The Tri-Ergon sound-on-film system was developed from around 1919 by three German inventors, Josef Engl (1893–1942), Joseph Massolle (1889–1957), and Hans Vogt (1890–1979).
151-646: The system used a photoelectric recording method and a non-standard film size (42mm) which incorporated the sound track with stock 35mm film. With a Swiss backer, the inventors formed Tri-Ergon AG in Zurich , and tried to interest the market with their invention. Ufa acquired the German sound film rights for the Tri-Ergon process in 1925, but dropped the system when the public showing of their first sound film suffered technical failures. The Tri-Ergon system appeared at
302-533: A sound-on-disc system. Tri-Ergon AG licensed the recording film rights to Ufa in January 1925 and Masolle briefly became technical director of Ufa's first sound-film division. However, the non-standard film format was not popular: even a well-publicized tour of Germany in 1925 failed to generate much interest. Ufa's first sound film using the Tri-Ergon system, the 20-minute short Das Mädchen mit den Schwefelhölzern (1925) [ de ] ('The Match Girl'),
453-823: A Catholic stronghold in the Protestant city until 1803. In 1798 the French invaded Switzerland , destroying the Ancien Régime . Under the Helvetic Republic both the abbey and the city lost their power and were combined with Appenzell into the Canton of Säntis . The Helvetic Republic was widely unpopular in Switzerland and was overthrown in 1803. Following the Act of Mediation the city of St. Gallen became
604-462: A Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light". The paper proposed a simple description of energy quanta , and showed how they explained the blackbody radiation spectrum. His explanation in terms of absorption of discrete quanta of light agreed with experimental results. It explained why the energy of photoelectrons was not dependent on incident light intensity . This
755-407: A combination of both methods is used. Additional kinetic energy is required to move an electron out of the conduction band and into the vacuum level. This is known as the electron affinity of the photocathode and is another barrier to photoemission other than the forbidden band, explained by the band gap model. Some materials such as gallium arsenide have an effective electron affinity that is below
906-405: A complete reorganisation of the whole business. Dutch bankers and creditors began re-financing the profitable parts of the company, which emerged in 1932 as 'International Tobis NV' or Intertobis The cartel rules began to irk foreign film companies, who had to pay ERPI a license fee (royalties) to shoot the film, and then had to pay Tobis-Klang to show the film in the areas allotted to them under
1057-462: A crude approximation, for photon energies above the highest atomic binding energy, the cross section is given by: Here Z is the atomic number and n is a number which varies between 4 and 5. The photoelectric effect rapidly decreases in significance in the gamma-ray region of the spectrum, with increasing photon energy. It is also more likely from elements with high atomic number. Consequently, high- Z materials make good gamma-ray shields, which
1208-407: A detailed analysis of the photoeffect was performed by Aleksandr Stoletov with results reported in six publications. Stoletov invented a new experimental setup which was more suitable for a quantitative analysis of the photoeffect. He discovered a direct proportionality between the intensity of light and the induced photoelectric current (the first law of photoeffect or Stoletov's law ). He measured
1359-420: A fire consumed much of the abbey, spreading to the adjoining settlement. However, the library was spared. Muslim slave-raiders attacked the abbey in 939. About 954 a protective wall was raised around the abbey. By 975, Abbot Notker finished the wall, and the adjoining settlement began growing into the town of St. Gall. From the later 12th century, the town of St. Gall increasingly pushed for independence from
1510-430: A laser, a discharge tube, or a synchrotron radiation source. The concentric hemispherical analyzer is a typical electron energy analyzer. It uses an electric field between two hemispheres to change (disperse) the trajectories of incident electrons depending on their kinetic energies. Photons hitting a thin film of alkali metal or semiconductor material such as gallium arsenide in an image intensifier tube cause
1661-512: A massive expansion of Tobis across Europe, and on 19 May 1929 issued 5,000 shares of its new company, 'Internationale Maatschappij voor Accoustiek NV' (Accoustiek NV) on the Amsterdam Stock Exchange . This was the largest Dutch flotation to date, netting ƒ 5 million (approx. 8.3 million ℛ︁ℳ︁ , $ 12 million, £500,000. It was over-subscribed by ƒ3 billion (about 5 billion ℛ︁ℳ︁), in keeping with
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#17327726331341812-597: A member of the City Parliament. The parliament holds its meetings in the Waaghaus once a week on Tuesdays. The last regular election of the City Parliament was held on 27 September 2020 for the mandate period ( German : Legislatur ) from January 2021 to December 2024. Currently the City Parliament consists of 17 members of the Social Democratic Party (SP/PS) and one of its junior section,
1963-893: A number of court cases, on 22 July 1929 the German appeals court upheld Tobis-Klangfilm's exclusive rights to sound-on-film recording in Germany: the company was victorious in all subsequent appeals. Tobis-Klangfilm won further injunctions in Switzerland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Holland, and Austria. Even William Fox, owner of Tri-Ergon's American rights, was prevented from presenting films in Berlin. No American films were shown at all in Berlin, and Tobis-Klang refused an offer from ERPI, Will H. Hays organised an American boycott through his company Motion Picture Producers and Distributors of America (MPPDA). The première of Carmine Gallone 's Tobis production, Das Land ohne Frauen ('The Land Without Women') - almost two hours long - on September 30, 1929,
2114-541: A number of short films had been made using the Tri-Ergon process, produced by Tobis-Industrie GmbH (TIGes) (Berlin). Some of them were shown at the first public showing of sound films in Austria on 8 June 1928 at the cinema in the Urania, Vienna , a public educational institute and observatory ( see also Urania-Kino (de) ) They included: In September 1928 Walter Ruttman's full-length Stätten von deutscher Arbeit and Kultur
2265-405: A powerful electric arc lamp which enabled him to investigate large changes in intensity. However, Lenard's results were qualitative rather than quantitative because of the difficulty in performing the experiments: the experiments needed to be done on freshly cut metal so that the pure metal was observed, but it oxidized in a matter of minutes even in the partial vacuums he used. The current emitted by
2416-406: A screen charged by the photoelectric effect to transform an optical image into a scanned electronic signal. Because the kinetic energy of the emitted electrons is exactly the energy of the incident photon minus the energy of the electron's binding within an atom, molecule or solid, the binding energy can be determined by shining a monochromatic X-ray or UV light of a known energy and measuring
2567-645: A separate contract to develop their own sound film production. Tobis (possibly because its earlier failure with Ufa in 1925) stood in direct competition with the giant Ufa as a producer of film. The premiere in March 1929 at the Baden-Baden Festival of Walther Ruttmann 's Tobis film Melodie der Welt ( Melody of the World ), introduced the longest German sound film at the time with some 40 minutes running time. The Dutch firm of H. J. Küchenmeister planned
2718-442: A series of electrodes (dynodes) at ever-higher potentials, these electrons are accelerated and substantially increased in number through secondary emission to provide a readily detectable output current. Photomultipliers are still commonly used wherever low levels of light must be detected. Video camera tubes in the early days of television used the photoelectric effect. For example, Philo Farnsworth 's " Image dissector " used
2869-547: A series of legal tussles Fox at first won his lawsuit on appeal and then lost it after an unusual reversal of decision by the US Supreme Court in October 1934 not to review the case. The Supreme Court surprisingly relented, heard the appeal and finally ruled in March 1935 that neither system was 'new', and that there were prior inventions. An appeal by Alttona Publix was rejected on 1 April 1935. Although this brought
3020-419: A settlement that greatly restricted the city's power and burdened the city with serious penalties and reparation payments. Ulrich, overwhelmed by the responsibility for his political decisions, panicked in the face of the approaching enemy who wanted him apprehended. His life was in great danger, and he was forced to escape from the city disguised as a messenger. He made his way to Lindau and to Innsbruck and
3171-728: A sound film for the opening of the fifth German Radio Exhibition in Berlin. Their film Deutscher Rundfunk , with music by Edmund Meisel , showed at the exhibition in August. Reviewers of the Radio Exhibition screenings were impressed by the reproduction of natural sounds, such as street noises, marching soldiers, hammering machines, steam ships and zoo animals. It was later released in a shorter version, Tönende Welle . Competing American sound film companies such as RKO (formed by RCA ) were becoming more organised in Germany. To protect
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#17327726331343322-499: A strong relationship between light and electronic properties of materials. In 1873, Willoughby Smith discovered photoconductivity in selenium while testing the metal for its high resistance properties in conjunction with his work involving submarine telegraph cables. Johann Elster (1854–1920) and Hans Geitel (1855–1923), students in Heidelberg , investigated the effects produced by light on electrified bodies and developed
3473-795: A swift end to the sound film wars between various competing US and European (Dutch, German, and Swiss) interests, it also meant that the original Tri-Ergon system was never formally adopted in the United States. As a result, William Fox's own American Tri-Ergon Corporation failed to collect an estimated $ 100 million in licensing fees. In 1931 the effects of the Wall Street Crash eventually hit Küchenmeister's Sprekende Film NV, which owned Tobis. The Dutch firm had over-extended itself with bank loans which were not renewed, and its Ultraphone business went bankrupt. The hugely complex chain of inter-linked Tobis companies fell to pieces, necessitating
3624-571: A time Tri-Ergon successfully blocked all American attempts to show their sound films in Germany and other European countries, until a loose cartel was formed under an agreement in Paris in 1930. However, William Fox of the Fox Film Corporation acquired the US rights for the Tri-Ergon system and, backed by Tri-Ergon AG, began a patent infringement battle in the courts in 1929 against much of
3775-577: A time when a number of other sound film processes were arriving on the market, and the company soon merged with a number of competitors to form the Tobis syndicate in 1928, joined by the Klangfilm AG syndicate in 1929 and renamed as Tobis-Klangfilm by 1930. While Tri-Ergon became the dominant sound film process in Germany and much of Europe through its use by Tobis-Klangfilm, American film companies were still squabbling over their respective patents. For
3926-420: Is derived from Greek : τρία , romanized : tria , meaning three, and ἔργον , érgon , meaning 'deed, action, work, labour, or task'; cognate with Old English : weorc (English work). The erg also derives from the same word ἔργον . The Tri-Ergon process involved recording sound onto film using the "variable density" method, used by Movietone and Lee De Forest 's Phonofilm , rather than
4077-513: Is forested. Of the rest of the land, 42.1% is settled (buildings or roads) and the remainder (1.9%) is non-productive (rivers or lakes). St. Gallen has a humid continental climate ( Dfb ) with short, warm summers and long, moderately cold winters. Precipitation is very high year round. St. Gallen has a very cloudy climate. Between 1981 and 2010 St. Gallen had an average of 141 days of rain or snow per year and on average received 1,248 mm (49.1 in) of precipitation . The wettest month
4228-665: Is in the collection of the Deutsches Museum in München , Germany . Massolle, Engl and Vogt secured patents from 1919 in Germany, and applied for a US patent on 20 March 1922. The first public showing of Tri-Ergon sound films took place in the Alhambra (Kino) [ de ] at 68 Kurfürstendamm , Berlin on 17 September 1922. One of the sound films shown was titled Der Brandstifter ('The Arsonist' in English). It
4379-419: Is one of the main characteristics of the quantum system, and can be used for further studies in quantum chemistry and quantum physics. The electronic properties of ordered, crystalline solids are determined by the distribution of the electronic states with respect to energy and momentum—the electronic band structure of the solid. Theoretical models of photoemission from solids show that this distribution is, for
4530-416: Is positive, and ν > ν o {\displaystyle \nu >\nu _{o}} is required for the photoelectric effect to occur. The frequency ν o {\displaystyle \nu _{o}} is the threshold frequency for the given material. Above that frequency, the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons as well as the stopping voltage in
4681-508: Is proportional to the frequency ν {\displaystyle \nu } of the corresponding electromagnetic wave. The proportionality constant h {\displaystyle h} has become known as the Planck constant . In the range of kinetic energies of the electrons that are removed from their varying atomic bindings by the absorption of a photon of energy h ν {\displaystyle h\nu } ,
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4832-416: Is sigmoidal, but its exact shape depends on the experimental geometry and the electrode material properties. For a given metal surface, there exists a certain minimum frequency of incident radiation below which no photoelectrons are emitted. This frequency is called the threshold frequency . Increasing the frequency of the incident beam increases the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectrons, and
4983-530: Is situated in the northeastern part of Switzerland in a valley about 700 meters (2,300 ft) above sea level. It is one of the highest cities in Switzerland and thus receives abundant winter snow. The city lies between Lake Constance and the mountains of the Appenzell Alps (with the Säntis as the highest peak at 2,502 meters (8,209 ft)). It therefore offers excellent recreation areas nearby. As
5134-400: Is stopped, the current also stops. This initiated the concept of photoelectric emission. The discovery of the ionization of gases by ultraviolet light was made by Philipp Lenard in 1900. As the effect was produced across several centimeters of air and yielded a greater number of positive ions than negative, it was natural to interpret the phenomenon, as J. J. Thomson did, as a Hertz effect upon
5285-499: Is studied in condensed matter physics , solid state , and quantum chemistry to draw inferences about the properties of atoms, molecules and solids. The effect has found use in electronic devices specialized for light detection and precisely timed electron emission. The experimental results disagree with classical electromagnetism , which predicts that continuous light waves transfer energy to electrons, which would then be emitted when they accumulate enough energy. An alteration in
5436-574: Is the patriarch of the Baden and Württemberg Varnbülers. Starting in 1526 then- mayor and humanist Joachim von Watt (Vadian) introduced the Protestant Reformation into St. Gallen. The town converted to the new religion while the abbey remained Roman Catholic . While iconoclastic riots forced the monks to flee the city and remove images from the city's churches, the fortified abbey remained untouched. The abbey would remain
5587-463: Is the principal reason why lead ( Z = 82) is preferred and most widely used. Applets St. Gallen St. Gallen is a Swiss city and the capital of the canton of St. Gallen . It evolved from the hermitage of Saint Gall , founded in the 7th century. Today, it is a large urban agglomeration (with around 167,000 inhabitants in 2019) and represents the center of eastern Switzerland . Its economy consists mainly of
5738-471: Is thought that the smallest particles are repelled kilometers from the surface and that the particles move in "fountains" as they charge and discharge. When photon energies are as high as the electron rest energy of 511 keV , yet another process, Compton scattering , may occur. Above twice this energy, at 1.022 MeV , pair production is also more likely. Compton scattering and pair production are examples of two other competing mechanisms. Even if
5889-407: Is too low, the electron is unable to escape the material. Since an increase in the intensity of low-frequency light will only increase the number of low-energy photons, this change in intensity will not create any single photon with enough energy to dislodge an electron. Moreover, the energy of the emitted electrons will not depend on the intensity of the incoming light of a given frequency, but only on
6040-426: Is very small, less than 10 second. Angular distribution of the photoelectrons is highly dependent on polarization (the direction of the electric field) of the incident light, as well as the emitting material's quantum properties such as atomic and molecular orbital symmetries and the electronic band structure of crystalline solids. In materials without macroscopic order, the distribution of electrons tends to peak in
6191-496: The Fermi level . When the photoelectron is emitted into a solid rather than into a vacuum, the term internal photoemission is often used, and emission into a vacuum is distinguished as external photoemission . Even though photoemission can occur from any material, it is most readily observed from metals and other conductors. This is because the process produces a charge imbalance which, if not neutralized by current flow, results in
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6342-520: The Great Depression caused another severe crisis for St. Gallen embroidery . Only in the 1950s did the textile industry recover somewhat. Nowadays, because of competition and the prevalence of computer-operated embroidery machines, only a reduced textile industry has survived in St. Gallen; but its embroidered textiles are still popular with Parisian haute couture designers. St. Gallen
6493-658: The JUSO , 11 The Liberals (FDP/PLR) , 8 Green Liberal Party (GLP/PVL) , 8 Christian Democratic People's Party (CVP/PDC) , 8 Swiss People's Party (SVP/UDC) , 7 Green Party (GPS/PES) and 1 of its junior section, the JungeGr , one representative of the Evangelical People's Party (EVP) , and one member of the Politische Frauengruppe (PFG) (Political Women Group). In the 2019 federal election for
6644-589: The Rorschacher Klosterbruch . When the Abbot complained to the Confederates about the damage and demanded full compensation, Ulrich responded with a countersuit, and in cooperation with Schwendiner rejected the arbitration efforts of the non-partisan Confederates. He motivated the clerics from Wil to Rorschach to abandon their loyalty to the abbey and spoke against the abbey at a meeting of
6795-725: The Swiss National Council the most popular party was the PS which received 24.4% (-3.8) of the vote. The next five most popular parties were the Green Party (17.5%, +8.3), the SVP (16.5%, -4.6), FDP (14.4%, +0.1), the CVP (12.6%, +0.4), and the GLP (10.9%, +4.4). In the federal election a total of 18,821 votes were cast, and the voter turnout was 42.9%. In the 2015 election for
6946-605: The Swiss National Council the most popular party was the SPS which received 28.1% of the vote. The next five most popular parties were the SVP (21.1%), the FDP (14.3%), the CVP (12.2%), the GPS (9.2%), and the GLP (6.6%). In the federal election, a total of 20,768 voters were cast, and the voter turnout was 46.0%. St. Gallen is twinned with: St. Gallen has a population (as of 31 December 2020) of 76,213. As of 2019 , about 31.4% of
7097-651: The executive government of the City of St. Gallen and operates as a collegiate authority . It is composed of five councilors ( German : Stadtrat/ Stadträtin ), each presiding over a directorate. The president of the presidential directorate acts as mayor ( Stadtpräsident ). In the mandate period 2017–2020 ( Legislatur ) the City Council is presided by Stadtpräsidentin Maria Pappa . Departmental tasks, coordination measures and implementation of laws decreed by
7248-399: The flywheel on the sound drum. Fox then separately sued (as test cases) Altoona Publix Theatres Inc., which leased and operated the projection equipment from RCA ; and Paramount for infringement of the "double printing" method. He then sued RCA and ERPI - and all the US film companies which used the Tri-Ergon design - for infringement, specifically the flywheel on the sound drum. During
7399-404: The intensity of light would theoretically change the kinetic energy of the emitted electrons, with sufficiently dim light resulting in a delayed emission. The experimental results instead show that electrons are dislodged only when the light exceeds a certain frequency —regardless of the light's intensity or duration of exposure. Because a low-frequency beam at a high intensity does not build up
7550-402: The photovoltaic effect , and the photoelectrochemical effect . The photons of a light beam have a characteristic energy, called photon energy , which is proportional to the frequency of the light. In the photoemission process, when an electron within some material absorbs the energy of a photon and acquires more energy than its binding energy , it is likely to be ejected. If the photon energy
7701-696: The service sector . The city is home to the University of St. Gallen , one of the best business schools in Europe. The main tourist attraction is the Abbey of Saint Gall , a UNESCO World Heritage Site . The Abbey's renowned library contains books from the 9th century. The official language of St. Gallen is (the Swiss variety of Standard) German , but the main spoken language is the local variant of Alemannic Swiss German . The city has good transport links to
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#17327726331347852-459: The "variable area" method later used by RCA Photophone . Tri-Ergon used a special form of microphone without mechanical moving parts (Cathodophone) for sound pickup and a special electric discharge tube for variable density film recording. For reproduction of sound, the system used an electrostatic loudspeaker . Two specific patents in the Tri-Ergon system would later cause controversy. The Tri-Ergon film used an extra 7mm sound strip attached to
8003-417: The 1930 accord. Another conference was held in Paris during February 1932, but Tobis-Klangfilm demanded extra royalty fees, and American companies began withholding payments. Photoelectric The photoelectric effect is the emission of electrons from a material caused by electromagnetic radiation such as ultraviolet light . Electrons emitted in this manner are called photoelectrons. The phenomenon
8154-546: The American film industry. The dispute wasn't settled until 1935, when Fox lost his final appeal in the US Supreme Court . A new Paris accord was signed in March 1936, which held until the start of the Second World War . The Tri-Ergon system continued in use in Germany and the continent during the war. There were a number of companies which used the Tri-Ergon name: The name Tri-Ergon means "the work of three", and
8305-587: The Case patents were actually used in creating the new sound-on-film system he dubbed Fox Movietone . One of the first feature films to be released in Fox Movietone was Sunrise: A Song of Two Humans (1927) directed by F. W. Murnau . Fox also used the system for the long-running newsreel series Fox Movietone News . On 5 March 1927 Alfred Hugenberg 's industrial Hugenberg-Gruppe took over Ufa and, as part of their initial cost-cutting measures, closed down
8456-401: The City Council and the administration. The delegates are selected by means of a system of proportional representation (Proporz). The sessions of the City Parliament are public. Unlike members of the City Council, members of the City Parliament are not politicians by profession, and they are paid a fee based on their attendance. Any resident of St. Gallen allowed to vote can be elected as
8607-406: The City Parliament are carried by the City Council. The regular election of the City Council by any inhabitant valid to vote is held every four years. Any resident of St. Gallen allowed to vote can be elected as a member of the City Council. The current mandate period is from 1 January 2021 to 31 December 2024. The mayor is elected as such by public election by means of a system of Majorz , while
8758-503: The Confederation and took part in their famous attack. A large painting of Ulrich returning triumphantly to a hero's welcome in St. Gallen is still displayed in St. Gallen. After the war, Varnbüler often represented St. Gallen at the various parliaments of the Confederation. In December 1480, Varnbüler was offered the position of mayor for the first time. From that time on, he served in several leadership positions and
8909-713: The Dutch firm of H. J. Küchenmeister founded a new company, International Maatschappij voor Sprekende Films NV (Sprekende Films NV) to profit from its patented 'Meisterton' system. Within a year the Dutch company would have almost total control of the Tobis and the Tri-Ergon patents. At the 1927 Baden-Baden festival of contemporary chamber-music, pioneering sound films with original scores by leading avant-garde composers were shown at special 'Film and Music' sessions. Walther Ruttmann 's abstract experimental film Opus III (1924), with an original score for chamber orchestra by Hans Eisler ,
9060-672: The Filling Station with Lilian Harvey , Willy Fritsch and songs by the Comedian Harmonists . The success of these early sound films led the Berlin Chamber of Commerce to comment: "By now, sound film has become firmly established." The stalemate in the ongoing patent wars between the US and European interests was broken by RCA. In the summer of 1929 General Electric (GE) acquired a part interest in AEG , one of
9211-700: The German Holy Roman Empire , which eventually led to a total separation after the Swabian War . Despite the unpropitious end of his career, Ulrich Varnbüler is immortalized in a famous woodcut by Albrecht Dürer , which is now part of the Smithsonian Institution's woodcut collection in the National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC. Among Varnbüler's sons, the eldest (Hans/Johann) became the mayor of Lindau . He
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#17327726331349362-540: The German physicist Max Planck suggested in his "On the Law of Distribution of Energy in the Normal Spectrum" paper that the energy carried by electromagnetic waves could only be released in packets of energy. In 1905, Albert Einstein published a paper advancing the hypothesis that light energy is carried in discrete quantized packets to explain experimental data from the photoelectric effect. Einstein theorized that
9513-409: The Tri-Ergon department. Ludwig Klitzsch, the managing director, dismissed Bagier and his team, sidestepping the problem of "the talkies" with their vast technical, financial, and legal problems. On 12 May 1927, Tri-Ergon-Musik-AG (Berlin), a subsidiary of Tri-Ergon-Musik-AG (St. Gallen) was formed by Joseph Masolle. By 1931 it was a subsidiary of IG Farben , which was founded in 1925. In December 1927
9664-488: The Tri-Ergon sound film patents. Tobis was almost completely controlled by Küchenmeister by 1929. I Kiss Your Hand, Madame ('Ich küsse ihre Hand, Madame') was the first Tobis film with sound. Starring Harry Liedtke and Marlene Dietrich it premièred on January 16, 1929. Free of dialogue, the film's only sound segment occurs when the tenor Richard Tauber sings the title song on the soundtrack (00:32). Although Tauber appears with Liedtke and Dietrich in publicity shots for
9815-763: The United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, India, and the Soviet Union. Royalties collected in the United Kingdom were split, 25 percent going to Tobis-Klangfilm, who also acquired similar exclusive rights in Central Europe and Scandinavia. In 1930 Tri-Ergon AG's 1922 patent application was still pending in the United States. William Fox (who had bought the US Tri-Ergon rights in 1926) had lost control of his own company, Fox Studios, to ERPI. Backed by Tri-Ergon AG in Switzerland, he intensified
9966-471: The Varnbülers regained their properties. However, other political ramifications resulted from the court action, because the Confederation gained ownership of the city of St. Gallen and rejected the inroads of the empire. Thus, the conflict strengthened the relationship between the Confederation and the city of St. Gallen. On the other hand, the matter deepened the alienation between Switzerland and
10117-640: The abbey to Rorschach on Lake Constance , he encountered stiff resistance from the St. Gallen citizenry, other clerics, and the Appenzell nobility in the Rhine Valley, who were concerned for their holdings. At this point, Varnbüler entered the conflict against the prelate. He wanted to restrain the increase of the abbey's power and at the same time increase the power of the town that had been restricted in its development. For this purpose he established contact with farmers and Appenzell residents (led by
10268-589: The abbey. In 1180, an imperial reeve , who was not answerable to the abbot, was installed in the town. In 1207, Abbot Ulrich von Sax was granted the rank of Imperial Prince ( Reichsfürst ) by Philip of Swabia , King of the Germans. As an ecclesiastical principality, the Abbey of St. Gallen was to constitute an important territorial state and a major regional power in northern Switzerland. The city of St. Gallen proper progressively separated itself from
10419-411: The apparatus in a darkened box to see the spark better. However, he noticed that the maximum spark length was reduced when inside the box. A glass panel placed between the source of electromagnetic waves and the receiver absorbed ultraviolet radiation that assisted the electrons in jumping across the gap. When removed, the spark length would increase. He observed no decrease in spark length when he replaced
10570-431: The attempt to get the patent granted. In September 1931 the efforts of American Tri-Ergon Corporation's patent lawyers paid off, and he was finally assigned the US patent for the Tri-Ergon rights in the United States. The assignor was Tri-Ergon AG, who had originally applied for the US patent back in 1922. The Tri-Ergon patents named particular technical features that claimed to precede all other sound-on-film patents, such as
10721-442: The beginning of the 19th century, the first embroidery machines were developed in St. Gallen. In 1910 the embroidery production constituted the largest export branch (18% of the total export value) in Switzerland and more than half of the worldwide production of embroidery originated in St. Gallen. One fifth of the population of the eastern part of Switzerland was involved with the textile industry . However, World War I and
10872-585: The budget. From 1926, needing more revenue, Tri-Ergon AG sought backers in the US. On 5 July 1927 the Hungarian-American William Fox of the Fox Film Corporation personally purchased the US rights to the Tri-Ergon patents for $ 50,000, forming the American Tri-Ergon Corporation. Fox Film had also purchased sound-on-film patents from Freeman Harrison Owens and Theodore Case , although it seems that only
11023-574: The capital of the Protestant Canton of St. Gallen. One of the first acts of the new canton was to suppress the abbey. The monks were driven from the abbey; the last abbot died in Muri in 1829. In 1846 a rearrangement in the local dioceses made St. Gall a separate diocese , with the abbey church as its cathedral and a portion of the monastic buildings designated the bishop's residence. Gustav Adolf IV , former king of Sweden , spent
11174-444: The city center is built on an unstable turf ground (its founder Gallus was looking for a site for a hermitage, not for a city), all buildings on the valley floor must be built on piles . For example, the entire foundation of the train station and its plaza are based on hundreds of piles. St. Gallen has an area, as of 2017 , of 39.38 km (15.20 sq mi). Of this area, 27.7% is used for agricultural purposes, while 28.2%
11325-581: The city. In 1463, Ulrich Rösch had assumed the management of the abbey of Saint Gall. He was an ambitious prelate, whose goal was to return the abbey to prominence by every possible means, following the losses of the Appenzell War . His restless ambition offended the political and material interests of his neighbours. When he arranged for the help of the Pope and the Emperor to carry out a plan to move
11476-547: The companies making up the original Klangfilm AG syndicate. With GE's influence, RCA and Tobis-Klangfilm signed a cooperative agreement. On 22 July 1930, at a conference in Paris , France , RCA, ERPI, and Tobis-Klangfilm formed a loose cartel to divide the world into three regions for selling sound recording and reproducing apparatus. All pending litigation was dropped. ERPI and RCA acquired exclusive rights to sell their own recording and reproduction equipment, and distribute films in
11627-480: The court of King Maximilian . The victors confiscated those of his properties that lay outside of the city of St. Gallen and banned him from the Confederation. Ulrich then appealed to the imperial court (as did Schwendiner, who had fled with him) for the return of his property. The suit had the support of Friedrich II and Maximilian and the trial threatened to drag on for years: it was continued by Ulrich's sons Hans and Ulrich after his death in 1496, and eventually
11778-567: The dependence of the intensity of the photo electric current on the gas pressure, where he found the existence of an optimal gas pressure corresponding to a maximum photocurrent ; this property was used for the creation of solar cells . Many substances besides metals discharge negative electricity under the action of ultraviolet light. G. C. Schmidt and O. Knoblauch compiled a list of these substances. In 1897, J. J. Thomson investigated ultraviolet light in Crookes tubes . Thomson deduced that
11929-467: The direction of polarization of linearly polarized light. The experimental technique that can measure these distributions to infer the material's properties is angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy . In 1905, Einstein proposed a theory of the photoelectric effect using a concept that light consists of tiny packets of energy known as photons or light quanta. Each packet carries energy h ν {\displaystyle h\nu } that
12080-519: The edge of a standard 35mm film, resulting in a new film 42mm wide. This was achieved by a "double-printing" method by which the film and sound tracks were recorded and developed separately, then printed together onto a common positive. This required special adjustments on the standard projectors, which was not well received by the industry. The other patent was a "flywheel" which allowed the film to flow smoothly through sound reproducing equipment. An original Tri-Ergon sound movie projector (dated to 1923)
12231-498: The ejected particles, which he called corpuscles, were of the same nature as cathode rays . These particles later became known as the electrons. Thomson enclosed a metal plate (a cathode) in a vacuum tube, and exposed it to high-frequency radiation. It was thought that the oscillating electromagnetic fields caused the atoms' field to resonate and, after reaching a certain amplitude, caused subatomic corpuscles to be emitted, and current to be detected. The amount of this current varied with
12382-408: The ejection of photoelectrons due to the photoelectric effect. These are accelerated by an electrostatic field where they strike a phosphor coated screen, converting the electrons back into photons. Intensification of the signal is achieved either through acceleration of the electrons or by increasing the number of electrons through secondary emissions, such as with a micro-channel plate . Sometimes
12533-478: The electron's binding energy. The distribution of kinetic energies thus reflects the distribution of the binding energies of the electrons in the atomic, molecular or crystalline system: an electron emitted from the state at binding energy E B {\displaystyle E_{B}} is found at kinetic energy E k = h ν − E B {\displaystyle E_{k}=h\nu -E_{B}} . This distribution
12684-439: The electrons would 'gather up' energy over a period of time, and then be emitted. These are extremely light-sensitive vacuum tubes with a coated photocathode inside the envelope. The photo cathode contains combinations of materials such as cesium, rubidium, and antimony specially selected to provide a low work function, so when illuminated even by very low levels of light, the photocathode readily releases electrons. By means of
12835-449: The electrons. Modern instruments for angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy are capable of measuring these quantities with a precision better than 1 meV and 0.1°. Photoelectron spectroscopy measurements are usually performed in a high-vacuum environment, because the electrons would be scattered by gas molecules if they were present. However, some companies are now selling products that allow photoemission in air. The light source can be
12986-423: The emission from excited states, or a few hundred keV photons for core electrons in elements with a high atomic number . Study of the photoelectric effect led to important steps in understanding the quantum nature of light and electrons and influenced the formation of the concept of wave–particle duality . Other phenomena where light affects the movement of electric charges include the photoconductive effect,
13137-453: The energy in each quantum of light was equal to the frequency of light multiplied by a constant, later called the Planck constant . A photon above a threshold frequency has the required energy to eject a single electron, creating the observed effect. This was a step in the development of quantum mechanics . In 1914, Robert A. Millikan 's highly accurate measurements of the Planck constant from
13288-462: The energy of the individual photons. While free electrons can absorb any energy when irradiated as long as this is followed by an immediate re-emission, like in the Compton effect , in quantum systems all of the energy from one photon is absorbed—if the process is allowed by quantum mechanics —or none at all. Part of the acquired energy is used to liberate the electron from its atomic binding, and
13439-626: The energy required to produce photoelectrons, as would be the case if light's energy accumulated over time from a continuous wave, Albert Einstein proposed that a beam of light is not a wave propagating through space, but a swarm of discrete energy packets, known as photons —term coined by Gilbert N. Lewis in 1926. Emission of conduction electrons from typical metals requires a few electron-volt (eV) light quanta, corresponding to short-wavelength visible or ultraviolet light. In extreme cases, emissions are induced with photons approaching zero energy, like in systems with negative electron affinity and
13590-417: The experiment V o = h e ( ν − ν o ) {\textstyle V_{o}={\frac {h}{e}}\left(\nu -\nu _{o}\right)} rise linearly with the frequency, and have no dependence on the number of photons and the intensity of the impinging monochromatic light. Einstein's formula, however simple, explained all the phenomenology of
13741-491: The fanatical Hermann Schwendiner ) who were seeking an opportunity to weaken the abbot. Initially, he protested to the abbot and the representatives of the four sponsoring Confederate cantons (Zürich, Lucerne, Schwyz, and Glarus) against the construction of the new abbey in Rorschach. Then on 28 July 1489 he had armed troops from St. Gallen and Appenzell destroy the buildings already under construction, an attack known as
13892-527: The film, he didn't appear on screen himself. The film was distributed by Deutsche Lichtspiel-Syndikat (DLS), a chain of 800 cinemas which had installed Küchenmeister's 'Meisterton' sound system in 1928. The main competitor of Tobis was the Klangfilm syndicate, a partnership formed in early 1929 between the electrical manufacturers Siemens & Halske , AEG , and Polyphon -Werke A.G. (who sold Polydor records). By March 1929 Tobis merged with Klangfilm, and
14043-399: The final state of a finite crystal for which the wave function is free-electron-like outside of the crystal, but has a decaying envelope inside. In 1839, Alexandre Edmond Becquerel discovered the related photovoltaic effect while studying the effect of light on electrolytic cells . Though not equivalent to the photoelectric effect, his work on photovoltaics was instrumental in showing
14194-467: The financial breach with the highly restrictive Parufamet agreement of December 1925, whereby the American firms took control (and revenue) of all Ufa's first-run theatres to show American films. Only one significant German film was shown in Ufa first-run cinemas in Berlin during this whole time the agreement was in effect: Joe May 's silent The Farmer from Texas . The film received no publicity build-up and
14345-452: The first practical photoelectric cells that could be used to measure the intensity of light. They arranged metals with respect to their power of discharging negative electricity: rubidium , potassium , alloy of potassium and sodium, sodium , lithium , magnesium , thallium and zinc ; for copper , platinum , lead , iron , cadmium , carbon , and mercury the effects with ordinary light were too small to be measurable. The order of
14496-536: The first woman formally canonized by the Vatican , reportedly saw a vision of the impending attack and warned the monks and citizens to flee. While the monks and the abbey treasure escaped, Wiborada chose to stay behind and was killed by the raiders. Between 924 and 933 the Magyars again threatened the abbey, and its books were removed for safekeeping to Reichenau. Not all the books were returned. On 26 April 937
14647-415: The four cantons decided to carry out their duty to the abbey and to invade the St. Gallen canton with an armed force. The people of Appenzell and the local clerics submitted to this force without significant resistance, while the city of St. Gallen braced itself for a fight to the finish. However, when they learned that their compatriots had given up the fight, they lost confidence, and they agreed to
14798-562: The general stock exchange euphoria of the times. Although Tobis-Klangfilm's preparations were complete by the spring of 1929, Warner Bros. was still technically far ahead and in May 1929 tried to present The Singing Fool in Germany, a Part-Talkie with Al Jolson in a follow-up to The Jazz Singer . Tobis-Klangfilm sued both Warner Bros. and Electrical Research Products, Inc. (ERPI)— Western Electric 's subsidiary for distributing its sound motion picture equipment—for patent infringement. After
14949-426: The glass with quartz, as quartz does not absorb UV radiation. The discoveries by Hertz led to a series of investigations by Wilhelm Hallwachs , Hoor, Augusto Righi and Aleksander Stoletov on the effect of light, and especially of ultraviolet light, on charged bodies. Hallwachs connected a zinc plate to an electroscope . He allowed ultraviolet light to fall on a freshly cleaned zinc plate and observed that
15100-548: The heads of the other directorates are assigned by the collegiate. The delegates are elected by means of a system of Majorz. As of 2017 , St. Gallen's City Council is made up of two representatives of the SP ( Social Democratic Party ) of which one is the mayor, one member of the FDP ( FDP.The Liberals ), one of the GLP ( Green Liberal Party ), and one independent. The last regular election
15251-401: The highest kinetic energy K max {\displaystyle K_{\max }} is K max = h ν − W . {\displaystyle K_{\max }=h\,\nu -W.} Here, W {\displaystyle W} is the minimum energy required to remove an electron from the surface of the material. It is called the work function of
15402-565: The highest maximum radioactivity measurements of any Swiss city, as published in the 2009 yearly report by the Federal Office of Public Health . While the daily average level of gamma-ray radioactivity in the city is unremarkable at 105 nSv/h, the maximum can reach 195 nSv/h, as high as the average for Jungfraujoch , the location with the highest reported level of radioactivity in Switzerland, due to its high elevation and therefore greater exposure to cosmic rays. The same report explains that
15553-501: The increasing potential barrier until the emission completely ceases. The energy barrier to photoemission is usually increased by nonconductive oxide layers on metal surfaces, so most practical experiments and devices based on the photoelectric effect use clean metal surfaces in evacuated tubes. Vacuum also helps observing the electrons since it prevents gases from impeding their flow between the electrodes. As sunlight, due to atmosphere's absorption, does not provide much ultraviolet light,
15704-424: The intensity and color of the radiation. Larger radiation intensity or frequency would produce more current. During the years 1886–1902, Wilhelm Hallwachs and Philipp Lenard investigated the phenomenon of photoelectric emission in detail. Lenard observed that a current flows through an evacuated glass tube enclosing two electrodes when ultraviolet radiation falls on one of them. As soon as ultraviolet radiation
15855-438: The kinetic energies of the photoelectrons. The distribution of electron energies is valuable for studying quantum properties of these systems. It can also be used to determine the elemental composition of the samples. For solids, the kinetic energy and emission angle distribution of the photoelectrons is measured for the complete determination of the electronic band structure in terms of the allowed binding energies and momenta of
16006-461: The last years of his life in St. Gallen, and died there in 1837. In the 15th century, St. Gallen became known for producing quality textiles. In 1714, the zenith was reached with a yearly production of 38,000 pieces of cloth. The first depression occurred in the middle of the 18th century, caused by strong foreign competition and reforms in methods of cotton production. But St. Gallen recovered and an even more prosperous era arrived. At
16157-425: The level of the conduction band. In these materials, electrons that move to the conduction band all have sufficient energy to be emitted from the material, so the film that absorbs photons can be quite thick. These materials are known as negative electron affinity materials. The photoelectric effect will cause spacecraft exposed to sunlight to develop a positive charge. This can be a major problem, as other parts of
16308-417: The light rich in ultraviolet rays used to be obtained by burning magnesium or from an arc lamp . At the present time, mercury-vapor lamps , noble-gas discharge UV lamps and radio-frequency plasma sources, ultraviolet lasers , and synchrotron insertion device light sources prevail. The classical setup to observe the photoelectric effect includes a light source, a set of filters to monochromatize
16459-409: The light, a vacuum tube transparent to ultraviolet light, an emitting electrode (E) exposed to the light, and a collector (C) whose voltage V C can be externally controlled. A positive external voltage is used to direct the photoemitted electrons onto the collector. If the frequency and the intensity of the incident radiation are fixed, the photoelectric current I increases with an increase in
16610-419: The light. The precise relationship had not at that time been tested. By 1905 it was known that the energy of photoelectrons increases with increasing frequency of incident light and is independent of the intensity of the light. However, the manner of the increase was not experimentally determined until 1914 when Millikan showed that Einstein's prediction was correct. The photoelectric effect helped to propel
16761-531: The lowest level of radon exposure. In addition to the measured gamma-radiation, the city may be subject to radioactive tritium pollution in Teufen , a satellite town situated 4 km south of the city in the canton of Appenzell Outer Rhodes (this pollution is also covered in the report). The blazon of the municipal coat of arms is Argent a Bear rampant Sable langued and in his virility Gules and armed and gorged Or. The City Council ( Stadtrat ) constitutes
16912-565: The market from American domination the German government lobbied for a cartelization of all important German sound film patents, and on 30 August 1928 the Tobis Tonbild-Syndicate A.G. was formed to consolidate the Tri-Ergon patents and several hundred more. The four original main companies who made up the Tobis syndicate were: In this deal, Tobis acquired the option to purchase outright Tri-Ergon-Musik AG (Berlin), and made an agreement with Tri-Ergon-Musik-AG (St. Gallen) to use
17063-496: The metals for this effect was the same as in Volta's series for contact-electricity, the most electropositive metals giving the largest photo-electric effect. In 1887, Heinrich Hertz observed the photoelectric effect and reported on the production and reception of electromagnetic waves. The receiver in his apparatus consisted of a coil with a spark gap , where a spark would be seen upon detection of electromagnetic waves. He placed
17214-402: The most part, preserved in the photoelectric effect. The phenomenological three-step model for ultraviolet and soft X-ray excitation decomposes the effect into these steps: There are cases where the three-step model fails to explain peculiarities of the photoelectron intensity distributions. The more elaborate one-step model treats the effect as a coherent process of photoexcitation into
17365-406: The particles present in the gas. In 1902, Lenard observed that the energy of individual emitted electrons was independent of the applied light intensity. This appeared to be at odds with Maxwell's wave theory of light , which predicted that the electron energy would be proportional to the intensity of the radiation. Lenard observed the variation in electron energy with light frequency using
17516-401: The phenomenon of photoelectric fatigue—the progressive diminution of the effect observed upon fresh metallic surfaces. According to Hallwachs, ozone played an important part in the phenomenon, and the emission was influenced by oxidation, humidity, and the degree of polishing of the surface. It was at the time unclear whether fatigue is absent in a vacuum. In the period from 1888 until 1891,
17667-422: The photoelectric effect is still commonly analyzed in terms of waves; the two approaches are equivalent because photon or wave absorption can only happen between quantized energy levels whose energy difference is that of the energy of photon. Albert Einstein's mathematical description of how the photoelectric effect was caused by absorption of quanta of light was in one of his Annus Mirabilis papers , named "On
17818-403: The photoelectric effect is the favoured reaction for a particular interaction of a single photon with a bound electron, the result is also subject to quantum statistics and is not guaranteed. The probability of the photoelectric effect occurring is measured by the cross section of the interaction, σ. This has been found to be a function of the atomic number of the target atom and photon energy. In
17969-608: The photoelectric effect supported Einstein's model, even though a corpuscular theory of light was for Millikan, at the time, "quite unthinkable". Einstein was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics for "his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect", and Millikan was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1923 for "his work on the elementary charge of electricity and on the photoelectric effect". In quantum perturbation theory of atoms and solids acted upon by electromagnetic radiation,
18120-465: The photoelectric effect, and had far-reaching consequences in the development of quantum mechanics . Electrons that are bound in atoms, molecules and solids each occupy distinct states of well-defined binding energies . When light quanta deliver more than this amount of energy to an individual electron, the electron may be emitted into free space with excess (kinetic) energy that is h ν {\displaystyle h\nu } higher than
18271-644: The photoelectric effect. The charged dust then repels itself and lifts off the surface of the Moon by electrostatic levitation . This manifests itself almost like an "atmosphere of dust", visible as a thin haze and blurring of distant features, and visible as a dim glow after the sun has set. This was first photographed by the Surveyor program probes in the 1960s, and most recently the Chang'e 3 rover observed dust deposition on lunar rocks as high as about 28 cm. It
18422-408: The positive voltage, as more and more electrons are directed onto the electrode. When no additional photoelectrons can be collected, the photoelectric current attains a saturation value. This current can only increase with the increase of the intensity of light. An increasing negative voltage prevents all but the highest-energy electrons from reaching the collector. When no current is observed through
18573-574: The previous year), the Ufa management with Erich Pommer in charge of production continued to over-spend by enormous amounts. Lang's Metropolis cost over an (estimated) 5,100,000 ℛ︁ℳ︁ . Yet the only venue where Metropolis could be seen in the whole of Germany was at a single, small—yet exquisitely decorated—cinema showing second-rate films, the Ufa-Pavillon am Nollendorfplatz . The box office receipts amounted to approximately 75,000 ℛ︁ℳ︁, slightly over 0.01% of
18724-407: The rate at which electrons are ejected—the photoelectric current I— but the kinetic energy of the photoelectrons and the stopping voltage remain the same. For a given metal and frequency of incident radiation, the rate at which photoelectrons are ejected is directly proportional to the intensity of the incident light. The time lag between the incidence of radiation and the emission of a photoelectron
18875-451: The rest contributes to the electron's kinetic energy as a free particle. Because electrons in a material occupy many different quantum states with different binding energies, and because they can sustain energy losses on their way out of the material, the emitted electrons will have a range of kinetic energies. The electrons from the highest occupied states will have the highest kinetic energy. In metals, those electrons will be emitted from
19026-525: The rest of the country and to neighbouring Germany and Austria. It also functions as the gate to the Appenzellerland . The town of St. Gallen grew around the Abbey of St Gall , founded in the 8th century. The abbey is said to have been built at the site of the hermitage of Irish missionary Gallus , who according to legend had established himself by the river Steinach in AD 612. The monastery itself
19177-506: The resulting syndicate was renamed Tobis-Klangfilm in 1930. Tobis-Klangfilm made a deal with the British and French Phototone companies, and British Talking Pictures, Ltd. This made the patents of Lee de Forest available to Tobis-Klangfilm. Tobis-Klangfilm now had branches for production, distribution and equipment throughout Europe (including Tobis Portuguesa ) and the United Kingdom. Meanwhile, also in 1929, Ufa and Klangfilm planned
19328-625: The rule of the abbot. Abbot Wilhelm von Montfort in 1291 granted special privileges to the citizens. By about 1353 the guilds , headed by the cloth-weavers guild, had gained control of the civic government. In 1415 the city bought its liberty from the German king Sigismund . In 1405, the Appenzell estates of the abbot successfully rebelled and in 1411 they became allies of the Old Swiss Confederation . A few months later,
19479-496: The spacecraft are in shadow which will result in the spacecraft developing a negative charge from nearby plasmas. The imbalance can discharge through delicate electrical components. The static charge created by the photoelectric effect is self-limiting, because a higher charged object does not give up its electrons as easily as a lower charged object does. Light from the Sun hitting lunar dust causes it to become positively charged from
19630-399: The stopping voltage has to increase. The number of emitted electrons may also change because the probability that each photon results in an emitted electron is a function of photon energy . An increase in the intensity of the same monochromatic light (so long as the intensity is not too high ), which is proportional to the number of photons impinging on the surface in a given time, increases
19781-571: The surface and is sometimes denoted Φ {\displaystyle \Phi } or φ {\displaystyle \varphi } . If the work function is written as W = h ν o , {\displaystyle W=h\,\nu _{o},} the formula for the maximum kinetic energy of the ejected electrons becomes K max = h ( ν − ν o ) . {\displaystyle K_{\max }=h\left(\nu -\nu _{o}\right).} Kinetic energy
19932-495: The surface was determined by the light's intensity, or brightness: doubling the intensity of the light doubled the number of electrons emitted from the surface. Initial investigation of the photoelectric effect in gasses by Lenard were followed up by J. J. Thomson and then more decisively by Frederic Palmer Jr. The gas photoemission was studied and showed very different characteristics than those at first attributed to it by Lenard. In 1900, while studying black-body radiation ,
20083-434: The then-emerging concept of wave–particle duality in the nature of light. Light simultaneously possesses the characteristics of both waves and particles, each being manifested according to the circumstances. The effect was impossible to understand in terms of the classical wave description of light, as the energy of the emitted electrons did not depend on the intensity of the incident radiation. Classical theory predicted that
20234-408: The town of St. Gallen also became an ally. They joined the "everlasting alliance" as full members of the Confederation in 1454 and in 1457 became completely free from the abbot. However, in 1451 the abbey became an ally of Zürich , Lucerne , Schwyz , and Glarus who were all members of the Confederation. Ulrich Varnbüler was an early mayor of St. Gallen . Hans, the father of Ulrich,
20385-485: The townspeople at Waldkirch, where the popular league was formed. He was confident that the four sponsoring cantons would not intervene with force, due to the prevailing tensions between the Confederation and the Swabian League . He was strengthened in his resolve when the people of St. Gallen re-elected him as their highest magistrate in 1490. Ulrich Varnbüler had made a serious miscalculation. In early 1490,
20536-449: The tube, the negative voltage has reached the value that is high enough to slow down and stop the most energetic photoelectrons of kinetic energy K max . This value of the retarding voltage is called the stopping potential or cut off potential V o . Since the work done by the retarding potential in stopping the electron of charge e is eV o , the following must hold eV o = K max. The current-voltage curve
20687-436: The unusually high spikes of radioactivity measured in St. Gallen are due to radioactive products of radon gas being washed to the ground during heavy storms, but does not explain where the sufficient quantities of radon gas and its products to account for the anomaly would come from. The yearly report for 2009 on risks associated with radon published by the same governmental agency shows St. Gallen to lie in an area of
20838-464: The whole issue of sound films, had still fallen into severe financial difficulties with productions of vastly expensive silent films accompanied by a live symphony orchestra playing a specially-composed score, such as F. W. Murnau 's Der Letzte Mann (1924), with Emil Jannings and Faust (1926 film) ; and both parts of Fritz Lang 's Die Nibelungen , with a score by Gottfried Huppertz . Paramount Pictures and Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer stepped into
20989-455: The zinc plate became uncharged if initially negatively charged, positively charged if initially uncharged, and more positively charged if initially positively charged. From these observations he concluded that some negatively charged particles were emitted by the zinc plate when exposed to ultraviolet light. With regard to the Hertz effect , the researchers from the start showed the complexity of
21140-405: Was July during which time St. Gallen received an average of 172 mm (6.8 in) of rain. During this month there was precipitation for an average of 13.8 days. The months with the most days of precipitation were May, June and July. The driest month of the year was February with an average of 57 mm (2.2 in) of precipitation over 9.1 days. St. Gallen is notable for reporting
21291-413: Was a theoretical leap, but the concept was strongly resisted at first because it contradicted the wave theory of light that followed naturally from James Clerk Maxwell 's equations of electromagnetism, and more generally, the assumption of infinite divisibility of energy in physical systems. Einstein's work predicted that the energy of individual ejected electrons increases linearly with the frequency of
21442-734: Was an adaptation for the screen of a 1903 one-act play In de Jonge Jan [ nl ] by Dutch author Herman Heijermans who lived in Berlin from 1907 to 1911. The peculiarity of this play rests in the fact that all the parts were played by the same actor. No known copies of this film remain. In order to continue developing their process, the inventors sold their patent to Swiss financial backers in St. Gallen who formed Tri-Ergon AG in Zürich , Switzerland . In 1924 Universum-Film AG (Ufa) produced three hours' worth of vaudeville shorts with sound, similar to those produced by Warner Brothers , using
21593-429: Was considered the city's intellectual and political leader. According to Vadian , who understood his contemporaries well, "Ulrich was a very intelligent, observant, and eloquent man who enjoyed the trust of the citizenry to a high degree." His reputation among the Confederates was also substantial. However, in the late 1480s, he became involved in a conflict that was to have serious negative consequences for him and for
21744-532: Was directed by Guido Bagier. Bagier (who worked at Ufa between 1922 and 1927 as producer and musical advisor) also wrote the music for the film; the screenplay was by Hans Kyser. It premièred at the Mozartsaal in December 1925, but was a total flop in terms of technical sound quality. According to Bagier, the fiasco was due to technical problems with the playback equipment. In the meantime, Ufa , having ducked
21895-578: Was dropped after only one week at the Ufa-Palast am Zoo . Almost no German films were shown in US cinemas: and Ufa made no new films in Germany at all while the Parufamet contract was in force. Although this injection of foreign capital allowed the construction in 1926 of Ufa's enormous new Große Halle studios at Neubabelsberg (designed by Carl Stach-Urach, who had re-built the Ufa-Palast am Zoo
22046-476: Was founded by Saint Othmar in c. 720 . The abbey prospered in the 9th century and became a site of pilgrimage and a center of trade, with associated guest houses, stables and other facilities, a hospital, one of the first monastery schools north of the Alps. By the tenth century, a settlement had grown up around the abbey. In 926 Magyar raiders attacked the abbey and surrounding town. Saint Wiborada ,
22197-587: Was hailed by reviews in the press as "the first feature-length German sound film". On 29 October 1929 the Wall Street Crash occurred, triggering a worldwide financial crisis. Ufa's first major sound film, Melody of the Heart , was released in December 1929, followed in April 1930 by The Blue Angel with Dietrich and Emil Jannings , and music by Friedrich Hollaender ; and in September that year The Three from
22348-470: Was held on 27 September 2020. Manfred Linke is City Chancellor ( Stadtschreiber ) since for the City Chancellary. The Stadtparlament of St. Gallen for the mandate period of 2021-2024 The City Parliament ( Stadtparlament ) holds legislative power . It is made up of 63 members, with elections held every four years. The City Parliament decrees regulations and by-laws that are executed by
22499-525: Was prominent in city affairs in St. Gallen in the early 15th century. Ulrich entered public affairs in the early 1460s and attained the various offices and honours that are available to a talented and ambitious man. He demonstrated fine qualities as field commander of the St. Gallen troops in the Burgundian Wars . In the Battle of Grandson (1476) his troops were part of the advance units of
22650-574: Was shown in the Vienna Urania cinema, along with Hans Moser als Wiener Dienstmann (1928), starring the Viennese comic actor Hans Moser . In the autumn of a touring exhibition of sound films was shown throughout Austria. The German première of Ein Tag auf dem Bauernhof took place on 12 September 1928 at the Mozartsaal. In July 1928 German State Radio commissioned Tri-Ergon-Musik A.G. to produce
22801-497: Was shown twice: firstly as a silent film with the music performed live and synchronized using Blum's Musikchronometer, and then as a sound film (no longer extant) using the Tri-Ergon process. The sound-film recording was supervised by Bagier, now working for Tri-Ergon-Musik A.G. Other films shown at the festivals in 1928-9 included American cartoons with music by Paul Hindemith and Ernst Toch , newsreels ( Darius Milhaud ), and abstract films by Hans Richter (Hindemith). By mid-1928
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