other." Since then "internal circulation" became a hot word in China. Some Chinese worry that the emphasis of "internal circulation"signals returning to 1960s-era seclusion, and ending of open door policy. Scholars such as Christopher Layne in the neorealist school have generalized

3010-524: The evolution of Austrade. Austrade played a role in the production of Emissaries of trade and it was eventually published under the auspices of the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade. Schedvin, appointed lead researcher of the case study, states that Austrade has had a lengthy and complex history. His analysis begins from fundamental trade theory where it was common for state and colonial governments to appoint commercial agents and trade commissioners in hopes of resolving economic volatility. The election of

3080-491: The export marketing costs they incur. The scheme supports a wide range of industry sectors and products, including inbound tourism and the export of intellectual property. Established under the Australian Trade Commission Act 1985 , Austrade is a prescribed agency subject to the Financial Management and Accountability Act 1997 and the Public Service Act 1999 . Austrade operates as a statutory authority within

3150-438: The forefront of both Australia's bilateral and multilateral trade agreements and is also tasked with organising policies on imports. This extended role since its establishment has increased the international competitiveness of Australian businesses post globalisation, a vision arranged by John Dawkins, former Trade Minister under the Hawke government. Austrade has allowed for countries to be economically integrated more than ever and

3220-403: The forefront of what Austrade is widely known for. An era of globalisation which has shifted many developing economies' primary industry (a notable example is China which transitioned from agriculture to manufacturing) has meant a focus on developing competitive industries is advised as a key growth model for any modern economy. Chung and Mascitelli highlight Austrade's unique and dynamic role in

3290-716: The framework of globalisation, Austrade has found unique expertise in assisting partner markets by providing contacts, market intelligence for individual jurisdictions and networks on the ground. Austrade provides online information on export financing and other government financial assistance programs. It also administers the Export Market Development Grant (EMDG) Scheme, the Australian Government's financial assistance program for aspiring and current exporters, which encourages small and medium-sized Australian businesses to enter into and develop export markets. Under this scheme, eligible businesses are reimbursed for part of

3360-474: The largest Asian market) which implemented their renowned Open Door Policy in 1978 in hopes of attracting new investment ventures. Menadue was confident that Australia "had an urban business culture that was addicted to protection. It had its back to the outside world and looked internally to the Australian market". He insisted that there was too much of a focus on the development and promotion of export markets for minerals and farm produce when there should be

3430-677: The long run and that they were simply publicising unrealistic prospects. This overlocking of significant resources pooled into already established markets such as Europe and the US did more harm than good because exporters did not require Australia's help as much as sunrise industries in emerging markets. Similar to Landis, Piper (2012) outlines the obvious potential for trade and investment between Australia and Latin America. Austrade's efforts to engage with regions such as that of Latin America has been eased by an increasing number of companies realising how successful business could be conducted regionally. Within

3500-570: The major European powers. In order to prevent the " carving of China like a melon ", as they were doing in Africa , the Note asked the powers to keep China open to trade with all countries on an equal basis and called upon all powers, within their spheres of influence to refrain from interfering with any treaty port or any vested interest, to permit Chinese authorities to collect tariffs on an equal basis, and to show no favors to their own nationals in

3570-421: The major powers (France, Germany, Britain, Italy, Japan, and Russia) to ask them to declare formally that they would uphold Chinese territorial and administrative integrity and they would not interfere with the free use of the treaty ports in their spheres of influence in China. The Open Door Policy stated that all nations, including the United States, could enjoy equal access to the Chinese market. Hay's logic

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3640-443: The matter of harbor dues or railroad charges. The policy was accepted only grudgingly, if at all, by the major powers, and it had no legal standing or enforcement mechanism. In July 1900, as the powers contemplated intervention to put down the violently anti-foreign Boxer uprising , Hay circulated a Second Open Door Note affirming the principles. Over the next decades, American policy-makers and national figures continued to refer to

3710-964: The maturity of their economies. This has allowed for the Australian economy to engage in international trade through programs such as the Export Market Development Grants scheme, aimed at developing support for exporters by organising free trade agreements. Other initiatives include Australia International Education 2025 to bolster opportunities for international students to study abroad and the Tourism 2020 Implementation Plan which will help strengthen one of Australia's most important industries. Eligible companies may apply for an Export Market Development Grant which provides funding for small to medium exporters for eligible promotional expenses. A range of newsletters, webinars and in person events and activities are available to businesses with many strongly promoted via social media. Austrade

3780-781: The passive role that the Open Door implied. In 1902, the U.S. government protested that the Russian incursion into Manchuria after the Boxer Rebellion was a violation of the Open Door Policy. When Japan replaced Russia in southern Manchuria after the Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905) the Japanese and American governments pledged to maintain a policy of equality in Manchuria. In 1905–1907 Japan made overtures to enlarge its sphere of influence to include Fujian . Japan

3850-527: The portfolio of Foreign Affairs and Trade, its chief executive officer reporting directly to the Minister for Trade and Investment . From its establishment until 30 June 2006, Austrade was governed by a board. As a result of a report by John Uhrig AC published in June 2003, the board was replaced from 1 July 2006 by a chief executive officer. In 2011, changes were made to programs and services "to create

3920-426: The result can be characterised as leakages in the economy being filled at a timely manner. The 1960s saw the establishment of a global network of offices. It is important to note that the original focus placed upon regulating instability within the balance of payments has shifted over time to boundaries beyond Austrade. The balance of payments is not to be confused with the fundamental objective of Austrade in stimulating

3990-766: The successful conclusion of World War I. The subsequent realization of the promise in the 1919 Versailles Treaty angered the Chinese public and sparked the protest known as the May Fourth Movement . The Nine-Power Treaty , signed in 1922, expressly reaffirmed the Open Door Policy. In 1949, the United States State Department issued the China White Paper , a selection of official documents on United States-China relations, 1900–1949. The introductory "Letter of Transmittal," signed by Secretary of State Dean Acheson , asserted that

4060-492: The time (1986) was mainly concerned that there was little to no background of the commission's history, especially when it came to preceding contemporary trade commissioners. Preceding Austrade's formation, economic prospects were under unprecedented scrutiny from high stagflation following the sharp recession from 1982 to 1983. Thus, it was founded with high expectations and backed by a dynamic and coordinated Trade Commissioner Service. In terms of its international impact, Austrade

4130-471: The use of the term to applications in 'political' open door policies and 'economic' open door policies of nations in general, which interact on a global or international basis. William Appleman Williams , considered as the foremost member of the "Wisconsin School" of diplomatic history , departed from the mainstream of U.S. historiography in the 1950s by arguing that the United States was more responsible for

4200-417: The world have naturally shifted their dependence on agriculture and slowly transitioned to manufacturing, following a similar journey to China's economic breakthrough. Former managing director of Austrade Charles Jamieson initiated Emissaries of trade: a history of the Australian trade commissioner service in 2001. The objective of this independent research report was to develop a single consolidated history of

4270-415: Was an endorsement of the Open Door Policy. The Germans supported it because a partition of China would limit Germany to a small trading market, instead of all of China. The policy built popular sympathy for China and raised hopes for a vast "China market" and American influence in China's development. The effect of the policy was partly diplomatic, but it also reflected what the historian Michael Hunt calls

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4340-586: Was given the responsibility for Commonwealth Government tourism policy and programs and the Tourism Research Australia organisation was also transferred to it. Following World War II, both Doug Anthony and John McEwen who were instrumental in Austrade's rapid growth saw an opportunity to target the issue of Australia's balance of payments as the forefront of broader objectives. Policy objectives were achieved whenever difficulties emerged and

4410-503: Was imprisoned in the late 1980s on charges of making inappropriate export-grant applications. It has been alleged that Austrade officials knew about alleged bribes paid by officials from the Reserve Bank of Australia's Securency scandal . RBA subsidiaries were involved in bribing overseas officials so that Australia might win lucrative polymer note-printing contracts, and it has been alleged that Austrade officials knew of payments to

4480-478: Was invoked or alluded to but never enforced as such. The policy collapsed in 1931 when the Japanese seized and kept Manchuria , despite international disapproval. Technically, the term Open Door Policy is applicable only before the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949. After Deng Xiaoping took power in 1978, the term referred to China's policy of opening up to foreign business that wanted to invest in

4550-508: Was made before globalisation took the international stage and propelled nations to take part in bilateral and multilateral trade agreements. An important observation is that Menadue was an internationalist who showed a keen interest in Asian markets. Former ambassador to Japan in 1977, the time he spent there reinforced his calling for the Australian economy to open up. The timing of this although not coincidentally aligns with that of China (globally

4620-528: Was only to fulfill the political and economic interests of the National Party. Schedvin admits that this belief has reason in a theoretical sense. Other changes in leadership of the department of trade revolved around the position of secretary which later became available after Jim Scully retired in late 1983. Of the candidates, John Menadue filled the position as a member with an extensive knowledge of private industry and public service. This appointment

4690-410: Was that American economic power would then be able to dominate the Chinese market and fend off other foreign competitors. In reply, each country tried to evade Hay's request by taking the position that it could not commit itself until the other nations had complied. However, by July 1900, Hay announced that each of the powers had granted its consent in principle. Although treaties after 1900 referred to

4760-422: Was the first to be established and showed the most rapid growth, averaging a very high growth rate of 40% per annum between 1981 and 1993, compared to the average GDP growth of 9.8% for the country as a whole. Other SEZs were set up in other parts of China. In 1978, China was ranked 32nd in the world in export volume, but by 1989, it had doubled its world trade and became the 13th exporter. Between 1978 and 1990,

4830-545: Was the turning point in China's economic fortune, which started its way on the path to becoming 'The World's Factory'. Four SEZs were initially set up in 1980: Shenzhen , Zhuhai and Shantou in Guangdong , and Xiamen in Fujian . The SEZs were strategically located near Hong Kong , Macau , and Taiwan but with a favorable tax regime and low wages to attract capital and business from these Chinese communities. Shenzhen

4900-474: Was trying to obtain French loans and also avoid the Open Door Policy. Paris provided loans on condition that Japan respect the Open Door principles and not violate China's territorial integrity. In finance, American efforts to preserve the Open Door Policy led in 1909 to the formation of an international banking consortium through which all Chinese railroad loans agreed in 1917 to another exchange of notes between

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