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102-451: (Redirected from Translation Movement ) Translation movement may refer to: Graeco-Arabic translation movement (9th–10th centuries) Arabo-Latin translation movement (12th century) The translation of Indian Buddhist texts into Chinese (2nd–11th centuries) The Great Translation Movement in response to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine (since February 2020) Topics referred to by

204-472: A complete mastery of Greek, which was the science language of the time. Hunayn's knowledge of Persian , Syriac, and Arabic exceeded that of previous prevalent translators, which enabled him to revise their erroneous renditions. Galen , Hippocrates , Plato , Aristotle , Dioscorides , and Ptolemy were just a few of many writers that Hunayn used for his translated publications of medical and philosophical expositions. These translated treatises, in turn, became

306-626: A condition, divide the patients into two groups, perform bloodletting only on one group, watch both, and compare the results." Astronomy in Islam was able to grow greatly because of several key factors. One factor was geographical: the Islamic world was close to the ancient lands of the Greeks, which held valuable ancient knowledge of the heavens in Greek manuscripts. During the new Abbasid Dynasty after

408-587: A long period of time the personal physicians of the Abbasid Caliphs were often Assyrian Christians . Among the most prominent Christian families to serve as physicians to the caliphs were the Bukhtishu dynasty. Throughout the 4th to 7th centuries, Christian scholarly work in the Greek and Syriac languages was either newly translated or had been preserved since the Hellenistic period. Among

510-470: A man deprived of sense experience by being blindfolded and free falling would still be aware of his existence. In epistemology , Ibn Tufail wrote the novel Hayy ibn Yaqdhan and in response Ibn al-Nafis wrote the novel Theologus Autodidactus . Both were concerning autodidacticism as illuminated through the life of a feral child spontaneously generated in a cave on a desert island . Persian mathematician Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī played

612-601: A massive area under the Islamic State, connecting societies and peoples previously isolated, invigorating trade routes and agriculture, and improving material wealth among subjects. The newfound regional stability under the Umayyad dynasty likely fostered higher literacy rates and a larger educational infrastructure. Syriac-speaking Christians and other Hellenistic Christian communities in Iraq and Iran were assimilated into

714-406: A method that could be generally used to determine the sum for any integral power. He used this to find the volume of a paraboloid . He could find the integral formula for any polynomial without having developed a general formula. Islamic art makes use of geometric patterns and symmetries in many of its art forms, notably in girih tilings. These are formed using a set of five tile shapes, namely

816-482: A mosque, boarding house, and a library. It was maintained by a waqf (charitable endowment), which paid salaries of professors, stipends of students, and defrayed the costs of construction and maintenance. The madrasa was unlike a modern college in that it lacked a standardized curriculum or institutionalized system of certification. Muslims distinguished disciplines inherited from pre-Islamic civilizations, such as philosophy and medicine, which they called "sciences of

918-431: A regular decagon , an elongated hexagon , a bow tie, a rhombus , and a regular pentagon . All the sides of these tiles have the same length; and all their angles are multiples of 36° (π/5 radians ), offering fivefold and tenfold symmetries. The tiles are decorated with strapwork lines (girih), generally more visible than the tile boundaries. In 2007, the physicists Peter Lu and Paul Steinhardt argued that girih from

1020-574: A result, this led to many new developments. When discussing the development of Arabic science, Greek heritage is an important area to cover. At the same time, in order to receive a complete understanding of Greek science there are parts that have only survived in Arabic that must also be taken into account. For example, Apollonius' Conics books V to VII and Diophantus' Arithmetica books IV to VII. The two listed are items of Greek origin that have only survived in their Arabic translation. The circumstance

1122-426: A significant role in the development of algebra , arithmetic and Hindu–Arabic numerals . He has been described as the father or founder of algebra . Another Persian mathematician, Omar Khayyam , is credited with identifying the foundations of Analytic geometry . Omar Khayyam found the general geometric solution of the cubic equation . His book Treatise on Demonstrations of Problems of Algebra (1070), which

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1224-507: A source of law in place of qiyas and extension of the notion of sunnah to include traditions of the imams . The body of substantive Islamic law was created by independent jurists ( muftis ). Their legal opinions ( fatwas ) were taken into account by ruler-appointed judges who presided over qāḍī 's courts, and by maẓālim courts, which were controlled by the ruler's council and administered criminal law. Classical Islamic theology emerged from an early doctrinal controversy which pitted

1326-457: A strong mindset and refused to let Yūhannā get in his way. He left Baghdad for several years, and during his absence he studied the history and language of Greek. When he returned, he displayed his newly acquired skills by being able to recite and translate the works of Homer and Galen . He began translating a large number of Galen's texts including “Anatomy of the Veins and Arteries”, “Anatomy of

1428-406: A student. Hunayn was a highly intelligent person who paid very close attention to detail and found many mistakes in his assigned medical textbooks, so would often ask difficult questions no one at his school had the answer to. Eventually, Yūhannā became so frustrated that he gave up his rights as his teacher and blatantly told Hunayn that he did not have the ability to pursue this career. Hunayn had

1530-455: A young age with study of Arabic and the Quran , either at home or in a primary school, which was often attached to a mosque. Some students would then proceed to training in tafsir (Quranic exegesis) and fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence), which was seen as particularly important. Education focused on memorization, but also trained the more advanced students to participate as readers and writers in

1632-576: Is believed to have translated over one hundred books, including the work On Anatomy of the Veins and Arteries by Galen. Due to the translation movement under al-Maʿmun, the House of Wisdom was one of the largest repositories of scientific and literary books in the world at the time and remained that way until the Siege of Baghdad in 1258 AD. The destruction and pillaging of Baghdad by the Mongols also included

1734-545: Is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Graeco-Arabic translation movement While the movement translated from many languages into Arabic, including Pahlavi , Sanskrit , Syriac , and Greek , it is often referred to as the Graeco-Arabic translation movement because it was predominantly focused on translating the works of Hellenistic scholars and other secular Greek texts into Arabic. The ninth king of

1836-508: Is likely legendary. When Muhammad died in 632, caliphs that were considered Rightly Guided Caliphs were chosen to lead the Empire of Islam, the information of the Quran was becoming more known in the surrounding civilizations. There was an expansion of the Islamic empire, leading to searching of multilingual teachers as well as people to translate and teach the Quran and the Arabic language. Later,

1938-562: Is listed in The Guinness Book Of Records as the world's oldest degree-granting university. The Al-Azhar University was another early madrasa now recognized as a university. The madrasa is one of the relics of the Fatimid caliphate. The Fatimids traced their descent to Muhammad's daughter Fatimah and named the institution using a variant of her honorific title Al-Zahra (the brilliant). Organized instruction in

2040-487: Is made up of lines of altitude and azimuth with an index, horizon, hour circle, zenith, Rete , star pointer, and equator to accurately show where the stars are at that given moment. Use of the astrolabe is best expressed in Al-Farghani 's treatise on the astrolabe due to the mathematical way he applied the instrument to astrology, astronomy, and timekeeping. The earliest known Astrolabe in existence today comes from

2142-450: Is obligatory upon every Muslim". This injunction was seen to apply particularly to scholars, but also to some extent to the wider Muslim public, as exemplified by the dictum of al-Zarnuji , "learning is prescribed for us all". While it is impossible to calculate literacy rates in pre-modern Islamic societies, it is almost certain that they were relatively high, at least in comparison to their European counterparts. Education would begin at

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2244-423: Is the same for the relationship between Latin and Greek science, which requires the analysis of Greek texts translated into Arabic and then into Latin. Translation entails viewpoints from one angle, the angle of the one performing the translation. The full analysis and journey of the translated pieces are key components in the overarching theme behind the piece. Islamic Golden Age The Islamic Golden Age

2346-422: The ahl al-hadith movement, led by Ahmad ibn Hanbal , who considered the Quran and authentic hadith to be the only acceptable authority in matters of faith, against Mu'tazilites and other theological currents, who developed theological doctrines using rationalistic methods. In 833 the caliph al-Ma'mun tried to impose Mu'tazilite theology on all religious scholars and instituted an inquisition ( mihna ), but

2448-721: The Al-Azhar Mosque began in 978. Arabic became a trade language . The Muslim-ruled Spanish capital of Córdoba , which surpassed Constantinople as the Europe 's largest city, also became a prominent world leading centre of education and learning producing numerous polymaths. Juristic thought gradually developed in study circles, where independent scholars met to learn from a local master and discuss religious topics. At first, these circles were fluid in their membership, but with time distinct regional legal schools crystallized around shared sets of methodological principles. As

2550-453: The Iberian peninsula (modern Spain and Portugal) in the 10th century. It was easier to manufacture than parchment , less likely to crack than papyrus , and could absorb ink, making it difficult to erase and ideal for keeping records. Islamic paper makers devised assembly-line methods of hand-copying manuscripts to turn out editions far larger than any available in Europe for centuries. It

2652-568: The Sasanian Empire , Shapur II , established the Academy of Gondishapur , which was to be a medical center, a library, as well as a college where various subjects like anatomy, theology, medicine, and philosophy would be studied. Later, Khosrow I established an observatory that could offer studies in dentistry, architecture, agriculture and irrigation, basics of commanding in military, astronomy, and mathematics. The Academy of Gondishapur

2754-680: The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy , translation of philosophical texts from Arabic to Latin in Western Europe "led to the transformation of almost all philosophical disciplines in the medieval Latin world". The influence of Islamic philosophers in Europe was particularly strong in natural philosophy, psychology and metaphysics, though it also influenced the study of logic and ethics. Ibn Sina argued his " Floating man " thought experiment concerning self-awareness , in which

2856-694: The Timurid Renaissance under the Timurid dynasty . With a new and easier writing system , and the introduction of paper , information was democratized to the extent that, for probably the first time in history, it became possible to make a living from only writing and selling books. The use of paper spread from China into Muslim regions in the eighth century through mass production in Samarkand and Khorasan , arriving in Al-Andalus on

2958-648: The Translation Movement for some translations is estimated to be equivalent to about twice the annual research budget of the United Kingdom's Medical Research Council . The best scholars and notable translators, such as Hunayn ibn Ishaq , had salaries that are estimated to be the equivalent of professional athletes today. The House of Wisdom was a library established in Abbasid -era Baghdad , Iraq by Caliph al-Mansur in 825 modeled after

3060-515: The academy of Jundishapur . During this period, the Muslims showed a strong interest in assimilating the scientific knowledge of the civilizations that had been conquered. Many classic works of antiquity that might otherwise have been lost were translated from Greek , Syriac , Middle Persian , and Sanskrit into Syriac and Arabic, some of which were later in turn translated into other languages like Hebrew and Latin . Christians , especially

3162-437: The law of sines is attributed; he wrote " The Book of Unknown Arcs of a Sphere " in the 11th century. This formula relates the lengths of the sides of any triangle, rather than only right triangles , to the sines of its angles. According to the law, where a , b , and c are the lengths of the sides of a triangle, and A , B , and C are the opposite angles (see figure). The earliest use of statistical inference

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3264-415: The "world's first true scientist". Avicenna made rules for testing the effectiveness of drugs, including that the effect produced by the experimental drug should be seen constantly or after many repetitions, to be counted. The physician Rhazes was an early proponent of experimental medicine and recommended using control for clinical research. He said: "If you want to study the effect of bloodletting on

3366-525: The 12th century resulted in a weakening of the Islamic empire from which it never recovered. Regarding the end of the Gola, Mohamad Abdalla argues the dominant approach by scholars is the "decline theory.": The golden age is considered to have come into existence through a gigantic endeavor to acquire and translate the ancient sciences of the Greeks between the eighth and ninth centuries. The translations era

3468-487: The 15th century resembled quasicrystalline Penrose tilings . Elaborate geometric zellige tilework is a distinctive element in Moroccan architecture . Muqarnas vaults are three-dimensional but were designed in two dimensions with drawings of geometrical cells. Jamshīd al-Kāshī 's estimate of pi would not be surpassed for 180 years. Ibn Muʿādh al-Jayyānī is one of the several Islamic mathematicians on whom

3570-579: The Abbasid period. During the 8th century, there was still no tradition of translating Greek works into Arabic. However, Christian scholars had been translating medical, philosophical, and other Greek works into the Syriac language for centuries. For this reason, the beginning of the translation movement involved the caliphs commissioning Christian scholars who had already established their own translation infrastructure to begin translating various Greek works into

3672-564: The Arabic tongue via Syriac intermediates. For example, one letter by the Patriarch Timothy I described how he himself had been commissioned to perform one of these translations of Aristotle. A famous example of one of these translators was the Christian Hunayn ibn Ishaq . In later periods, Muslim scholars built off of this infrastructure and gained the capacity to begin perform these translations themselves directly from

3774-512: The Arabic writings attributed to Jābir ibn Ḥayyān (written c. 850–950), would remain the basis of all theories of metallic composition until the eighteenth century. Likewise, the Emerald Tablet , a compact and cryptic text that all later alchemists up to and including Isaac Newton (1642–1727) would regard as the foundation of their art, first occurs in the Sirr al-khalīqa and in one of

3876-498: The Greek originals and into Arabic. The Abbasid period encompassed one of the very critical markers in the movement's history, that is, the translation of the central texts of the Islamic religion, in this case, the Quran. The translation movement in the Arab World was greatly supported under the Islamic rule, and led to the translation of materials to Arabic from different languages like middle Persian. The translation movement

3978-583: The Greek texts as outlines used to fix the weaknesses and finish what they left unfinished. Translating also meant new information could be added in, while some could potentially be taken out depending on what the translator's goal was. Another example of this is found in the Arabic translator's approach to Ptolemy 's astronomy in the Almagest . The Almagest was critiqued and modified by Arabic astronomers for many generations. The modifications were made based on Greek thought, most coming from Aristotle . As

4080-453: The Greek, Persian, and Indian civilizations. The translation process in the House of Wisdom was very meticulous. Depending on the area of study of a certain book that was being translated, a specific person or group of people would be responsible for those translations. In example, the translation of engineering and mathematical works was overseen by Abū Jaʿfar Ibn Mūsa Ibn Shākir and his family, translations of philosophy and celestial movement

4182-633: The House of Wisdom is a story of many successes. In 750 AD, the Abbasids overthrew the Umayyad Caliphate, becoming the ruling power in the Islamic world. In 762 AD, Abu Jaʿfar Abdallah ibn Muhammad al-Mansur , the second Abbasid Caliph, decided to move the capital of the empire to his newly built city of Baghdad in Iraq from Damascus, which was in Syria. Al-Mansur was very cognizant of the need to cultivate intellect and wanted to advance and magnify

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4284-772: The Islamic period. It was made by Nastulus in 927-28 AD and is now a treasure of the Kuwait National Museum . In about 964 AD, the Persian astronomer Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi , writing in his Book of Fixed Stars , described a "nebulous spot" in the Andromeda constellation , the first definitive reference to what is now known to be the Andromeda Galaxy , the nearest spiral galaxy to the Milky Way . The geocentric system developed by Ptolemy placed

4386-530: The Muscles”, “Anatomy of the Nerves”, “On Sect”, and many more in the upcoming future. Everyone was astonished at his amazing talent especially Yūhannā, so the two reconciled and would later collaborate on several occasions. Hunayn, his son Ishaq, his nephew Hubaysh, and fellow colleague Isa ibn Uahya became very involved in translating medicinal and science texts. This led to the beginning of Hunayn's success into

4488-730: The Persian contribution to this new Islamic civilization is of immense importance. The work of Iranians can be seen in every field of cultural endeavor, including Arabic poetry, to which poets of Iranian origin composing their poems in Arabic made a very significant contribution." While cultural influence used to radiate outward from Baghdad, after the Mongol destruction of the Abbasid Caliphate, Arab influence decreased. Iran and Central Asia, benefiting from increased cross-cultural access to East Asia under Mongol rule , flourished and developed more distinctively from Arab influence, such as

4590-557: The Quran and hadith. The classical theory of Islamic jurisprudence elaborates how scriptures should be interpreted from the standpoint of linguistics and rhetoric. It also comprises methods for establishing authenticity of hadith and for determining when the legal force of a scriptural passage is abrogated by a passage revealed at a later date. In addition to the Quran and sunnah, the classical theory of Sunni fiqh recognizes two other sources of law: juristic consensus ( ijmaʿ ) and analogical reasoning ( qiyas ). It therefore studies

4692-402: The Quran would be incorporated into one language. A polyglot who was considered to be fluent in almost all the targeted languages was regarded as among the greatest translators during that time. He majored in the medical field. Through a hand from his son, Ishaq Hunayn, as well as his nephew, Habash, he translated more than ninety-five pieces of Galen, almost fifteen pieces of Hippocrates, about

4794-592: The Syriac or Arabic language onto a new manuscript. Hunayn, his son Ishaq Ibn Hunayn, his nephew Hubaysh Ibn al-Hasan al-Aʿsam, and fellow colleague Isa Ibn Uahya became very involved in working together on translating medicinal , science , and philosophical texts. Ishaq and Hunayn were important contributors in Hunayn's translations and active members of his school. His son mastered the Greek , Arabic , and Syriac language to be able to follow into father's footsteps. At

4896-712: The adherents of the Church of the East ( Nestorians ), contributed to Islamic civilization during the reign of the Umayyads and the Abbasids by translating works of Greek philosophers and ancient science to Syriac and afterwards to Arabic . They also excelled in many fields, in particular philosophy , science (such as Hunayn ibn Ishaq , Yusuf Al-Khuri , Al Himsi , Qusta ibn Luqa , Masawaiyh , Patriarch Eutychius , and Jabril ibn Bukhtishu ) and theology . For

4998-559: The ancients" or "rational sciences", from Islamic religious sciences. Sciences of the former type flourished for several centuries, and their transmission formed part of the educational framework in classical and medieval Islam. In some cases, they were supported by institutions such as the House of Wisdom in Baghdad, but more often they were transmitted informally from teacher to student. The University of Al Karaouine , founded in 859 AD,

5100-507: The application and limits of analogy, as well as the value and limits of consensus, along with other methodological principles, some of which are accepted by only certain legal schools. This interpretive apparatus is brought together under the rubric of ijtihad , which refers to a jurist's exertion in an attempt to arrive at a ruling on a particular question. The theory of Twelver Shia jurisprudence parallels that of Sunni schools with some differences, such as recognition of reason ( ʿaql ) as

5202-413: The area of translation. Under the rule of Abu al-Abbas Abdallah ibn Harun al-Rashid (better known as al-Maʿmun) the House of Wisdom thrived, acquiring a large amount of support and recognition. Al-Maʿmun would send scholars all over the civilized world to retrieve scientific and literary works to be translated. The head translator at the time, Hunayn ibn Ishaq al-Ibadi, who was a Christian Arab of al-Hira ,

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5304-420: The attempts to impose a caliphal writ in matters of religious orthodoxy ultimately failed. This controversy persisted until al-Ash'ari (874–936) found a middle ground between Mu'tazilite rationalism and Hanbalite literalism, using the rationalistic methods championed by Mu'tazilites to defend most substantive tenets maintained by ahl al-hadith . A rival compromise between rationalism and literalism emerged from

5406-555: The backbone of Arabic Science. As he began his path into medicine in Baghdad , he had the privilege to study under one of the most renowned physicians in the city, Yūhannā ibn Māssawayh . Yūhannā and his colleagues dedicated their lives to the field of medicine. They showed little to no respect to the people of Hira where Hunayn was from because Hira was known to be a city flourished by commerce and banking rather than science and medicine. Due to this, he did not take Hunayn seriously as

5508-556: The beginning of his career, Hunayn was very critical of his son's work, and even corrected his Arabic translations of "On the Number of Syllogisms". However, Ishaq was more interested in philosophy and would go on to translate several famous philosophical writings such as That the Prime Mover is Immobile and pieces of Galen's On Demonstration . He continued his passion for translations even after his father's death in 873 AD. From

5610-559: The beginning of the Abbasid Period . However, many events and conditions during the rise of the Islamic empire helped to shape the setting and circumstances in which the movement blossomed. The Arab conquests before and during the Umayyad Period that spread into Southwest Asia, Persia, and Northeast Africa laid the groundwork for a civilization capable of fueling the Graeco-Arabic translation movement. These conquests united

5712-400: The boundaries of the schools became clearly delineated, the authority of their doctrinal tenets came to be vested in a master jurist from earlier times, who was henceforth identified as the school's founder. In the course of the first three centuries of Islam, all legal schools came to accept the broad outlines of classical legal theory, according to which Islamic law had to be firmly rooted in

5814-567: The caliphate, or to "six and a half centuries", while another would have it end after only a few decades of Rashidun conquests, with the death of Umar and the First Fitna . During the early 20th century, the term was used only occasionally and often referred to as the early military successes of the Rashidun caliphs . It was only in the second half of the 20th century that the term came to be used with any frequency, now mostly referring to

5916-405: The caliphates is a convenient cut-off point based on a historical landmark, but it can be argued that Islamic culture had entered a gradual decline much earlier; thus, Khan (2003) identifies the proper golden age as being the two centuries between 750 and 950, arguing that the beginning loss of territories under Harun al-Rashid worsened after the death of al-Ma'mun in 833, and that the crusades in

6018-404: The cultural flourishing of science and mathematics under the caliphates during the 9th to 11th centuries (between the establishment of organised scholarship in the House of Wisdom and the beginning of the crusades ), but often extended to include part of the late 8th or the 12th to early 13th centuries. Definitions may still vary considerably. Equating the end of the golden age with the end of

6120-443: The decline theory has become the preferred paradigm in general academia. The various Quranic injunctions and Hadith (or actions of Muhammad ), which place values on education and emphasize the importance of acquiring knowledge, played a vital role in influencing the Muslims of this age in their search for knowledge and the development of the body of science. The Islamic Empire heavily patronized scholars. The money spent on

6222-464: The destruction of the House of Wisdom, however, the books and other works inside were taken to Maragha by Hulagu Khan and Nasir al-Din al-Tusi. Abu Zaid Hunayn ibn Ishaq al-Ibadi was a profound Arab physician , philosopher , author and leading translator in the House of Wisdom . He was born at Hira (Iraq) in 809 AD and spent most of his youth in Basra where he learned Arabic and Syriac. He

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6324-469: The end of the Islamic Golden Age as late as the end of 15th to 16th centuries, including the rise of the Islamic gunpowder empires . The metaphor of a golden age began to be applied in 19th-century literature about Islamic history , in the context of the western aesthetic fashion known as Orientalism . The author of a Handbook for Travelers in Syria and Palestine in 1868 observed that

6426-577: The essence of objects flows into the eyes. Alhazen correctly argued that vision occurred when light, traveling in straight lines, reflects off an object into the eyes. Al-Biruni wrote of his insights into light, stating that its velocity must be immense when compared to the speed of sound. The early Islamic period saw the establishment of some of the longest lived theoretical frameworks in alchemy and chemistry . The sulfur-mercury theory of metals , first attested in pseudo-Apollonius of Tyana's Sirr al-khalīqa ("The Secret of Creation", c. 750–850) and in

6528-738: The institution, and it placed its holder within a genealogy of scholars, which was the only recognized hierarchy in the educational system. While formal studies in madrasas were open only to men, women of prominent urban families were commonly educated in private settings and many of them received and later issued ijazas in hadith studies, calligraphy and poetry recitation. Working women learned religious texts and practical skills primarily from each other, though they also received some instruction together with men in mosques and private homes. Madrasas were devoted principally to study of law, but they also offered other subjects such as theology, medicine, and mathematics. The madrasa complex usually consisted of

6630-413: The medieval Islamic world include the synthesis of ammonium chloride from organic substances as described in the works attributed to Jābir, and Abū Bakr al-Rāzī's experiments with vitriol , which would eventually lead to the discovery of mineral acids like sulfuric acid and nitric acid by thirteenth century Latin alchemists such as pseudo-Geber . Al-Biruni (973–1050) estimated the radius of

6732-535: The middle of the eighth century to the end of the tenth century, a very large amount of non-literary and non-historical secular Greek books were translated into Arabic. These included books that were accessible throughout the Eastern Byzantine Empire and the near east, according to the documentation from a century and a half of Graeco-Arabic scholarship. The Greek writings from Hellenistic , Roman, and late antiquity times that did not survive in

6834-404: The most beautiful mosques of Damascus were "like Mohammedanism itself, now rapidly decaying" and relics of "the golden age of Islam". There is no unambiguous definition of the term, and depending on whether it is used with a focus on cultural or on military achievement, it may be taken to refer to rather disparate time spans. Thus, one 19th century author would have it extend to the duration of

6936-453: The movement of the capital in 762 AD to Baghdad, translators were sponsored to translate Greek texts into Arabic. This translation period led to many major scientific works from Galen , Ptolemy , Aristotle , Euclid , Archimedes , and Apollonius being translated into Arabic. From these translations previously lost knowledge of the cosmos was now being used to advance current astrological thinkers. The second key factor of astronomy's growth

7038-496: The names that come directly from Arabic origins or are the translations of Ptolemy's Greek descriptions which are still in use today. Alhazen played a role in the development of optics . One of the prevailing theories of vision in his time and place was the emission theory supported by Euclid and Ptolemy, where sight worked by the eye emitting rays of light, and the other was the Aristotelean theory that sight worked when

7140-448: The original Greek text were all vulnerable to the translator and the powers they had over them when completing the translation. It was not uncommon to come across Arabic translators who added their own thoughts and ideas into the translations. Ninth century Arab Muslim philosopher al-Kindi , for example, viewed Greek texts as a resource in which he was able to employ new ideas and methods off of, thus, re-inventing philosophy. Al-Kindi used

7242-564: The planets. One of the first to criticize this model was Ibn al-Haytham , a leader of physics in the 11th century in Cairo. Then in the 13th century Nasir al-Din al-Tusi constructed the Maragha Observatory in what is today Iran. Al-Tusi found the equant dissatisfying and replaced it by adding a geometrical technique called a Tusi-couple , which generates linear motion from the sum of two circular motions. Then, Ibn al-Shatir who

7344-585: The prominent centers of learning and transmission of classical wisdom were Christian colleges such as the School of Nisibis and the School of Edessa , the pagan center of learning in Harran , and the renowned hospital and medical Academy of Gondishapur, which was the intellectual, theological and scientific center of the Church of the East. Many scholars of the House of Wisdom were of Christian background and it

7446-577: The region with their knowledge and materials. These migrant scholars sought asylum in Persia, whose ruler actively ensured their safe passage out of Byzantium and supported their academic ambitions. Although Greek to Arabic translations were common during the Umayyad Period due to large Greek-speaking populations residing in the empire, the translation of Greek scientific texts was scarce. The Graeco-Arabic translation movement began, in earnest, at

7548-437: The same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Translation movement . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Translation_movement&oldid=1177255078 " Category : Disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description

7650-498: The scientific knowledge of the Arabs as they gathered knowledge and learned from Hellenistic and ancient Greek sources. Later, there was the introduction of the western culture to the Arabic translations that were preserved since most of their initial scripts could not be located. One of Muhammad 's contemporaries, an Arab doctor named Harith b. Kalada, is said to have studied in the medical academy at Gondeshapur, however this story

7752-399: The soul, and about generation as well as corruption. The Arabic language extensively expanded to reach communities in places such as Morocco and Andalusia and would later be adapted as their language that was regarded as official. The Umayyad caliphs greatly helped in translating science as well as arts, which gave out a long-term foundation for the Empire of Islam. While Islam expanded, there

7854-399: The status of the Islamic people and their culture. As a result, he established a library, the House of Wisdom, in Baghdad where scholars and students could study new material, formulate new ideas, transcribe literature of their own, and translate various works from around the world into the Arabic language. Al-Mansur's descendants were also active in the cultivation of intellect, especially in

7956-431: The structure of the empire. These Hellenized peoples were crucial in supporting a growing institutional interest in secular Greek learning. The Abbasid revolution and the move to a new capital in Baghdad introduced the ruling administration to a new set of demographic populations more influenced by Hellenism. At the same time, the ruling elite of the new dynasty strove to adopt a Sassanian Imperial Ideology, which itself

8058-457: The sun, moon, and other planets in orbit around the Earth. Ptolemy thought that the planets moved on circles called epicycles and that their centers rode on deferents . The deferents were eccentric , and the angular motion of a planet was uniform around the equant which was a point opposite the deferent center. Simply, Ptolemy's models were a mathematical system for predicting the positions of

8160-478: The tradition of commentary on the studied texts. It also involved a process of socialization of aspiring scholars, who came from virtually all social backgrounds, into the ranks of the ulema . For the first few centuries of Islam, educational settings were entirely informal, but beginning in the 11th and 12th centuries, the ruling elites began to establish institutions of higher religious learning known as madrasas in an effort to secure support and cooperation of

8262-439: The translation movement, where he interpreted the works of famous Greek and Arabic figures: Plato , Aristotle , Hippocrates , Galen , and Dioscorides . He was also constantly fixing defective manuscripts translated by other writers. Hunayn would collect different books based around the subject he was translating, and strove to make the text as clear as possible for readers. Because his translation methods were impeccable, it

8364-415: The ulema. Madrasas soon multiplied throughout the Islamic world, which helped to spread Islamic learning beyond urban centers and to unite diverse Islamic communities in a shared cultural project. Nonetheless, instruction remained focused on individual relationships between students and their teacher. The formal attestation of educational attainment, ijaza , was granted by a particular scholar rather than

8466-495: The work of al-Maturidi (d. c. 944), and, although a minority of scholars remained faithful to the early ahl al-hadith creed, Ash'ari and Maturidi theology came to dominate Sunni Islam from the 10th century on. Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and Ibn Rushd (Averroes) played a major role in interpreting the works of Aristotle, whose ideas came to dominate the non-religious thought of the Christian and Muslim worlds . According to

8568-449: The works attributed to Jābir. Substantial advances were also made in practical chemistry. The works attributed to Jābir, and those of the Persian alchemist and physician Abū Bakr al-Rāzī (c. 865–925), contain the earliest known systematic classifications of chemical substances. However, alchemists were not only interested in identifying and classifying chemical substances, but also in artificially creating them. Significant examples from

8670-495: The world's largest city by then, to translate the known world's classical knowledge into Arabic and Persian . The period is traditionally said to have ended with the collapse of the Abbasid caliphate due to Mongol invasions and the Siege of Baghdad in 1258. There are a few alternative timelines. Some scholars extend the end date of the golden age to around 1350, including the Timurid Renaissance within it, while others place

8772-455: Was a period of scientific, economic and cultural flourishing in the history of Islam , traditionally dated from the 8th century to the 13th century. This period is traditionally understood to have begun during the reign of the Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid (786 to 809) with the inauguration of the House of Wisdom , which saw scholars from all over the Muslim world flock to Baghdad ,

8874-412: Was a significant step in the development of algebra, is part of the body of Persian mathematics that was eventually transmitted to Europe. Yet another Persian mathematician, Sharaf al-Dīn al-Tūsī , found algebraic and numerical solutions to various cases of cubic equations. He also developed the concept of a function . Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) discovered the sum formula for the fourth power, using

8976-513: Was affiliated with the Syrian Nestorian Christian Church, and was brought up as a Nestorian Christian long before the rise of Islam. Hunayn was eager to continue his education, so he followed his father's footsteps and moved to Baghdad to study medicine. Hunayn was an important figure in the evolution of Arabic Medicine and was best known for his translations of famous Greek and Middle Eastern authors. He had

9078-609: Was also influenced by Greek thought. These factors culminated in a capital more receptive to and actively interested in the knowledge contained in scientific manuscripts of Classical Greece. The translation movement played a significant role in the Islamic Golden Age . The advent and rapid spread of papermaking learned from Chinese prisoners of war in 751 also helped to make the translation movement possible. The translation movement in Arab progressed in development during

9180-406: Was finished the books would need to be copied and bound. The translation would be sent to an individual with very precise and skillful handwriting abilities. When finished, the pages would be bound together with a cover and decorated and would be catalogued and placed in a specific ward of the library. Multiple copies of the book would also be made to be distributed across the empire. Historically,

9282-400: Was followed by two centuries of splendid original thinking and contributions, and is known as the "golden age" of Islamic science. This so-called "golden age" is supposed to have lasted from the end of the ninth to the end of the eleventh century. The era after this period is conventionally known as the "age of decline". A survey of literature from the nineteenth century onwards demonstrates that

9384-430: Was from these countries that the rest of the world learned to make paper from linen. The centrality of scripture and its study in the Islamic tradition helped to make education a central pillar of the religion in virtually all times and places in the history of Islam. The importance of learning in the Islamic tradition is reflected in a number of hadiths attributed to Muhammad, including one that states "Seeking knowledge

9486-524: Was given by Al-Kindi (c. 801–873, also known as "Alkindus" in Europe), in Risalah fi Istikhraj al-Mu'amma ( A Manuscript on Deciphering Cryptographic Messages ) which contains the first description of the method of frequency analysis . Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) was a significant figure in the history of scientific method , particularly in his approach to experimentation, and has been described as

9588-423: Was given to Ibn Farkhān al-Tabarī and Yaʿqūb al-Kindī, and Ibn Ishāq al-Harānī was in charge of translations involving the study of medicine. These translators were also from many different cultural, religious, and ethnic backgrounds, including Persians, Christians, and Muslims, all working to develop a well-rounded inventory of educational literature in the House of Wisdom for the Abbasid Caliphate. Once translation

9690-517: Was instigated by the Barmakids . The second Abbasid caliph al-Mansur ( r.  754–775 ) used translation as an ideology to cement the fractures within an emergent empire and produce a common sense. Whilst attempting to reconcile the rival factions, he had to appeal to one of the dominant factions that brought the Abbasids to power, the Persians , by promoting the idea that the Abbasid empire

9792-498: Was led by Christian physician Hunayn ibn Ishaq , with the support of Byzantine medicine . Many of the most important philosophical and scientific works of the ancient world were translated, including the work of Galen , Hippocrates , Plato , Aristotle , Ptolemy and Archimedes . Persians also were a notably high proportion of scientists who contributed to the Islamic Golden Age. According to Bernard Lewis : "Culturally, politically, and most remarkable of all even religiously,

9894-422: Was not long until Hunayn became famous. Unlike other translators during the Abbasid period , he did not translate texts word for word. Hunayn had a specific way of absorbing information by  attempting to attain the meaning of the subject prior to rewriting it, which was very rare to witness during his time. After he grasped a proficient understanding of the piece, he would rephrase his knowledge of it in either

9996-477: Was the legitimate successor of the Sasanians . The movement succeeded in forming civilization overlap and initiated new maps in the fields of culture and politics. Islamic rulers participated in the movement in numerous ways, for example, creating classes for translation to facilitate its flow all through the various phases of the Islamic empires . The translation movement had a significant effect on developing

10098-515: Was the preservation of other cultures by the Muslims and the utilization of technology and their knowledge of science in the efforts of stimulating their language to develop. The "House of Wisdom" ( Bayt al-Hikmah ) was a major intellectual center during the reign of the Abbasids and was a major component of the Translation Movement and the Islamic Golden Age. The library was filled with many different authors and translated books from

10200-440: Was the religious observances followed by Muslims which expected them to pray at exact times during the day. These observances in timekeeping led to many questions in previous Greek mathematical astronomy, especially their timekeeping. The astrolabe was a Greek invention which was an important piece of Arabic astronomy. An astrolabe is a handheld two-dimensional model of the sky which can solve problems of spherical astronomy. It

10302-591: Was then considered as the greatest crucial center of medicine during the sixth as well as the seventh century. However, during the seventh century CE, the Sasanian Empire was conquered by the Muslim armies, but they preserved the center. Further west, the Byzantine emperor Justinian I closed the Academy of Athens in 529. Along with the defunding of key public educational institutions, many scholars fled

10404-660: Was working in Damascus in 1350 AD employed the Tusi-couple to successfully eliminate the equant as well as other objectionable circles that Ptolemy had used. This new model properly aligned the celestial spheres and was mathematically sound. This development by Ibn al-Shatir, as well as the Maragha astronomers remained relatively unknown in medieval Europe. The names for some of the stars used, including Betelgeuse , Rigel , Vega , Aldebaran , and Fomalhaut are several of

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