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108-737: Although early adopters of Roman material culture , the Treveri had a chequered relationship with Roman power. Their leader Indutiomarus led them in revolt against Julius Caesar during the Gallic Wars ; much later, they played a key role in the Gaulish revolt during the Year of the Four Emperors . On the other hand, the Treveri supplied the Roman army with some of its most famous cavalry, and

216-558: A census in 27 BCE for purposes of taxation. The Romans built a new road from Trier to Reims via Mamer , to the north, and Arlon , thus by-passing by 25 kilometres the Titelberg and the older Celtic route, and the capital was displaced to Augusta Treverorum ( Trier ) with no signs of conflict. The vicinity of Trier had been inhabited by isolated farms and hamlets before the Romans, but there had been no urban settlement here. Following

324-565: A century after Caesar, Pomponius Mela identifies the Treveri as the "most renowned" of the Belgae (not to be confounded with the modern-day Belgians ). According to the Roman consul Aulus Hirtius in the 1st century BCE, the Treveri differed little from Germanic peoples in their manner of life and "savage" behaviour. The Treveri boasted of their Germanic origin, according to Tacitus , in order to distance themselves from "Gallic laziness" ( inertia Gallorum ). But Tacitus does not include them with

432-459: A deeper level of structure and meaning unattainable by typical fieldwork . According to Lévi-Strauss, material culture can recall the mindset of a people, regardless of intervening time or space. Also in the 20th century, Mary Douglas thought that anthropology was about studying the meaning of material culture to the people who experience it. Marvin Harris , a contemporary of Douglas, put forward

540-505: A feeling, or an experience. Material can contain memories and mutual experiences across time and influence thoughts and feelings. A study found that couples who have more items that were jointly acquired and more favorite items among them had higher-quality relationships. Researchers from the fields of sociology, psychology, and anthropology have also been fascinated by gift-giving, a universal phenomenon that holds emotional meaning using material culture. According to Schieffelin, "gift-giving

648-633: A hollow midway along the Moselle valley, with the most significant portion of the city on the east bank of the river. Wooded and vineyard -covered slopes stretch up to the Hunsrück plateau in the south and the Eifel in the north. The border with the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg is some 15 km (9 mi) away. Listed in clockwise order, beginning with the northernmost; all municipalities belong to

756-418: A human culture, an anthropologist studies the material culture of the people in question as well as the people themselves and their interactions with others. To understand the culture in which an object is featured, an anthropologist looks at the object itself, its context, and the way that it was manufactured and used. The first anthropologist interested in studying material culture was Lewis Henry Morgan , in

864-527: A large central hall, rather than onto the front verandah as in most places in Gaul; this arrangement has been considered typically ‘Germanic’, and may reflect a social structure in which extended families and clients all lived in a patron's home. On the other hand, typically ‘Gaulish’ villas are also found in Treveran territory. Material culture Material culture is the aspect of culture manifested by

972-405: A monumental sanctuary situated just outside the civitas capital of Trier . The cult of Lenus Mars was probably registered as a public cult in the official calendar of the civitas Treverorum . Three important pagan sanctuaries in the immediate vicinity of Trier alone are well-known: the extensive Altbachtal temple complex, the nearby temple Am Herrenbrünnchen, and the important Lenus Mars Temple on

1080-479: A society. At the same time in France, Émile Durkheim wrote about the importance of material culture in understanding a society. Durkheim saw material culture as one of the social facts that functions as a coercive force to maintain solidarity in a society. Claude Lévi-Strauss , in the 20th century, included the study of material culture in his work as an anthropologist because he believed that it could reveal

1188-572: A variety of modes for interrogating artifacts. Professor Kiki Smith of Smith College , asserts that "…clothes can reveal much about lives from the past", and that garments preserved in collections are akin to other artifacts, including books, diaries, paintings and letters. She established the Smith College Historic Clothing Collection with 3000 items for the college's theater department. This archive of women's clothing and accessories, from all social classes,

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1296-592: Is a city on the banks of the Moselle in Germany . It lies in a valley between low vine-covered hills of red sandstone in the west of the state of Rhineland-Palatinate , near the border with Luxembourg and within the important Moselle wine region . Founded by the Romans in the late 1st century BC as Augusta Treverorum ("The City of Augustus among the Treveri "), Trier is considered Germany's oldest city. It

1404-458: Is a latinized form of Gaulish *Trēueroi ( sing. Trēueros ). It is generally viewed as referring to 'crossing a river' or to a 'flowing river'. Linguists Rudolf Thurneysen and Xavier Delamarre have proposed to interpret the name as trē-uer- ('ferrymen'), composed of a suffix trē - (earlier *trei - 'through, across'; cf. Lat. trāns, Skt tiráh ) attached to - uer- ('water, river'; cf. Skt vār , ON vari 'water'), This etymology

1512-541: Is a resource for courses in costume design, history, material culture, and literary history and curatorial practices. Gerd Koch , associated with the Ethnological Museum of Berlin , is known for his studies on the material culture of Tuvalu , Kiribati and the Santa Cruz Islands . During his early field work in 1951 to 1952, Koch developed techniques in the recording of culture, including

1620-460: Is a vehicle of social obligation and political maneuver." Mauss defines the gift as creating a special bond between the giver and the receiver. According to Mauss, the giver never really leaves the gift but becomes part of the receiver's future by inserting the gift into their life. A gift leads at some point to another gift in response, which creates a special reciprocal bond between people. Material culture studies as an academic field grew along

1728-795: Is also the oldest seat of a bishop north of the Alps . Trier was one of the four capitals of the Roman Empire during the Tetrarchy period in the late 3rd and early 4th centuries. In the Middle Ages , the archbishop-elector of Trier was an important prince of the Church who controlled land from the French border to the Rhine . The archbishop-elector of Trier also had great significance as one of

1836-499: Is called material culture studies . It is an interdisciplinary field and methodology that tells of the relationships between people and their things: the making, history, preservation and interpretation of objects. It draws on both theory and practice from the social sciences and humanities such as art history , archaeology, anthropology, history, historic preservation , folklore , archival science , literary criticism and museum studies . Research in several areas looks into

1944-442: Is fueled by a cycle of people visiting museums, historic sites, and collections to interact with ideas or physical objects of the past. In turn, the institutions profit through monetary donations or admission fees as well as the publicity that comes with word-of-mouth communications. That relationship is controversial, as many believe that the heritage industry corrupts the meaning and importance of cultural objects. Often, scholars in

2052-461: Is high despite not being on the coast. As a result of the European heat wave in 2003 , the highest temperature recorded was 39 °C on 8 August of that year. On 25 July 2019, a record-breaking temperature of 40.6 °C was recorded. The lowest recorded temperature was −19.3 °C on February 2, 1956. Trier is known for its well-preserved Roman and medieval buildings, which include: Trier

2160-838: Is home to the University of Trier , founded in 1473, closed in 1796 and restarted in 1970. The city also has the Trier University of Applied Sciences . The Academy of European Law (ERA) was established in 1992 and provides training in European law to legal practitioners. In 2010 there were about 40 Kindergärten , 25 primary schools and 23 secondary schools in Trier, such as the Humboldt Gymnasium Trier , Max Planck Gymnasium , Auguste Viktoria Gymnasium , Angela Merici Gymnasium , Friedrich Wilhelm Gymnasium and

2268-795: Is named after the tribe. In the time of Julius Caesar their territory extended as far as the Rhine north of the Triboci ; across the Rhine from them lived the Ubii . Caesar mentions that the Segni and the Condrusi lived between the Treveri and the Eburones , and that the Condrusii and Eburones were clients of the Treveri. Caesar bridged the Rhine in the territory of the Treveri. They were bordered on

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2376-569: Is reinforced by the Old Irish cognate treóir (from *trē-uori- ), meaning 'ford, place to cross a river'. The Treveri also had a special goddess called Ritona , which either means 'that of the ford' (from the stem ritu- 'ford') or 'that of the course' (from the homonym ritu- , rito- 'course'), and a temple dedicated to Uorioni Deo ('goddess of the watercourse'). The city of Trier , attested 1st c. AD as Treueris Augusta and on inscriptions as Augusta Trēvērorum ( Treuiris in 1065),

2484-750: The Notitia Dignitatum (5th c. AD). The variant Treberi also appears in Pliny , and few highly deviant variant forms are also attested as Trēoũsgroi (Τρηου̃σγροι) in Strabo or Triḗrōn (Τριήρων) in Cassius Dio. The first syllable is shown long and stressed (Trēverī) in Latin dictionaries, thus giving the Classical Latin pronunciation [ˈtreːwɛriː] . The ethnonym Trēverī

2592-537: The nomen Julius . During the reigns of Augustus, Tiberius and Claudius , and particularly when Drusus and Germanicus were active in Gaul, Augusta Treverorum rose to considerable importance as a base and supply centre for campaigns in Germany. The city was endowed with an amphitheatre, baths, and other amenities, and for a while Germanicus' family lived in the city. Pliny the Elder reports that Germanicus' son,

2700-595: The Caeroesi and Paemani . The 4th-century poet Ausonius lived in Trier under the Gratian 's patronage; he is most famous for his poem Mosella, evoking life and scenery along the Treveri's arterial river. Caesar is not explicit in De Bello Gallico about whether the Treveri are to be considered to belong to Gallia Celtica or Gallia Belgica, although the former hypothesis enjoys some favour. Writing about

2808-640: The Crisis of the Third Century , the city served as the capital of the Gallic Empire under the emperors Tetricus I and II from 271 to 274. The Treveri suffered further devastation from the Alamanni in 275, following which, according to Jeannot Metzler, "The great majority of agricultural domains lay waste and would never be rebuilt". It is unclear whether Augusta Treverorum itself fell victim to

2916-434: The Gallic Wars would provide Julius Caesar with his best cavalry. Under their leader Cingetorix , the Treveri served as Roman auxiliaries. However, their loyalties began to change in 54 BCE under the influence of Cingetorix' rival Indutiomarus . According to Caesar, Indutiomarus instigated the revolt of the Eburones under Ambiorix that year and led the Treveri in joining the revolt and enticing Germanic tribes to attack

3024-539: The Martberg by Pommern , the temple and theatre of Mars Smertrius and Ancamna at Möhn , and a mother-goddess sanctuary at Dhronecken. Under Roman influence, a variety of new cults were introduced: Mithras had a temple in the Altbachtal, Cybele and Attis were worshipped there and at Dhronecken, and inscriptions and artwork attest to other Oriental deities such as Sabazius , Isis and Serapis . Besides

3132-413: The Moselle . The Altbachtal complex has yielded a wealth of inscriptions and the remains of a theatre and over a dozen temples or shrines, mostly Romano-Celtic fana dedicated to native, Roman, and Oriental deities. Outside of the city, many sacred sites are known; they are typically enclosed by a wall. Among these may be mentioned the temple of Apollo and Sirona at Hochscheid , that of Lenus Mars on

3240-847: The Nelson-Mandela Realschule Plus , Kurfürst-Balduin Realschule Plus , Realschule Plus Ehrang . Trier has a municipal theatre, Theater Trier , for musical theatre, plays and dance. Trier station has direct railway connections to many cities in the region. The nearest cities by train are Cologne, Saarbrücken and Luxembourg. Via the motorways A 1 , A 48 and A 64 Trier is linked with Koblenz, Saarbrücken and Luxembourg. The nearest commercial (international) airports are in Luxembourg (0:40 h by car), Frankfurt-Hahn (1:00 h), Saarbrücken (1:00 h), Frankfurt (2:00 h) and Cologne/Bonn (2:00 h). The Moselle

3348-586: The Roman Empire subduing the Treveri in the 1st century BC and establishing Augusta Treverorum about 16 BC. The name distinguished it from the empire's many other cities honoring the first Roman emperor , Augustus . The city later became the capital of the province of Belgic Gaul ; after the Diocletian Reforms , it became the capital of the prefecture of the Gauls , overseeing much of

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3456-461: The Shoah . In June 1940 during World War II over 60,000 British prisoners of war, captured at Dunkirk and Northern France, were marched to Trier, which became a staging post for British soldiers headed for German prisoner-of-war camps . Trier was heavily bombed and bombarded in 1944. The city became part of the new state of Rhineland-Palatinate after the war. The university , dissolved in 1797,

3564-838: The Trier-Saarburg district Schweich , Kenn and Longuich (all part of the Verbandsgemeinde Schweich an der Römischen Weinstraße ), Mertesdorf , Kasel , Waldrach , Morscheid , Korlingen and Gusterath (all in the Verbandsgemeinde Ruwer ), Hockweiler , Franzenheim (both part of the Verbandsgemeinde Trier-Land ), Konz and Wasserliesch (both part of the Verbandsgemeinde Konz ), Igel , Trierweiler , Aach , Newel , Kordel , Zemmer (all in

3672-505: The University of Notre Dame , wrote about philosophies and methods of teaching history outside the traditional classroom. In his book Artifacts and the American Past , Schlereth defines material culture study as an attempt to explain why things were made, why they took the forms they did, and what social, functional, aesthetic, or symbolic needs they serve. He advocates studying photographs, catalogues, maps and landscapes. He suggests

3780-463: The Vangiones , Triboci or Nemetes as "tribes unquestionably German". The presence of hall villas of the same type as found in indisputably Germanic territory in northern Germany, alongside Celtic types of villas, corroborates the idea that they had both Celtic and Germanic affinities. Strabo says that their Nervian and Tribocan neighbours were Germanic peoples who by that point had settled on

3888-439: The Verbandsgemeinde Trier-Land ). The Trier urban area is divided into 19 city districts . For each district there is an Ortsbeirat (local council) of between 9 and 15 members, as well as an Ortsvorsteher (local representative). The local councils are charged with hearing the important issues that affect the district, although the final decision on any issue rests with the city council. The local councils nevertheless have

3996-880: The War of the Polish Succession . After conquering Trier again in 1794 during the French Revolutionary Wars , France annexed the city and the electoral archbishopric was dissolved. After the Napoleonic Wars ended in 1815, Trier passed to the Kingdom of Prussia . Karl Marx , the German philosopher and one of the founders of Marxism , was born in the city in 1818. As part of the Prussian Rhineland , Trier developed economically during

4104-543: The Western Roman Empire . In the 4th century, Trier was one of the largest cities in the Roman Empire with a population around 75,000 and perhaps as much as 100,000. The Porta Nigra ("Black Gate") dates from this era. A residence of the Western Roman emperor , Roman Trier was the birthplace of Saint Ambrose . Sometime between 395 and 418, probably in 407 the Roman administration moved the staff of

4212-773: The humanities take a critical view of the heritage industry, particularly heritage tourism, believing it to be a vulgar oversimplification and corruption of historic fact and importance. Others believe that the relationship and the financial stability it brings is often the element that allows curators , researchers, and directors to conserve material culture's legacy. Trier Trier ( / t r ɪər / TREER , German: [tʁiːɐ̯] ; Luxembourgish : Tréier [ˈtʀəɪɐ] ), formerly and traditionally known in English as Trèves ( / t r ɛ v / TREV , French: [tʁɛv] ) and Triers (see also names in other languages ),

4320-480: The pagus Teucorias the southern region around Tholey . Wightman considers it uncertain whether the Aresaces and Cairacates may originally have been pagi of the Treveri, but asserts that their territory – lying around Mogontiacum ( Mainz ) – "always showed particularly close cultural connections with Treveran territory". External to the Treveri, but subject to them as clients, were the Eburones and perhaps also

4428-428: The physical objects and architecture of a society. The term is primarily used in archaeology and anthropology , but is also of interest to sociology , geography and history . The field considers artifacts in relation to their specific cultural and historic contexts, communities and belief systems. It includes the usage, consumption, creation and trade of objects as well as the behaviors, norms and rituals that

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4536-787: The 17th and 18th centuries, the French-Habsburg rivalry brought war to Trier. Spain and France fought over the city during the Thirty Years' War . The bishop was imprisoned by Spain and the Holy Roman Emperor for his support for France between 1635 and 1645. In later wars between the Empire and France, French troops occupied the city during the Nine Years' War , the War of the Spanish Succession , and

4644-552: The 19th century. The city rose in revolt during the revolutions of 1848 in the German states , although the rebels were forced to concede. It became part of the German Empire in 1871. The synagogue on Zuckerbergstrasse was looted during the November 1938 Kristallnacht and later completely destroyed in a bomb attack in 1944. Multiple Stolperstein have been installed in Trier to commemorate those murdered and exiled during

4752-465: The 3rd century CE. Along with the neighbouring Remi , the Treveri can be credited with a significant innovation in Roman technology : the vallus , a machine drawn by horses or mules to reap wheat. The vallus is known from funerary reliefs and literary descriptions. The many individual Treveri attested epigraphically in other civitates may attest to the development of a Treveran commercial network within

4860-694: The 4th century, while Ambrose was born there. In the time of Gratian , the Altbachtal complex was "not so much given up as deliberately destroyed"; cult statues were smashed, and some temples were secularized and made into homes. In 384, the Christian heresiarch Priscillian was executed in Augusta Treverorum on the orders of Magnus Maximus , the Emperor in Britain and Gaul, nominally on charges of sorcery. The Gallic Chronicle of 452 describes

4968-521: The Aedui in revolt. The Romans quickly re-established cordial relations with the Treveri under Indus, who promised obedience to Rome; in contrast, they completely annihilated the Aedui who had sided with Sacrovir. Perhaps under Claudius , the Treveri obtained the status of colonia and probably the Latin Right without actually being colonized by Roman veterans. Under Roman rule, there was a senate of

5076-416: The Alamannic invasion. From 285 to 395, Augusta Treverorum was one of the residences of the western Roman Emperor , including Maximian , Constantine the Great , Constantius II , Valentinian I , Magnus Maximus , and Theodosius I ; from 318 to 407, it served as the seat of the praetorian prefecture of Gaul . By the mid-4th century, the city was counted in a Roman manuscript as one of the four capitals of

5184-404: The Empire. There is strong evidence that the recently excavated oppidum on the Titelberg plateau in the extreme southwest of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg was the Treveran capital during the 1st century BCE. An important secondary centre was Orolaunum (now Arlon , capital of the Belgian Province of Luxembourg ), which, in Edith Wightman's assessment, "became a kind of regional capital for

5292-415: The Martberg. Inscriptions from the Roman imperial period indicate that the civitas was divided into at least four pagi : the pagus Vilcias , the pagus Teucorias , the pagus Carucum extending north of Bitburg , and the pagus Ac[...] or Ag[...] (the inscription is incomplete). Wightman tentatively suggests that the pagus Vilcias might have been the western region around Arlon and Longuyon , and

5400-436: The Praetorian Prefecture from Trier to Arles . The city continued to be inhabited but was not as prosperous as before. However, it remained the seat of a governor and had state factories for the production of ballistae and armor and woolen uniforms for the troops , clothing for the civil service, and high-quality garments for the Court. Northern Gaul was held by the Romans along a line ( līmes ) from north of Cologne to

5508-413: The Priscillianists as " Manichaeans ", a different Gnostic heresy already outlawed under Diocletian , and states that the emperor had them "caught and exterminated with the greatest zeal" from among the Treveri. The territory of the Treveri had formed part of the Hunsrück-Eifel culture , covering the Hallstatt D and La Tène A-B periods (from 600 to 250 BCE). During the century from 250 to 150 BCE,

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5616-434: The Roman conquest many of their gods were identified with Roman equivalents or coupled with Roman gods. Among the most important gods worshipped in Treveran territory were Mercury and Rosmerta , Lenus Mars and Ancamna , Jupiter Optimus Maximus , Apollo , Intarabus , and Minerva . Among the deities unique to the Treveri were Intarabus, Ritona , Inciona and Veraudunus , and the Xulsigiae . J.-J. Hatt considers that

5724-399: The Roman occupation of the Titelberg in 30 BCE. As early as 21 CE, according to Greg Woolf , "the Treveri and the Aedui [were] arguably those tribes which had undergone the greatest cultural change since the conquest". The Romans introduced viticulture to the Moselle valley (see Moselle wine ). In general, the archaeological record attests to ongoing rural development and prosperity into

5832-403: The Romans. The Romans under Titus Labienus killed Indutiomarus and then put down the Treveran revolt; afterwards, Indutiomarus' relatives crossed the Rhine to settle among the Germanic tribes. The Treveri remained neutral during the revolt of Vercingetorix , and were attacked again by Labienus after it. On the whole, the Treveri were more successful than most Gallic tribes in cooperating with

5940-454: The Romans. They probably emerged from the Gallic Wars with the status of a free civitas exempt from tribute. In 30–29 BCE, a revolt of the Treveri was suppressed by Marcus Nonius Gallus, and the Titelberg was occupied by a garrison of the Roman army. Agrippa and Augustus undertook the organization of Roman administration in Gaul, laying out an extensive series of roads beginning with Agrippa's governorship of Gaul in 39 BCE, and imposing

6048-418: The Study of American Life , written in 1978, tried to bridge the gaps between the museum world and the university and between curator and historian. Quimby posits that objects in museums are understood through an intellectual framework that uses non-traditional sources. He also describes the benefits of work on exhibit design as a vehicle for education. Thomas Schlereth, Professor Emeritus of American Studies at

6156-454: The Third Century . Frankish and Alamannic invasions during the 250s led to significant destruction, particularly in rural areas; given the failure of the Roman military to defend effectively against Germanic invasion, country dwellers improvised their own fortifications, often using the stones from tombs and mausoleums. Meanwhile, Augusta Treverorum was becoming an urban centre of the first importance, overtaking even Lugdunum ( Lyon ). During

6264-437: The Titelberg experienced an upsurge of growth which made it "the central oppidum of the Treveri". A large open space in the central square of the Titelberg which would have been used for public meetings of a religious or political nature during the 1st century BCE. By the time of Caesar's invasion , the Treveri seemed to have adopted an oligarchic system of government. The Treveri had a strong cavalry and infantry, and during

6372-445: The Treveri had developed trade, agriculture and metal-working. They had adopted a money-based economy based upon silver coins, aligned with the Roman denarius , along with cheaper bronze or bronze-lead coins. Trade goods made their way to the Treveri from Etruria and the Greek world; monetary evidence suggests strong trade links with the neighbouring Remi . Iron ore deposits in Treveran territory were heavily worked and formed part of

6480-401: The Treveri including about a hundred decurions, of which the executive was formed by two duoviri . More serious was the revolt that began with Civilis ' Batavian insurrection during the Year of the Four Emperors . In 70, the Treveri under Julius Classicus and Julius Tutor and the Lingones under Julius Sabinus joined the Batavian rebellion and declared Sabinus as Caesar. The revolt

6588-418: The Treveri, along with their neighbours the Mediomatrici , Leuci , and Triboci , "appeared as pilots in the conservation of native Celtic and pre-Celtic [religious] traditions". During the Roman period, Lenus Mars (or Mars Iovantucarus ) has been deemed "the main god of the Treveri", as evidenced by dedications found across the different sections of civitas Treverorum . They are connected in particular with

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6696-413: The adjacent Belgian Province of Luxembourg . The Rhine valley was removed from Treveran authority with the formation of the province of Germania Superior in the 80s CE. The valley of the Ahr would have marked their northern boundary. Colonia Augusta Treverorum (now Trier , Germany), established under Augustus ca. 17 BCE to guard a crossing of the Moselle, was the capital of their civitas under

6804-494: The area between the Rhine and the Meuse underwent a drastic population restructuring as some crisis forced most signs of inhabitation onto the heights of the Hunsrück . Following this crisis, population returned to the lowlands and it is possible to speak with confidence of the Treveri by name. Much of the Treveran countryside seems to have been organized into rural settlements by the end of the 2nd century BCE, and this organization persisted into Roman times. Even before Roman times,

6912-481: The basis for the area's wealth. Before and for some time after the Roman conquest, Treveran nobles were buried in chamber tombs which were covered with tumuli and filled with sumptuous goods including imported amphorae , weaponry and andirons . By the 2nd century CE, wealthy Treveri were building elaborate funerary monuments such as the World Heritage -listed Igel Column, or the sculpted grave-stones found at Arlon , Neumagen and Buzenol , all of which depict

7020-481: The capitals of the Roman Empire (together with Nicomedia (present-day İzmit , Turkey), Eboracum (present-day York , England), Mediolanum (present-day Milan , Italy) and Sirmium ). During this period, Christianity began to succeed the imperial cult and the worship of Roman and Celtic deities as the favoured religion of the city. Such Christian luminaries as Ambrose , Jerome , Martin of Tours and Athanasius of Alexandria spent time in Augusta Treverorum. Among

7128-403: The city grew increasingly powerful and the Archbishopric of Trier was recognized as an electorate of the empire, one of the most powerful states of Germany. The University of Trier was founded in the city in 1473. In the 17th century, the Archbishops and Prince-Electors of Trier relocated their residence to Philippsburg Castle in Ehrenbreitstein , near Koblenz . A session of the Reichstag

7236-444: The city of Augusta Treverorum was home for a time to the family of Germanicus , including the future emperor Gaius (Caligula) . During the Crisis of the Third Century , the territory of the Treveri was overrun by Germanic Alamanni and Franks and later formed part of the Gallic Empire . Under Constantine and his 4th-century successors, Augusta Treverorum became a large, favoured, rich and influential city that served as one of

7344-449: The coast at Boulogne through what is today southern Belgium until 460. South of this line, Roman control was firm, as evidenced by the continuing operation of the imperial arms factory at Amiens . The Franks seized Trier from Roman administration in 459. In 870, it became part of Eastern Francia , which developed into the Holy Roman Empire . Relics of Saint Matthias brought to the city initiated widespread pilgrimages. The bishops of

7452-446: The construction of Agrippa 's road linking Trier with Reims which bypassed the Titelberg. During the Roman period, Trier became a Roman colony (in 16 BCE), and the provincial capital of Belgica itself. It was the frequent residence of a number of emperors. Archaeological evidence suggests that the Treveri were divided into five cantons centred respectively on the pre-Roman oppida of the Titelberg, Wallendorf, Kastel, Otzenhausen and

7560-570: The deceased's livelihood and/or interests during life. As cremation had become more common under Roman rule, gravestones often had special niches to receive urns of ashes as well as grave-goods. Roman-era grave-goods included the remains of animals used as food (particularly pigs and birds), coins, amphorae, pottery, glassware, jewellery and scissors. Burial replaced cremation again in the late 3rd century. The Treveri adapted readily to Roman civilization, adopting certain Mediterranean practices in cuisine, clothing, and decorative arts starting as early as

7668-561: The development of culture rested primarily on technology and that the history of human technology could be understood through the study of human-produced materials. American anthropologist James Deetz , known for his work in the field of historical archaeology , wrote the book "In Small Things Forgotten" in 1977 and published a revised and expanded version in 1996. He pioneered there the ideas of using neglected substances such as trash pits, potshards, and soil stains to reveal human actions. By analyzing objects in association with their location,

7776-523: The diffusion of Christianity. The present-day cathedral has its origins in a 4th-century double church built close to the imperial palace, probably around 321 and perhaps thanks to a donation from Helena Augusta . Approximately four times larger than today's cathedral, this church was one of Constantine's great imperial foundations, ranking with other major churches at Rome, Constantinople , Jerusalem , and Bethlehem . Jerome , Athanasius of Alexandria and Martin of Tours all lived and worked in Trier during

7884-470: The diocese of Trier in 1581 and reached the city itself in 1587, where it was to lead to the death of about 368 people, and was as such perhaps the biggest mass execution in Europe in peacetime. This counts only those executed within the city itself. The exact number of people executed in all the witch hunts within the diocese has never been established; a total of 1,000 has been suggested but not confirmed. In

7992-864: The early Neolithic period. Since the last pre-Christian centuries, members of the Celtic tribe of the Treveri settled in the area of today's Trier. The city of Trier derives its name from the later Latin locative in Trēverīs for earlier Augusta Treverorum . According to the Archbishops of Trier , in the Gesta Treverorum , the founder of the city of the Trevians is Trebeta . German historian Johannes Aventinus also credited Trebeta with building settlements at Metz , Mainz , Basel , Strasbourg , Speyer and Worms . The historical record describes

8100-517: The east of the Treveri along the Rhine; thereafter, Treveran territory in present-day Germany was probably similar to that which afterwards became the Diocese of Trier . In addition to this area which is formed mainly by the northern part of the Moselle river valley and the neighbouring Eifel region, the Treveri populated also the area of the present-day Grand Duchy of Luxembourg and the major part of

8208-407: The effect increases over time. Another way in which material can hold meaning and value is by carrying communication between people, just like other communication forms such as speech, touch and gesture. An object can mediate messages between time or space or both between people who are not together. A work of art, for example, can transfer a message from the creator to the viewer and share an image,

8316-637: The ephemeral aspects of culture and history. With more recent societies, written histories, oral traditions, and direct observations may also be available to supplement the study of material culture. Beginning in the European Renaissance and the culture's fascination with classical antiquities, the study of artifacts from long-lost cultures has produced many forms of archaeological theory , such as trans-cultural diffusion , processual archaeology , and post-processual archaeology . Additionally, archaeological sub-disciplines have emerged within

8424-435: The field of anthropology and so began by studying non-Western material culture. All too often, it was a way of putting material culture into categories in such a way that marginalized and hierarchized the cultures from which they came. During the "golden age" of museum -going, material cultures were used to show the supposed evolution of society from the simple objects of non-Westerners to the advanced objects of Europeans. It

8532-443: The field, including prehistoric archaeology , classical archaeology , historical archaeology , cognitive archaeology , and cultural ecology . Recently, a scientific methodology and approach to the analysis of pre-historic material culture has become prevalent with systematic excavation techniques producing detailed and precise results. Anthropology is most simply defined as the study of humans across time and space. In studying

8640-524: The five " central places " of the state of Rhineland-Palatinate. Along with Luxembourg, Metz and Saarbrücken, fellow constituent members of the QuattroPole  [ de ] union of cities, it is central to the greater region encompassing Saar-Lor-Lux ( Saarland , Lorraine and Luxembourg ), Rhineland-Palatinate, and Wallonia . The first traces of human settlement in the area of the city show evidence of linear pottery settlements dating from

8748-402: The freedom to undertake limited measures within the bounds of their districts and their budgets. The districts of Trier with area and inhabitants (December 31, 2009): Trier has an oceanic climate ( Köppen : Cfb ), but with greater extremes than the marine versions of northern Germany . Summers are warm except in unusual heat waves and winters are recurrently cold, but not harsh. Precipitation

8856-506: The future emperor Gaius (Caligula) , was born "among the Treveri, at the village of Ambiatinus, above Confluentes ( Koblenz )", but Suetonius notes that this birthplace was disputed by other sources. A faction of Treveri, led by Julius Florus and allied with the Aeduan Julius Sacrovir , led a rebellion of Gaulish debtors against the Romans in 21 CE. Florus was defeated by his rival Julius Indus , while Sacrovir led

8964-399: The history of that location, the objects they were found with, and not singling out the most valuable or rarest ones, archaeologists can create a more accurate picture of daily life. Deetz looks at the long view of history and investigates the impact of European culture on other cultures across the globe by an analysis of the spread of everyday objects. Ian M. G. Quimby's Material Culture and

9072-443: The importance of material in understanding relationships and human social behavior. The social aspects in material culture include the social behavior around it: the way that the material is used, shared, talked about, or made. An object cannot hold meaning in and of itself and so when one focuses on the social aspects of material culture, it is critical to keep in mind that interpretations of objects and of interactions with them are

9180-414: The left bank of the Moselle. Inscriptions attest to the existence of a Treveran cult to Rome and Augustus, but the location of the temple is uncertain. Wightman suggests that the wholly classical and well-endowed temple Am Herrenbrünnchen would be a possibility, while Metzger argues that it can only have been a poorly known fourth temple in the city – the so-called Asclepius Temple not far from the bridge over

9288-610: The left bank of the Rhine, while the Treveri are implied to be Gaulish. Jerome states that as of the 4th century their language was similar to that of the Celts of Asia Minor (the Galatians ). Jerome probably had first-hand knowledge of these Celtic languages , as he had visited both Augusta Treverorum and Galatia . Very few personal names among the Treveri are of Germanic origin; instead, they are generally Celtic or Latin. Certain distinctively Treveran names are apparently none of

9396-519: The mid-19th century. He is most known for his research on kinship and social structures, but he also studied the effect of material culture, specifically technology, on the evolution of a society. Later in the 19th century, Franz Boas brought the fields of anthropology and material culture studies closer together. He believed that it was crucial for an anthropologist to analyze not only the physical properties of material culture but also its meanings and uses in its indigenous context to begin to understand

9504-751: The northwest by the Belgic Tungri (living where the Germani cisrhenani had lived in the time of Caesar and, according to Tacitus, the same people), on the southwest by the Remi , and on the north, beyond the Ardennes and Eifel , by the Eburones. To the south their neighbours were the Mediomatrici Later the Vangiones and Nemetes , whom ancient sources identify as Germanic, would settle to

9612-669: The objects create or take part in. Material culture is contrasted with symbolic culture or non-material culture , which include non-material symbols, beliefs and social constructs. However, some scholars include in material culture other intangible phenomena like sound, smell and events, while some even consider it to include language and media. Material culture can be described as any object that humans use to survive, define social relationships, represent facets of identity, or benefit peoples' state of mind, social, or economic standing. The scholarly analysis of material culture, which can include both human made and natural or altered objects,

9720-411: The ones to evoke importance and meaning. Museums and other material culture repositories, by their very nature, are often active participants in the heritage industry . Defined as "the business of managing places that are important to an area's history and encouraging people to visit them," the heritage industry relies heavily on material culture and objects to interpret cultural heritage. The industry

9828-402: The perennially loyal Remi , at the expense of the Treveri. By the 2nd and 3rd centuries, representatives of the old élite bearing the nomen Julius had practically disappeared, and a new élite arose to take their place; these would have originated mainly from the indigenous middle class, according to Wightman. The Treveri suffered from their proximity to the Rhine frontier during the Crisis of

9936-408: The reasons for perceiving an object as having meaning. Common reasons for valuing material lie in their monetary or sentimental value. A well-known related theory is Daniel Kahneman 's endowment effect theory. According to Kahneman, people infuse objects they own with a higher value than they do if they do not own the object. The endowment effect is found to occur as soon as an item is acquired and

10044-405: The reorganisation of the Roman provinces in Germany in 16 BCE, Augustus decided that the Treveri should become part of the province of Belgica . At an unknown date, the capital of Belgica was moved from Durocortorum Remorum ( Reims ) to Augusta Treverorum. A significant layer of the Treveran élite seems to have been granted Roman citizenship under Caesar and/or Augustus, by whom they were given

10152-494: The seven electors of the Holy Roman Empire . Because of its significance during the Roman and Holy Roman empires, several monuments and cathedrals within Trier are listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site . With an approximate population of 110,000, Trier is the fourth-largest city in its state, after Mainz , Ludwigshafen , and Koblenz . The nearest major cities are Luxembourg City (50 km or 31 mi to

10260-504: The southwest), Saarbrücken (80 kilometres or 50 miles southeast), and Koblenz (100 km or 62 mi northeast). The University of Trier , the administration of the Trier-Saarburg district and the seat of the ADD ( Aufsichts- und Dienstleistungsdirektion ), which until 1999 was the borough authority of Trier, and the Academy of European Law (ERA) are all based in Trier. It is one of

10368-787: The surviving legacies of the ancient Treveri are Moselle wine from Luxembourg and Germany (introduced during Roman times) and the many Roman monuments of Trier and its surroundings, including neighbouring Luxembourg. Three Roman roads, very important for their role in transregional trade and military deployment capability, went through the territory of the Treveri: They are mentioned as Treveri by Caesar (mid-1st c. BC), Pliny (1st c. AD) and Tacitus (early 2nd c. AD), Trēoúēroi (Τρηούηροι) by Strabo (early 1st c. AD), Tríbēroi (Τρίβηροι) by Ptolemy (2nd c. AD), Trēouḗrōn (Τρηουήρων) by Cassius Dio (3rd c. AD), Treuerorum (gen.) by Orosius (early 5th c. AD), and as Triberorum in

10476-418: The temple of Rome and Augustus mentioned above, the imperial cult is also evidenced by numerous religious inscriptions "in honour of the divine house" (i.e. the imperial family). In the 4th century, Christianity rose to prominence in Augusta Treverorum. The city became the seat of a Christian archbishopric during the second half of the 3rd century, and under Constantine I , it became an important centre for

10584-438: The theory of cultural materialism and said that all aspects of society have material causes. In archaeology, the idea that social relations are embodied in material is well known and established, with extensive research on exchange, gift giving and objects as part of social ceremonies and events. However, in contradiction to archaeology, where scientists build on material remains of previous cultures, sociology tends to overlook

10692-472: The three and may represent a pre-Celtic stratum, according to Wightman (she gives Ibliomarus, Cletussto and Argaippo as examples). After the Roman conquest, Latin was used extensively by the Treveri for public and official purposes. Originally the oppida of the Titelberg , Wallendorf , Kastel, Otzenhausen and the Martberg were roughly equal in significance; however, sometime between 100 and 80 BCE,

10800-478: The use of tape recorders and cinematographic cameras. Archaeology is the study of humanity through the inferential analysis of material culture to ultimately gain an understanding of the daily lives of past cultures and the overarching trend of human history. An archaeological culture is a recurring assemblage of the artifacts from a specific time and place, most often that has no written record. These physical artifacts are then used to make inferences about

10908-491: The western Treveri", attaining "a degree of prosperity only otherwise reached by civitas capitals". The site of La Tranchée des Portes near Étalle , the largest of Belgium by its size (100 hectares) has not still revealed its rank. A recent study shows that it had already human presence around 4000 BCE. Other important pre-Roman centres were located at Martberg , Donnersberg , Wallendorf , Kastel-Staadt , and Otzenhausen . The transfer of their activities to Trier followed

11016-547: The western parts of the Empire. During the early 2nd century CE, Augusta Treverorum was an important centre for the production of samian ware (along with Lezoux and Rheinzabern ), supplying the Rhineland with high-quality glossy red pottery which was often elaborately decorated with moulded designs. Treveran villa architecture shows both coexistence and mixture of typically Gallic and Germanic traits. In some villas, such as at Otrang and Echternach , small rooms opened onto

11124-423: The world, alongside Rome, Alexandria , and Constantinople . New defensive structures, including fortresses at Neumagen , Bitburg and Arlon , were constructed to defend against Germanic invasion. After a Vandal invasion in 406, however, the imperial residence was moved to Mediolanum ( Milan ) while the praetorian guard was withdrawn to Arelate ( Arles ). The Treveri were originally polytheists , and following

11232-530: Was a way of showing that Europeans were at the end of the evolution of society, with non-Westerners at the beginning. Eventually, scholars left the notion that culture evolved though predictable cycles, and the study of material culture changed to have a more objective view of non-Western material culture. The field of material culture studies as its own distinct discipline dates to the 1990s. The Journal of Material Culture began publishing in 1996. Collecting habits date back hundreds of years. Leslie White

11340-593: Was an American anthropologist, known for his advocacy of theories of cultural evolution , sociocultural evolution , and especially neoevolutionism and for his role in creating the department of anthropology at the University of Michigan Ann Arbor. He was president of the American Anthropological Association (1964). He wrote The Science of Culture in 1949 in which he outlined schema of the world as divided into cultural, biological, and physical levels of phenomenon. White believed that

11448-687: Was held in Trier in 1512, during which the demarcation of the Imperial Circles was definitively established. In the years from 1581 to 1593, the Trier witch trials were held. It was one of the four largest witch trials in Germany alongside the Fulda witch trials , the Würzburg witch trial , and the Bamberg witch trials , perhaps even the largest one in European history. The persecutions started in

11556-447: Was quashed, and more than a hundred rebel Treveran noblemen fled across the Rhine to join their Germanic allies; in the assessment of historian Jeannot Metzler, this event marks the end of aristocratic Treveran cavalry service in the Roman army, the rise of the local bourgeoisie, and the beginnings of "a second thrust of Romanization". Camille Jullian attributes to this rebellion the promotion of Durocortorum Remorum ( Reims ), capital of

11664-533: Was restarted in the 1970s, while the Cathedral of Trier was reopened in 1974 after undergoing substantial and long-lasting renovations. Trier officially celebrated its 2,000th anniversary in 1984. On 1 December 2020 , 5 people were killed by an allegedly drunk driver during a vehicle-ramming attack . The Ehrang/Quint district of Trier was heavily damaged and flooded during the 16 July 2021 floods of Germany, Belgium, The Netherlands and Luxembourg. Trier sits in

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