Performance-enhancing substances ( PESs ), also known as performance-enhancing drugs ( PEDs ), are substances that are used to improve any form of activity performance in humans.
90-436: Chemical Neurological Transhumanism is a philosophical and intellectual movement that advocates the enhancement of the human condition by developing and making widely available new and future technologies that can greatly enhance longevity, cognition, and well-being. Transhumanist thinkers study the potential benefits and dangers of emerging technologies that could overcome fundamental human limitations, as well as
180-428: A perfectionist ethical imperative for humans to strive for progress and improvement of the human condition, but that it is possible and desirable for humanity to enter a transhuman phase of existence in which humans enhance themselves beyond what is naturally human. In such a phase, natural evolution would be replaced with deliberate participatory or directed evolution . Some theorists such as Ray Kurzweil think that
270-543: A pulmonary embolism or stroke. Per the WADA, it is a banned substance. Urine samples can be tested via electrophoresis , and blood samples via indirect markers. Gene doping agents are a relatively recently described class of athletic performance-enhancing substances. These drug therapies, which involve viral vector -mediated gene transfer , are not known to currently be in use as of 2020 . Also known as anabolic steroid precursors, they promote lean body mass . Once in
360-455: A complex textual development due to these changes. The overall tones of these changes portray a move away from pure reason, yielding more towards the emotive feelings of mankind. Peter Kropotkin, in his article on "Anarchism" for The Encyclopedia Britannica discusses the revisions from a far-left perspective, criticizing how new versions seemed to retract earlier, more radical, positions concerning property: Speaking of property, he stated that
450-595: A desire among athletes to use testosterone. In 1967, the first prohibited substance list and anti-doping measures were implemented at the 1968 Olympics. In the 1980s, the main PEDs were cortisone and anabolic steroids . In 1988, the United States Congress established the Anti-Drug Abuse Act to criminalize the distribution and possession of non-medical anabolic steroids. In 1999, WADA
540-730: A diet consisting of dried figs which was thought, at the time, to be a significant factor in winning the 200-yard stade race. Ancient Greek athletes at the time also incorporated substances such as wine and brandy into their training routines. Stimulants derived from plants (e.g., Cola nitida , Bufotein , etc.) were used by the Roman gladiators to overcome injuries and fatigue. In the late 19th century as modern medicine and pharmacology were developing, PEDs saw an increase in use. Supplements were now exclusively being used to enhance muscular work capacity. The main substances being used included alcoholic drinks , caffeine, and mixtures created by
630-571: A linear manner, then disease, famine, poverty and vice are inevitable. Consequently, Malthus criticised Political Justice for expounding unachieveable utopianism. In 1820 Godwin answered with Of Population: An Enquiry Concerning the Power of Increase in the Numbers of Mankind which disputed Malthus' population growth predictions. The work merited a place in Peter Kropotkin's overview of
720-477: A parliament was Giuseppe Vatinno , in Italy. It is a matter of debate whether transhumanism is a branch of posthumanism and how this philosophical movement should be conceptualised with regard to transhumanism. The latter is often referred to as a variant or activist form of posthumanism by its conservative , Christian and progressive critics. A common feature of transhumanism and philosophical posthumanism
810-697: A particularly high risk, with those involved in gridiron football, basketball, wrestling, baseball, and gymnastics at the top. In sports, the term performance-enhancing drugs is popularly used in reference to anabolic steroids or their precursors (hence the colloquial term steroids ); anti-doping organizations apply the term broadly. Agencies such as the WADA and United States Anti-Doping Agency try to prevent athletes from using these drugs by performing drug tests. When medical exemptions are granted they are called therapeutic use exemptions . Enquiry Concerning Political Justice Enquiry Concerning Political Justice and its Influence on Morals and Happiness
900-522: A rebranding effort, the WTA changed its name to " Humanity+ ". In 2012, the transhumanist Longevity Party had been initiated as an international union of people who promote the development of scientific and technological means to significant life extension that now has more than 30 national organisations throughout the world. The Mormon Transhumanist Association was founded in 2006. By 2012, it had hundreds of members. The first transhumanist elected member of
990-493: A significant milestone in human history, celebrated its 175th anniversary on October 16, 2021. It was on this day that dentist William T. G. Morton achieved a groundbreaking feat by administering the first public ether anesthesia in Boston. This breakthrough not only allowed for the alleviation of pain with a reasonable level of risk but also helped protect people from psychological trauma by inducing unconsciousness . There
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#17327919557281080-492: A society in which human beings use their reason to decide the best course of action. The very existence of governments, even those founded through consensus, demonstrates that people cannot yet regulate their conduct by the dictates of reason. Godwin argued that the link between politics and morality had been severed and he wanted to restore it. McCann explains that in Godwin's vision, "as public opinion develops in accordance with
1170-1064: A tool for transcending humanness. Performance-enhancing substances Many substances, such as anabolic steroids , can be used to improve athletic performance and build muscle, which in most cases is considered cheating by organized athletic organizations. This usage is often referred to as doping . Athletic performance-enhancing substances are sometimes referred to as ergogenic aids . Cognitive performance-enhancing drugs, commonly called nootropics , are sometimes used by students to improve academic performance. Performance-enhancing substances are also used by military personnel to enhance combat performance. The classifications of substances as performance-enhancing substances are not entirely clear-cut and objective. As in other types of categorization , certain prototype performance enhancers are universally classified as such (like anabolic steroids ), whereas other substances (like vitamins and protein supplements) are virtually never classified as performance enhancers despite their effects on performance. As
1260-576: A whole. The concept of the technological singularity , or the ultra-rapid advent of superhuman intelligence, was first proposed by the British cryptologist I. J. Good in 1965: Let an ultraintelligent machine be defined as a machine that can far surpass all the intellectual activities of any man however clever. Since the design of machines is one of these intellectual activities, an ultraintelligent machine could design even better machines; there would then unquestionably be an "intelligence explosion," and
1350-530: A wide range of perspectives, including philosophy and religion. In 2017, Penn State University Press , in cooperation with philosopher Stefan Lorenz Sorgner and sociologist James Hughes , established the Journal of Posthuman Studies as the first academic journal explicitly dedicated to the posthuman, with the goal of clarifying the notions of posthumanism and transhumanism, as well as comparing and contrasting both. Despite its professed strong attachment to
1440-453: Is ... first and foremost a critique of political institutions . Its vision of human perfectibility is anarchist in so far as it sees government and related social practices such as property monopoly, marriage and monarchy as restraining the progress of mankind." Godwin believed that government "insinuates itself into our personal dispositions, and insensibly communicates its own spirit to our private transactions". Instead, Godwin proposes
1530-541: Is a 1793 book by the philosopher William Godwin , in which the author outlines his political philosophy . It is the first modern work to elucidate anarchism . Godwin began thinking about Political Justice in 1791, after the publication of Thomas Paine's Rights of Man in response to Edmund Burke's Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790). However, unlike most of the works that Burke's work spawned in
1620-580: Is a variety of opinions within transhumanist thought. Many of the leading transhumanist thinkers hold views that are under constant revision and development. Some distinctive currents of transhumanism are identified and listed here in alphabetical order: Although many transhumanists are atheists , agnostics , and/or secular humanists , some have religious or spiritual views. Despite the prevailing secular attitude, some transhumanists pursue hopes traditionally espoused by religions, such as immortality , while several controversial new religious movements from
1710-415: Is constantly undone by actual forms of public action and political life, which for Godwin end up dangerously subsuming the individual into the collective." For example, Godwin criticizes public speeches because they rely on sentiment and the printing press because it can perpetuate dogma as well as enlighten. The work begins with a list of eight principles which are expounded throughout the work. Generally,
1800-418: Is debate about whether the philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche can be considered an influence on transhumanism, despite its exaltation of the Übermensch (overhuman), due to its emphasis on self-actualization rather than technological transformation. The transhumanist philosophies of More and Sorgner have been influenced strongly by Nietzschean thinking. By contrast, The Transhumanist Declaration "advocates
1890-575: Is general insertion into both the somatic cells of living beings and in germ cells, and not purging of people without the modifications, deeming the latter not only unethical but also unnecessary due to the possibilities of efficient genetic engineering. Transhumanists engage in interdisciplinary approaches to understand and evaluate possibilities for overcoming biological limitations by drawing on futurology and various fields of ethics. Unlike many philosophers, social critics, and activists who morally value preservation of natural systems, transhumanists see
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#17327919557281980-536: Is generally regarded as the founder of transhumanism after using the term for the title of an influential 1957 article. But the term derives from a 1940 paper by the Canadian philosopher W. D. Lighthall. Huxley describes transhumanism in these terms: Up till now human life has generally been, as Hobbes described it, "nasty, brutish and short"; the great majority of human beings (if they have not already died young) have been afflicted with misery… we can justifiably hold
2070-694: Is more important than transmission of information via evolution , may be the point at which human civilization becomes unstable and self-destructs, one of Hawking's explanations for the Fermi paradox . To counter this, Hawking emphasizes either self-design of the human genome or mechanical enhancement (e.g., brain-computer interface ) to enhance human intelligence and reduce aggression , without which he implies human civilization may be too stupid collectively to survive an increasingly unstable system, resulting in societal collapse . While many people believe that all transhumanists are striving for immortality , that
2160-763: Is not necessarily true. Hank Pellissier, managing director of the Institute for Ethics and Emerging Technologies (2011–2012), surveyed transhumanists. He found that, of the 818 respondents, 23.8% did not want immortality. Some of the reasons argued were boredom, Earth's overpopulation, and the desire "to go to an afterlife". Certain transhumanist philosophers hold that since all assumptions about what others experience are fallible, and that therefore all attempts to help or protect beings that are incapable of correcting what others assume about them, no matter how well-intentioned, are in danger of actually hurting them, all sentient beings deserve to be sapient . These thinkers argue that
2250-416: Is the future vision of a new intelligent species, into which humanity will evolve and which eventually will supplement or supersede it. Transhumanism stresses the evolutionary perspective, including sometimes the creation of a highly intelligent animal species by way of cognitive enhancement (i.e. biological uplift ), but clings to a "posthuman future" as the final goal of participant evolution. Nevertheless,
2340-420: Is used responsibly. For example, Bostrom has written extensively on existential risks to humanity's future welfare, including ones that emerging technologies could create. In contrast, some proponents of transhumanism view it as essential to humanity's survival. For instance, Stephen Hawking points out that the "external transmission" phase of human evolution, where knowledge production and knowledge management
2430-486: Is usual with categorization, there are borderline cases; caffeine , for example, is considered a performance enhancer by some but not others. The phrase has been used to refer to several distinct classes of drugs: Anabolic steroids are synthetically derived from testosterone and modified to have greater anabolic effects. They work by increasing the concentration of nitrogen in the muscle which inhibits catabolic glucocorticoid binding to muscle. This ultimately prohibits
2520-563: Is worse than the evils they pretend to cure. The surviving holograph manuscript for Political Justice is held in the Forster Collection at the Victoria and Albert Museum , along with several other works by Godwin. Following Godwin's death in 1836, many of the writer's manuscripts were bought at auction by the collector Dawson Turner . In 1859 the texts for Political Justice , Caleb Williams , Life of Chaucer , and History of
2610-514: The Fountain of Youth , the Elixir of Life , and other efforts to stave off aging and death. Transhumanists draw upon and claim continuity from intellectual and cultural traditions such as the ancient philosophy of Aristotle or the scientific tradition of Roger Bacon . In his Divine Comedy , Dante coined the word trasumanar meaning "to transcend human nature, to pass beyond human nature" in
2700-468: The Material and Man section of the manifesto, Noboru Kawazoe suggests that: After several decades, with the rapid progress of communication technology, every one will have a "brain wave receiver" in his ear, which conveys directly and exactly what other people think about him and vice versa. What I think will be known by all the people. There is no more individual consciousness, only the will of mankind as
2790-974: The World Anti-Doping Agency 's banned list. Nootropics, or "cognition enhancers", are substances that are claimed to benefit overall cognition by improving memory (e.g., increasing working memory capacity or updating) or other aspects of cognitive control (e.g., inhibitory control , attentional control , attention span , etc.). Allows performance beyond the usual pain threshold. Some painkillers raise blood pressure , increasing oxygen supply to muscle cells . Painkillers used by athletes range from common over-the-counter medicines such as NSAIDs (such as ibuprofen ) to powerful prescription narcotics . Sedatives and anxiolytics are used in sports like archery which require steady hands and accurate aim, and also to overcome excessive nervousness or discomfort for more dangerous sports. Diazepam , nicotine, and propranolol are common examples. Ethanol ,
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2880-467: The adrenergic receptors . Examples of stimulants include caffeine , ephedrine , methylphenidate and amphetamine . Potential side effects include hypertension, insomnia , headaches , weight loss , arrhythmia , tremors , anxiety , addiction, and strokes . Some stimulants are allowed in competitive sports and are widely accessible, though may also be monitored by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), such as caffeine. Others are banned as per
2970-531: The ethics of using such technologies. Some transhumanists speculate that human beings may eventually be able to transform themselves into beings of such vastly greater abilities as to merit the label of posthuman beings. Another topic of transhumanist research is how to protect humanity against existential risks from artificial general intelligence , asteroid impact, gray goo , high-energy particle collision experiments, natural or synthetic pandemic, and nuclear warfare. The biologist Julian Huxley popularised
3060-585: The libertarian right and the liberal left resulted in a more centre-leftward positioning of the WTA under its former executive director James Hughes . In 2006, the board of directors of the Extropy Institute ceased operations of the organization, saying that its mission was "essentially completed". This left the World Transhumanist Association as the leading international transhumanist organization. In 2008, as part of
3150-476: The pace of technological innovation is accelerating and that the next 50 years may yield not only radical technological advances, but possibly a technological singularity , which may fundamentally change the nature of human beings. Transhumanists who foresee this massive technological change generally maintain that it is desirable, but some are concerned about the dangers of extremely rapid technological change and propose options for ensuring that advanced technology
3240-524: The British geneticist J. B. S. Haldane in his essay Daedalus: Science and the Future , which predicted that great benefits would come from the application of advanced sciences to human biology—and that every such advance would first appear to someone as blasphemy or perversion, "indecent and unnatural". In particular, he was interested in the development of the science of eugenics , ectogenesis (creating and sustaining life in an artificial environment), and
3330-627: The Commonwealth of England were all acquired by John Forster , who died in 1876. Forster's will stipulated that his extensive collection should be given to the South Kensington Museum after his wife's death. In the event, Eliza Ann Forster transferred the Godwin manuscripts to the Museum straight away. The V&A's manuscripts for Political Justice and Caleb Williams were both digitised in 2017 and are now included in
3420-728: The Earth's gravity as they head into space. FM-2030 and Vita-More soon began holding gatherings for transhumanists in Los Angeles , which included students from FM-2030's courses and audiences from Vita-More's artistic productions. In 1982, Vita-More authored the Transhumanist Arts Statement and in 1988 she produced the cable TV show TransCentury Update on transhumanity, a program that reached over 100,000 viewers. In 1986, Eric Drexler published Engines of Creation : The Coming Era of Nanotechnology, which discussed
3510-708: The WADA (e.g., cocaine , amphetamines , ephedrine, etc.). Ergogenic aids, or athletic performance-enhancing substances, include a number of drugs with various effects on physical performance. Drugs such as amphetamine and methylphenidate increase power output at constant levels of perceived exertion and delay the onset of fatigue, among other athletic-performance-enhancing effects; bupropion also increases power output at constant levels of perceived exertion, but only during short-term use. Adaptogens are plants that support health through nonspecific effects, neutralize various environmental and physical stressors while being relatively safe and free of side effects. As of 2008,
3600-424: The WTA (later Humanity+ ), gave two formal definitions for transhumanism: In possible contrast with other transhumanist organizations, WTA officials considered that social forces could undermine their futurist visions and needed to be addressed. A particular concern is equal access to human enhancement technologies across classes and borders. In 2006, a political struggle within the transhumanist movement between
3690-406: The ability to discuss in a falsification-based way constitutes a threshold that is not arbitrary at which it becomes possible for someone to speak for themself in a way that is independent of exterior assumptions. They also argue that all beings capable of experiencing something deserve to be elevated to this threshold if they are not at it, typically saying that the underlying change that leads to
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3780-618: The application of genetics to improve human characteristics such as health and intelligence. His article inspired academic and popular interest. J. D. Bernal , a crystallographer at Cambridge , wrote The World, the Flesh and the Devil in 1929, in which he speculated on the prospects of space colonization and radical changes to human bodies and intelligence through bionic implants and cognitive enhancement . These ideas have been common transhumanist themes ever since. The biologist Julian Huxley
3870-476: The athletic trainers (e.g., strychnine tablets made of cocaine and brandy ). In the 20th century, testosterone was isolated and characterized by scientists. In 1941, the first record of synthesized testosterone use occurred when a horse was given testosterone which successfully improved its race performance. Sports trainers soon after began advocating for testosterone use. Images of bodybuilders with massive muscles began circulating which further perpetuated
3960-403: The belief that these lands of possibility exist, and that the present limitations and miserable frustrations of our existence could be in large measure surmounted… The human species can, if it wishes, transcend itself—not just sporadically, an individual here in one way, an individual there in another way, but in its entirety, as humanity. Huxley's definition differs, albeit not substantially, from
4050-409: The body, these precursors are converted to testosterone and increase endogenous testosterone. The desired effects of steroid precursors however, are often not seen as they do not bind well to androgen receptors . Examples of prohormones include norandrostendione , androstenediol , and dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) . These steroids have little desired effect compared to anabolic steroids, but have
4140-1006: The breakdown of muscle and preserves muscle mass. Examples of anabolic steroids include: oxandrolone , stanozolol and nandrolone . Anabolic steroids can be taken through a transdermal method, orally, or through injection. Injectable forms of the steroid are the most potent and long-lasting. In general, potential side effects include: muscle hypertrophy , acne , hypertension , elevated cholesterol , thrombosis , decreased high-density lipoproteins , altered libido , hepatic carcinoma , cholestasis , peliosis hepatitis , septic arthritis , Wilm's tumor , psychosis , aggression , addiction , and depression . Potential side effects specifically in males include: male pattern baldness , oligospermia , prostate hypertrophy , testicular atrophy , and prostate cancer . Potential side specifically in females include: hirsutism , uterine atrophy , amenorrhea , breast atrophy , and thickening of vocal cords (voice deepening). Urine samples are tested to determine
4230-404: The concept of the specifically natural as problematically nebulous at best and an obstacle to progress at worst. In keeping with this, many prominent transhumanist advocates, such as Dan Agin, call transhumanism's critics, on the political right and left jointly, " bioconservatives " or " bioluddites ", the latter term alluding to the 19th-century anti-industrialisation social movement that opposed
4320-420: The dictates of reason, so too should political institutions change until, finally, they will wither away altogether, leaving the people to organize themselves into what would be a direct democracy ." Godwin believed that the public could be rational; he wrote: "Opinion is the most potent engine that can be brought within the sphere of political society. False opinion, superstition and prejudice, have hitherto been
4410-527: The early 1980s at the University of California, Los Angeles , which became the main center of transhumanist thought. Here, FM-2030 lectured on his " Third Way " futurist ideology. At the EZTV Media venue, frequented by transhumanists and other futurists, Natasha Vita-More presented Breaking Away , her 1980 experimental film with the theme of humans breaking away from their biological limitations and
4500-484: The ensuing Revolution Controversy , Godwin's did not address the specific political events of the day; it addressed the underlying philosophical principles. Its length and expense (it cost over £1) made it inaccessible to the popular audience of the Rights of Man and probably protected Godwin from the persecution that other writers such as Paine experienced. Nevertheless, Godwin became a revered figure among radicals and
4590-519: The first canto of Paradiso . The interweaving of transhumanist aspirations with the scientific imagination can be seen in the works of some precursors of Enlightenment such as Francis Bacon . One of the early precursors to transhumanist ideas is René Descartes 's Discourse on Method (1637), in which Descartes envisions a new kind of medicine that can grant both physical immortality and stronger minds. In his first edition of Political Justice (1793), William Godwin included arguments favoring
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#17327919557284680-500: The first modern defense and articulation of anarchism. The book was revered by the first generation of Romantic poets , such as William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge , although they would later turn away from radicalism. However, as Romantic scholar Andrew McCann explains, "it is in the radicalism of Percy Shelley 's work that Godwin's thinking exerted its greatest influence on the Romantic movement, and ... Shelley's work
4770-528: The form of the Principles of Extropy, and laid the foundation of modern transhumanism by giving it a new definition: Transhumanism is a class of philosophies that seek to guide us towards a posthuman condition. Transhumanism shares many elements of humanism, including a respect for reason and science, a commitment to progress, and a valuing of human (or transhuman) existence in this life. [...] Transhumanism differs from humanism in recognizing and anticipating
4860-539: The globe, transhumanism is distinctive in its particular focus on the applications of technologies to the improvement of human bodies at the individual level. Many transhumanists actively assess the potential for future technologies and innovative social systems to improve the quality of all life , while seeking to make the material reality of the human condition fulfill the promise of legal and political equality by eliminating congenital mental and physical barriers . Transhumanist philosophers argue that there not only exists
4950-504: The history of anarchism that he wrote for The Encyclopedia Britannica. It was Godwin, in his Enquiry concerning Political Justice (2 vols., 1793), who was the first to formulate the political and economical conceptions of anarchism, even though he did not give that name to the ideas developed in his remarkable work. Laws, he wrote, are not a product of the wisdom of our ancestors: they are the product of their passions, their timidity, their jealousies and their ambition. The remedy they offer
5040-489: The human body in quest of more exquisite ways of being. The philosophy of transhumanism is closely related to technoself studies , an interdisciplinary domain of scholarly research dealing with all aspects of human identity in a technological society and focusing on the changing nature of relationships between humans and technology. You awake one morning to find your brain has another lobe functioning. Invisible, this auxiliary lobe answers your questions with information beyond
5130-518: The humanist freethought movement and argue that transhumanists differ from the humanist mainstream by having a specific focus on technological approaches to resolving human concerns (i.e. technocentrism ) and on the issue of mortality. Other progressives have argued that posthumanism, in its philosophical or activist forms, amounts to a shift away from concerns about social justice , from the reform of human institutions and from other Enlightenment preoccupations, toward narcissistic longings to transcend
5220-410: The idea of creating intelligent artificial beings (proposed, for example, by roboticist Hans Moravec ) has influenced transhumanism. Moravec's ideas and transhumanism have also been characterised as a "complacent" or " apocalyptic " variant of posthumanism and contrasted with " cultural posthumanism " in humanities and the arts. While such a "cultural posthumanism" would offer resources for rethinking
5310-484: The intellectual groundwork for the British philosopher Max More to begin articulating the principles of transhumanism as a futurist philosophy in 1990, organizing in California a school of thought that has since grown into the worldwide transhumanist movement. Influenced by seminal works of science fiction , the transhumanist vision of a transformed future humanity has attracted many supporters and detractors from
5400-468: The intelligence of man would be left far behind. Thus the first ultraintelligent machine is the last invention that man need ever make. Computer scientist Marvin Minsky wrote on relationships between human and artificial intelligence beginning in the 1960s. Over the succeeding decades, this field continued to generate influential thinkers, such as Hans Moravec and Ray Kurzweil , who oscillated between
5490-844: The late 20th century have explicitly embraced transhumanist goals of transforming the human condition by applying technology to alter the mind and body, such as Raëlism . But most thinkers associated with the transhumanism focus on the practical goals of using technology to help achieve longer and healthier lives, while speculating that future understanding of neurotheology and the application of neurotechnology will enable humans to gain greater control of altered states of consciousness , which were commonly interpreted as spiritual experiences , and thus achieve more profound self-knowledge . Transhumanist Buddhists have sought to explore areas of agreement between various types of Buddhism and Buddhist-derived meditation and mind-expanding neurotechnologies. They have been criticised for appropriating mindfulness as
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#17327919557285580-573: The most common gendered risk factors include being an adolescent female dissatisfied with their body weight or an adolescent male who perceives larger body sizes as the ideal. Having a negative body image or a history of depression can also be a significant risk factor. These are further exacerbated by parental pressures surrounding appearance, media influence, and peer pressure. Studies show that adolescent males who engage with fitness magazines are twice as likely to use performance-enhancing substances. Adolescents who partake in competitive sports are at
5670-588: The most commonly used substance by athletes, can be used for cardiovascular improvements though has significant detrimental effects. Ethanol was formerly banned by WADA during performance for athletes performing in aeronautics, archery, automobile, karate, motorcycling and powerboating, but was taken off the ban list in 2017. It is detected by breath or blood testing . Cannabis is banned at all times for an athlete by WADA, though performance-enhancing effects have yet to be studied. Cannabis and nicotine are detected through urine analysis . Blood doping agents increase
5760-485: The one commonly in use since the 1980s. The ideas raised by these thinkers were explored in the science fiction of the 1960s, notably in Arthur C. Clarke 's 2001: A Space Odyssey , in which an alien artifact grants transcendent power to its wielder. Japanese Metabolist architects produced a manifesto in 1960 which outlined goals to "encourage active metabolic development of our society" through design and technology. In
5850-445: The other, and may by consequence of lower physical health and ability, be considered of a lower moral standing than the other. Nick Bostrom has said that transhumanism advocates for the wellbeing of all sentient beings, including non-human animals , extraterrestrials , and artificial forms of life. This view is reiterated by David Pearce , who advocates the use of biotechnology to eradicate suffering in all sentient beings . There
5940-428: The oxygen-carrying capacity of blood beyond the individual's natural capacity. They are used in endurance sports like long-distance running, cycling, and Nordic skiing. Recombinant human erythropoietin (rhEPO) is one of the most widely known drugs in this class. The Athlete Biological Passport is the only indirect testing method for detection of blood doping. Erythropoietin, or EPO, is a hormone that helps increase
6030-936: The position of the European Medicines Agency was that "The principle of an adaptogenic action needs further clarification and studies in the pre-clinical and clinical area. As such, the term is not accepted in pharmacological and clinical terminology that is commonly used in the EU." Actoprotectors or synthetic adaptogens are compounds that enhance an organism's resilience to physical stress without increasing heat output. Actoprotectors are distinct from other doping compounds in that they increase physical and psychological resilience via non-exhaustive action. Actoprotectors such as bemethyl and bromantane have been used to prepare athletes and enhance performance in Olympic competition. However, only bromantane has been placed on
6120-414: The possibility of "earthly immortality " (what would now be called physical immortality ). Godwin explored the themes of life extension and immortality in his gothic novel St. Leon , which became popular (and notorious) at the time of its publication in 1799, but is now mostly forgotten. St. Leon may have inspired his daughter Mary Shelley 's novel Frankenstein . Ether Day , marking
6210-499: The present, should occupy the first rank in the thoughts of the friend of man is enquiry, communication, discussion." Godwin thus believed in individuals' desire to reason sincerely and truthfully with each other. In the 20th century, Jürgen Habermas developed this idea further. However, paradoxes and contradictions surface throughout Political Justice . As McCann explains, "a faith in the ability of public opinion to progress towards enlightenment, based on its own exercise of reason,
6300-436: The principles can each be summarized as follows: Godwin's Enquiry Concerning Political Justice has various editions. The editions were published in Godwin's lifetime. Due to Godwin's continuous revision of the text, three editions were released. The first edition was published in 1793, the second edition in 1796 and the third edition in 1798. Each of these editions was published by G.G and J. Robinson. Political Justice has
6390-407: The production of red blood cells which increases the delivery of oxygen to muscles. It is commonly used among endurance athletes such as cyclists. It functions by protecting red blood cells against destruction whilst simultaneously stimulating bone marrow cells to produce more red blood cells. Potential side effects include: dehydration and an increase in blood viscosity which could result in
6480-712: The prospects for nanotechnology and molecular assemblers , and founded the Foresight Institute . As the first nonprofit organization to research, advocate for, and perform cryonics , the Southern California offices of the Alcor Life Extension Foundation became a center for futurists. In 1988, the first issue of Extropy Magazine was published by Max More and Tom Morrow. In 1990, More, a strategic philosopher, created his own particular transhumanist doctrine, which took
6570-476: The radical alterations in the nature and possibilities of our lives resulting from various sciences and technologies [...]. In 1992, More and Morrow founded the Extropy Institute , a catalyst for networking futurists and brainstorming new memeplexes by organizing a series of conferences and, more importantly, providing a mailing list, which exposed many to transhumanist views for the first time during
6660-840: The ratio of testosterone glucuronide to epitestosterone glucuronide, which should be 3:1. Any ratio of 4:1 or greater is considered a positive test. The 1988 Anti-Drug Abuse Act and 1990 Anabolic Steroid Act both deemed anabolic steroids as an illegal substance when not used for disease treatment. Stimulants improve focus and alertness. Low (therapeutic) doses of dopaminergic stimulants (e.g., reuptake inhibitors and releasing agents ) also promote mental and athletic performance, as cognitive enhancers and ergogenic aids respectively, by improving muscle strength and endurance while decreasing reaction time and fatigue. Stimulants are commonly used in lengthy exercises that require short bursts (e.g., tennis, team sports, etc.). Stimulants work by increasing catecholamine levels and agonistic activity at
6750-431: The realm of your own memory, suggests plausible courses of action, and asks questions that help bring out relevant facts. You quickly come to rely on the new lobe so much that you stop wondering how it works. You just use it. This is the dream of artificial intelligence. While many transhumanist theorists and advocates seek to apply reason, science and technology to reduce poverty, disease, disability, and malnutrition around
6840-472: The relationships between humans and increasingly sophisticated machines, transhumanism and similar posthumanisms are, in this view, not abandoning obsolete concepts of the " autonomous liberal subject ", but are expanding its " prerogatives " into the realm of the posthuman . Transhumanist self-characterisations as a continuation of humanism and Enlightenment thinking correspond with this view. Some secular humanists conceive transhumanism as an offspring of
6930-432: The replacement of human manual labourers by machines. A belief of counter-transhumanism is that transhumanism can cause unfair human enhancement in many areas of life, but specifically on the social plane. This can be compared to steroid use, where athletes who use steroids in sports have an advantage over those who do not . The same disparity may happen when people have certain neural implants that give them an advantage in
7020-483: The rights of every one ‘to every substance capable of contributing to the benefit of a human being’ must be regulated by justice alone: the substance must go ‘to him who most wants it’. His conclusion was communism. Godwin, however, had not the courage to maintain his opinions. He entirely rewrote later on his chapter on property and mitigated his communist views in the second edition of Political Justice (8vo, 1796). Godwin's Enquiry Concerning Political Justice presents
7110-530: The rise of cyberculture and the cyberdelic counterculture. In 1998, philosophers Nick Bostrom and David Pearce founded the World Transhumanist Association (WTA), an international non-governmental organization working toward the recognition of transhumanism as a legitimate subject of scientific inquiry and public policy . In 2002, the WTA modified and adopted The Transhumanist Declaration. The Transhumanist FAQ , prepared by
7200-545: The same side effects. Androstenedione in 2005 became classified as a controlled substance by WADA, however DHEA can still be obtained legally as an over-the-counter nutritional supplement. While the use of PEDs has expanded in recent times, the practice of using substances to improve performance has been around since the Ancient Olympic Games . In the Olympic Games of 668 BC, Charmis had consumed
7290-549: The technical arena and futuristic speculations in the transhumanist vein. The coalescence of an identifiable transhumanist movement began in the last decades of the 20th century. In 1972, Robert Ettinger , whose 1964 Prospect of Immortality founded the cryonics movement , contributed to the conceptualization of "transhumanity" with his 1972 Man into Superman. FM-2030 published the Upwingers Manifesto in 1973. The first self-described transhumanists met formally in
7380-409: The term "transhumanism" in a 1957 essay. The contemporary meaning of the term was foreshadowed by one of the first professors of futurology , a man who changed his name to FM-2030 . In the 1960s, he taught "new concepts of the human" at The New School when he began to identify people who adopt technologies, lifestyles, and worldviews "transitional" to posthumanity as " transhuman ". The assertion laid
7470-401: The threshold is an increase in the preciseness of the brain's ability to discriminate. This includes increasing the neuron count and connectivity in animals as well as accelerating the development of connectivity to shorten or ideally skip non-sapient childhood incapable of independently deciding for oneself. Transhumanists of this description stress that the genetic engineering that they advocate
7560-535: The true supporters of usurpation and despotism . Enquiry, and the improvement of the human mind, are now shaking to the center those bulwarks that have so long held mankind in thraldom." Godwin was not a revolutionary in the vein of John Thelwall and the London Corresponding Society . A philosophical anarchist , he believed that change would come gradually and that there was no need for violent revolution. He argues that "the task which, for
7650-463: The values of liberalism and forward-thinking, some critics argue transhumanism is a dangerous resurgence of many discriminatory attitudes and elitist ideals of the discredited eugenics movements of the past. According to Nick Bostrom , transcendentalist impulses have been expressed at least as far back as the quest for immortality in the Epic of Gilgamesh , as well as in historical quests for
7740-670: The well-being of all sentience (whether in artificial intellects, humans, posthumans, or non-human animals)". The late 19th- to early 20th-century movement known as Russian cosmism , by Russian philosopher N. F. Fyodorov , is noted for anticipating transhumanist ideas. In 1966, FM-2030 (formerly F. M. Esfandiary), a futurist who taught "new concepts of the human" at The New School , in New York City , began to identify people who adopt technologies, lifestyles and worldviews transitional to posthumanity as " transhuman ". Fundamental ideas of transhumanism were first advanced in 1923 by
7830-409: The workplace and in education. Additionally, according to M.J. McNamee and S.D. Edwards, many fear that the improvements afforded by a specific, privileged section of society will lead to a division of the human species into two different species. The idea of two human species, one at a great physical and economic advantage over with the other, is troublesome at best. One may be incapable of breeding with
7920-444: Was formed to address the escalating use of substances in sports, particularly after the 1998 doping scandal in cycling. Adolescents are the most vulnerable group when it comes to taking performance-enhancing substances. This is in part due to the significance placed on physical appearance by this age group as well as feelings of invincibility combined with a lack of knowledge surrounding long-term consequences. Studies have shown that
8010-680: Was most central to the resurgence of radical sentiment after the end of the Napoleonic Wars." In 1798, the Reverend Thomas Malthus published An Essay on the Principle of Population , which was largely written as a refutation of the ideas of Godwin and the Marquis de Condorcet . Malthus argued that since population increases geometrically (i.e. doubling in size each generation), while production can only increase in
8100-751: Was seen as an intellectual leader among their groups. One way in which this happened is through the many unauthorized copies of the text, the extracts printed by radical journals, and the lectures John Thelwall gave based on its ideas. Despite being published during the French Revolution , the French Revolutionary Wars , and the lead up to the 1794 Treason Trials in Britain, Political Justice argues that humanity will inevitably progress: it argues for human perfectibility and enlightenment. McCann explains that " Political Justice
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