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118-604: The pose goes back at least 2,000 years in Indian art, and has been highly characteristic for much of this period, "found repeated over and over again in countless examples of Indian sculpture and painting". Indian religions carried it to East and South-East Asia. Like the equivalent contrapposto and "S Curve" poses in Western art, it suggests movement in figures and gives "rhythmic fluidity and ... youthful energy". The word derives from Sanskrit , where bhanga (or bhangha )

236-525: A Vaishnava temple with an image of Ramanuja exists in the Vitthalapura area of Vijayanagara. Scholars in the later Kingdom of Mysore wrote Vaishnavite works upholding the teachings of Ramanuja. King Vishnuvardhana built many temples after his conversion from Jainism to Vaishnavism. The later saints of Madhvacharya's order, Jayatirtha , Vyasatirtha , Sripadaraja , Vadiraja Tirtha and devotees ( dasa ) such as Vijaya Dasa , Gopaladasa and others from

354-493: A capital: first, its location on the Yagachi River provided a good supply of water year-round. Second, its location in hilly terrain made it easily defended. Third, it lay on an important trade route, helping both commerce and communications. However, Belur was barely capital for a decade before it was moved again. The third and longest-lasting Hoysala capital was Dwarasamudra (also called Dorasamudra or Dvaravatipur), at

472-472: A convention allowing them to hold many attributes and display mudras . The typical form for temple images is a slab with a main figure, rather over half life-size, in very high relief, surrounded by smaller attendant figures, who might have freer tribhanga poses. Critics have found the style tending towards over-elaboration. The quality of the carving is generally very high, with crisp, precise detail. In east India, facial features tend to become sharp. Though

590-546: A family of accountants ( Karanikas ) from Halebidu and spent many years in Hampi writing more than one hundred ragales (poems in blank verse) in praise of Virupaksha (a form of Shiva). Raghavanka was the first to introduce the Shatpadi metre into Kannada literature in his Harishchandra kavya which is considered a classic even though it occasionally violates strict rules of Kannada grammar. In Sanskrit, Madhvacharya wrote

708-992: A favourite and spectacular device. By the end of the period hugely expanded multi-storey gopurams had become the most prominent feature of templeas, as they have remained in the major temples of the south. The large numbers of figures on these were now mostly made from brightly painted stucco . During this period, European styled statues were erected in city squares, as monuments to the British Empire 's power. Statues of Queen Victoria , George V , and various Governor-Generals of India were erected. Such statues were removed from public places after independence, and placed within museums. However, some still stand at their original location, such as Statue of Queen Victoria, Bangalore . Modern Indian sculptors include D.P Roy Choudhury , Ramkinkar Baij , Pilloo Pochkhanawala , Mrinalini Mukherjee , Adi Davierwala , Sankho Chaudhuri and Chintamoni Kar . The National Gallery of modern Art has

826-529: A large collection of modern Indian sculpture. Contemporary Indian sculptors include Sudarshan Shetty , Ranjini Shettar , Anita Dube and Rajeshree Goody. Hoysala The Hoysala kingdom was a Kannadiga power originating from the Indian subcontinent that ruled most of what is now Karnataka between the 10th and the 14th centuries. The capital of the Hoysalas was initially located at Belur , but

944-840: A profusion of tribhanga poses, include examples for both of them. Krishna playing his flute is very consistently depicted in a version of the pose with one lower leg crossed over (or behind) the other and on tip-toe, and he and Shiva are more often given stronger versions of the stance. In the Buddhist and Hindu art of East Asia and South-East Asia , the stance tends to be a mark of recent Indian influence in early periods, and figures, especially major ones, then gradually straighten as time passes. In all areas this tendency may not apply to figures actually shown as dancing. Like many other poses used in traditional Indian dance, including Odissi , Bharata Natyam and Kathak , Tribhangi or Tribhanga can be found in Indian sculpture as well. Traditionally

1062-576: A tradition using wood that also embraced Hinduism . During the 2nd to 1st century BCE in far northern India, in the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara from what is now southern Afghanistan and northern Pakistan , sculptures became more explicit, representing episodes of the Buddha's life and teachings. The pink sandstone Hindu, Jain and Buddhist sculptures of Mathura from the 1st to 3rd centuries CE reflected both native Indian traditions and

1180-622: A voluntary form was prevalent and prostitution was socially acceptable. As in most of India, a caste system was conspicuously present. Trade on the west coast brought many foreigners to India including Arabs , Jews , Persians , Europeans , Chinese and people from the Malay Peninsula . Migration of people within Southern India as a result of the expansion of the empire produced an influx of new cultures and skills. In South India, towns were called Pattana or Pattanam and

1298-460: A wide area. Most of the early finds following this period correspond to what is called the "second period of urbanization" in the middle of the 1st millennium BCE, after a gap about a thousand years following the collapse of the Indus Valley civilization . The anthropomorphic depiction of various deities apparently started in the middle of the 1st millennium BCE, possibly as a consequence of

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1416-445: Is continued, though poses, especially in the many standing figures, are subtly tilted and varied, in contrast to the "columnar rigidity" of earlier figures. The detail of facial parts, hair, headgear, jewellery and the haloes behind figures are carved very precisely, giving a pleasing contrast with the emphasis on broad swelling masses in the body. Deities of all the religions are shown in a calm and majestic meditative style; "perhaps it

1534-602: Is its attention to exquisite detail and skilled craftsmanship. The tower over the temple shrine ( vimana ) is delicately finished with intricate carvings, showing attention to the ornate and elaborately detailed rather than to a tower form and height. The stellate design of the base of the shrine with its rhythmic projections and recesses is carried through the tower in an orderly succession of decorated tiers. Hoysala temple sculpture replicates this emphasis on delicacy and craftsmanship in its focus on depicting feminine beauty, grace and physique. The Hoysala artists achieved this with

1652-669: Is little record of larger sculpture until the Buddhist era, apart from a hoard of copper figures of (somewhat controversially) c. 1500 BCE from Daimabad . Thus the great tradition of Indian monumental sculpture in stone appears to begin relatively late, with the reign of Asoka from 270 to 232 BCE, and the Pillars of Ashoka he erected around India, carrying his edicts and topped by famous sculptures of animals, mostly lions, of which six survive. Large amounts of figurative sculpture, mostly in relief, survive from Early Buddhist pilgrimage stupas, above all Sanchi ; these probably developed out of

1770-486: Is mostly sculpture. There was an imperial court-sponsored art patronized by the emperors, especially Ashoka , and then a "popular" style produced by all others. The most significant remains of monumental Mauryan art include the remains of the royal palace and the city of Pataliputra , a monolithic rail at Sarnath , the Bodhimandala or the altar resting on four pillars at Bodhgaya , the rock-cut chaitya -halls in

1888-437: Is often called Mauryan polish . However this seems not to be entirely reliable as a diagnostic tool for a Mauryan date, as some works from considerably later periods also have it. The Didarganj Yakshi , now most often thought to be from the 2nd century CE, is an example. Terracotta arts executed during pre-Mauryan and Mauryan periods are further refined during Shunga periods and Chandraketugarh emerge as an important center for

2006-447: Is the word for an attitude or position, with tri meaning "triple", making "triple-bend position". Other poses described in old texts on dance were samabhanga for the "figure in equipoise", whether standing, sitting or reclining, and abhanga for a slight bend in one leg giving a smaller curve to the figure. Other more complex positions in dance are atibhanga ; the famous Shiva Nataraja figures are examples of this. The history of

2124-685: Is this all-pervading inwardness that accounts for the unequalled Gupta and post-Gupta ability to communicate higher spiritual states". The Pala Empire ruled a large area in north and east India between the 8th and 12th centuries CE, mostly later inherited by the Sena Empire . During this time, the style of sculpture changed from "Post-Gupta" to a distinctive style that was widely influential in other areas and later centuries. Deity figures became more rigid in posture, very often standing with straight legs close together, and figures were often heavily loaded with jewellery; they very often have multiple arms,

2242-602: The Sribhashya , a critique on Adi Shankara's Advaita. The effect of these religious developments on culture, literature, poetry and architecture in South India was profound. Important works of literature and poetry based on the teachings of these philosophers were written during the coming centuries. The Saluva , Tuluva and Aravidu dynasties of the Vijayanagara Empire were followers of Vaishnavism and

2360-585: The Barabar Caves near Gaya , the non-edict bearing and edict bearing pillars, the animal sculptures crowning the pillars with animal and botanical reliefs decorating the abaci of the capitals and the front half of the representation of an elephant carved out in the round from a live rock at Dhauli . This period marked the appearance of Indian stone sculpture; much previous sculpture was probably in wood and has not survived. The elaborately carved animal capitals surviving on from some Pillars of Ashoka are

2478-551: The Champu style relating the life of Krishna leading up to his fight with the demon Banasura . Harihara , (also known as Harisvara) a Lingayati writer and the patron of King Narasimha I, wrote the Girijakalyana in the old Jain Champu style which describes the marriage of Shiva and Parvati in ten sections. He was one of the earliest Virashaiva writers who was not part of the vachana literary tradition. He came from

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2596-639: The Classical Greek culture and Buddhism , which developed over a period of close to 1000 years in Central Asia , between the conquests of Alexander the Great in the 4th century BCE, and the Islamic conquests of the 7th century CE. Greco-Buddhist art is characterized by the strong idealistic realism of Hellenistic art and the first representations of the Buddha in human form, which have helped define

2714-626: The Copper Hoard culture (2nd millennium BCE), some of them suggesting anthropomorphological characteristics. Interpretations vary as to the exact signification of these artifacts, or even the culture and the periodization to which they belonged. Some examples of artistic expression also appear in abstract pottery designs during the Black and red ware culture (1450-1200 BCE) or the Painted Grey Ware culture (1200-600 BCE), with finds in

2832-613: The Deccan Plateau . The Hoysala era was an important period in the development of South Indian art, architecture, and religion. The Kingdom is remembered today primarily for Hoysala architecture ; 100 surviving temples are scattered across Karnataka. Well-known temples which exhibit what the historian Sailendra Sen has called "an amazing display of sculptural exuberance" include the Chennakeshava Temple in Belur,

2950-510: The Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram (7th and 8th centuries), perhaps the best-known examples of Pallava art and architecture Many of these exploit natural outcrops of rock, which are carved away on all sides until a building is left. Others, like the Shore Temple , are constructed in the usual way, and others cut into a rock face like most other rock-cut architecture . The Descent of

3068-484: The Gudimallam lingam (see above), the earliest dynasty of southern India to leave stone sculpture on a large scale was the long-lasting Pallava dynasty which ruled much of south-east India between 275 and 897, although the major sculptural projects come from the later part of the period. A number of significant Hindu temples survive, with rich sculptural decoration. Initially these tend to be rock-cut, as are most of

3186-673: The Hakuhō period . Takkolam pallava period Shiva temple Durga also in Tribhanga style is best example is in Tamil Nadu. As compared with the similar European contrapposto and "S Curve" poses, the Tribhanga , literally meaning three parts break, consists of three bends in the body; at the neck, waist and knee, hence the body is oppositely curved at waist and neck which gives it a gentle " S " shape It has been closely associated with

3304-846: The Hoysaleswara Temple in Halebidu, and the Chennakesava Temple in Somanathapura. These three temples were inscribed as UNESCO World Heritage Sites in 2023. The Hoysala rulers also patronised the fine arts, encouraging literature to flourish in Kannada and Sanskrit . Early inscriptions, dated 1078 and 1090, have implied that the Hoysalas were descendants of the Yadu by referring to the Yadava vamsa (or clan) as

3422-756: The Rigbhshya on the Brahma Sutras (a logical explanation of Hindu scriptures, the Vedas) as well as many polemical works rebutting the doctrines of other schools. He relied more on the Puranas than the Vedas for logical proof of his philosophy. Another famous writing was Rudraprshnabhashya by Vidyatirtha. The modern interest in the Hoysalas is due to their patronage of art and architecture rather than their military conquests. The brisk temple building throughout

3540-638: The Sanchi and Amaravati Stupas , along with a number of rock-cut complexes. Sanchi stupas were constructed by Emperor Ashoka and later expanded by Shungas and Satavahanas. Major work on decorating the site with Torana gateway and railing was done by the Satavahana Empire. Between the 2nd century BCE and 2nd century CE under Satavahanas, several Buddhist caves propped up along the coastal areas of Maharashtra and these cave temples were decorated with Satavahana era sculptures and hence not only some of

3658-657: The Vakataka dynasty who ruled the Deccan c. 250–500. Their region contained very important sites such as the Ajanta Caves and Elephanta Caves , both mostly created in this period, and the Ellora Caves which were probably begun then. Also, although the empire lost its western territories by about 500, the artistic style continued to be used across most of northern India until about 550, and arguably around 650. It

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3776-654: The Vijayanagara Empire . The empire consisted of the valleys of three main rivers, the Krishna , the Tungabhadra, and the Kaveri , whose systems facilitated the growth of crops and generated an agricultural output that was immense. The highlands ( malnad regions) with its temperate climate was suitable for raising cattle and the planting of orchards and spices. Paddy and corn were staple crops in

3894-573: The Yakshi is shown with her hand touching a tree branch, and a sinuous pose, tribhanga pose, as is Salabhanjika , whose examples dating to the 12th century can be found in the Hoysala temples of Belur , in south-central Karnataka and the Khajuraho temples built around 9th century CE, where Vishnu is depicted at various places in this position which is commonly reserved for Krishna , playing

4012-409: The tropical plains ( Bailnad ). As agricultural land was scarce, forests, waste land and previously unfarmed land was reclaimed, and new settlements were established. Large areas of forest were cleared to bring lands under cultivation and build villages. The Hoysala kings gave grants of land as rewards for service to the heads of families, who then became landlords ( gavunda ) to tenants who worked on

4130-577: The "Hoysala vamsa ". But there are no early records directly linking the Hoysalas to the Yadavas of North India . Kannada folklore tells a legend of a young man, Sala (also known as Poysala), who saved his Jain guru Sudatta by killing a tiger (sometimes described as a lion) that they encountered whilst in a forest, near the temple of the goddess Vasantika at Angadi, now called Sosevuru. The word strike translates to "hoy" in Old Kannada , hence

4248-710: The 14th century. The defeat of the Jain Western Gangas by the Cholas in the early 11th century and the rising numbers of followers of Vaishnavism and Lingayatism in the 12th century was mirrored by a decreased interest in Jainism. Two notable locations of Jain worship in the Hoysala territory were Shravanabelagola and Panchakuta Basadi, Kambadahalli . The decline of Buddhism in South India began in

4366-475: The 9th-century the stronger version of the stance spreads to most types of figures, and becomes even more marked. This tendency begins to reduce from about the 13th century. The Buddha only ever has a slight tribhanga stance and the Jain tirthankaras are almost never depicted in the pose. Vishnu and Brahma also only usually have slight versions of the stance; the famous temples of Khajuraho , which provide

4484-483: The Chalukyas declined, the Hoysalas managed to gain their independence. Under Vishnuvardhana, the Hoysalas achieved the status of a real Kingdom. He annexed Gangavadi and parts of Nolambavadi from the Cholas in 1116 and moved the capital from Belur to Dorasamudra (modern Halebidu), After taking Talakadu and Kolar in 1116, Vishnuvardhana assumed the title Talakadugonda in memory of his victory. Historians refer to

4602-541: The Gandharan school of sculpture is said to have contributed wavy hair, drapery covering both shoulders, shoes and sandals, acanthus leaf decorations, etc. The origins of Greco-Buddhist art are to be found in the Hellenistic Greco-Bactrian kingdom (250 BCE – 130 BCE), located in today's Afghanistan , from which Hellenistic culture radiated into the Indian subcontinent with the establishment of

4720-593: The Ganges at Mahabalipuram, is "the largest and most elaborate sculptural composition in India", a relief carved on a near-vertical rock face some 29 metres (86 feet) wide, featuring hundreds of figures, including a life-size elephant (late 7th century). Other Pallava temples with sculpture surviving in good condition are the Kailasanathar Temple , Vaikunta Perumal Temple and others at Kanchipuram , and

4838-477: The Gupta heartland". The main bodhisattva appear prominently in sculpture for the first time, as in the paintings at Ajanta. Buddhist, Hindu and Jain sculpture all show the same style, and there is a "growing likeness of form" between figures from the different religions, which continued after the Gupta period. The Indian stylistic tradition of representing the body as a series of "smooth, very simplified planes"

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4956-536: The Hindu deity Krishna who is often portrayed in this posture. It is considered the most graceful and sensual of the Odissi positions, and used in many other classical Indian dance forms. The Indian classical dance of Odissi is characterized by various Bhangas or stance, which involves stamping of the foot and striking various postures, four in number, namely Bhanga , Abanga , Atibhanga , and Tribhanga being

5074-599: The Hoysala Empire followed some of the well-established and proven methods of its predecessors covering administrative functions such as cabinet organisation and command, the structure of local governing bodies and the division of territory. Several of their major feudatories were Gavundas of the peasant extraction. Records show the names of many high-ranking positions reporting directly to the king. Senior ministers were called Pancha Pradhanas , ministers responsible for foreign affairs were designated Sandhivigrahi and

5192-595: The Hoysala emblem depicts Sala fighting a tiger, the tiger being the emblem of the Cholas. The Hoysalas originated from the Western Ghats , mountains north-west of Gangavadi in Mysore . They emerged as borderland chiefs during the conflict between the Western Chalukya Empire and the Cholas, gaining power as they sided with the Chalukyas and were made provincial governors. After the authority of

5310-421: The Indian subcontinent , partly because of the climate of the Indian subcontinent makes the long-term survival of organic materials difficult, essentially consists of sculpture of stone, metal or terracotta . It is clear there was a great deal of painting, and sculpture in wood and ivory, during these periods, but there are only a few survivals. The main Indian religions had all, after hesitant starts, developed

5428-572: The Karnataka region spread his teachings far and wide. His teachings inspired later philosophers like Vallabha in Gujarat and Chaitanya Mahaprabhu in Bengal . Another wave of devotion ( bhakti ) in the 17th and 18th centuries found inspiration in his teachings. Hoysala society in many ways reflected the emerging religious, political and cultural developments of those times. During this period,

5546-498: The Kesava temple at Somanathapura being an exception with strictly Vaishnava sculptural depictions. Temples built by rich landlords in rural areas fulfilled fiscal, political, cultural and religious needs of the agrarian communities. Irrespective of patronage, large temples served as establishments that provided employment to hundreds of people of various guilds and professions sustaining local communities as Hindu temples began to take on

5664-716: The Kingdom was accomplished despite constant threats from the Pandyas to the south and the Seunas Yadavas to the north. Their architectural style, an offshoot of the Western Chalukya style, shows distinct Dravidian influences. The Hoysala architecture style is described as Karnata Dravida as distinguished from the traditional Dravida , and is considered an independent architectural tradition with many unique features. A feature of Hoysala temple architecture

5782-561: The Pala monarchs are recorded as patronizing religious establishments in a general sense, their patronage of any specific work of art cannot be documented by the surviving evidence, which is mostly inscriptions. However, there are much larger numbers of images that are dated, as compared to other Indian regions and periods, helping greatly the reconstruction of stylistic development. Much larger numbers of smaller bronze groups of similar composition have survived than from previous periods. Probably

5900-678: The Tamil country which had been lost during a Pandya uprising, thus uniting the northern and southern portions of the Kingdom. In the early part of the 14th century, major political changes took place in the Deccan region during a period when large areas of northern India were under Muslim rule. Alauddin Khalji , the Sultan of Delhi, was determined to control southern India. In 1311 he sent his commander Malik Kafur on an expedition to plunder Devagiri ,

6018-578: The Western influences received through the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara, and effectively established the basis for subsequent Indian religious sculpture. The style was developed and diffused through most of India under the Gupta Empire (c. 320–550) which remains a "classical" period for Indian sculpture, covering the earlier Ellora Caves , though the Elephanta Caves are probably slightly later. Later large scale sculpture remains almost exclusively religious, and generally rather conservative, often reverting to simple frontal standing poses for deities, though

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6136-420: The advantage that they were light enough to be used in processions for festivals. The most iconic among these is the bronze figure of Shiva as Nataraja , the lord of dance. In his upper right hand he holds the damaru , the drum of creation. In his upper left hand he holds the agni , the flame of destruction. His lower right hand is lifted in the gesture of the abhaya mudra . His right foot stands upon

6254-452: The art of Gandhara , the centre of Greco-Buddhist art just beyond the northern border of Gupta territory, continuing to exert influence. Other centres emerged during the period, especially at Sarnath . Both Mathura and Sarnath exported sculpture to other parts of northern India. It is customary to include under "Gupta art" works from areas in north and central India that were not actually under Gupta control, in particular art produced under

6372-436: The art of the Indus Valley Civilisation (3300 BCE - 1700 BCE), but the following millennium, coinciding with the Vedic period , is devoid of such remains. It has been suggested that the early Vedic religion focused exclusively on the worship of purely "elementary forces of nature by means of elaborate sacrifices", which did not lend themselves easily to anthropomorphological representations. Various artefacts may belong to

6490-458: The art of the Tarim Basin and the Dunhuang Caves , and ultimately the sculpted figure in China, Korea, and Japan. Gupta art is the style of art, surviving almost entirely as sculpture, developed under the Gupta Empire , which ruled most of northern India, with its peak between about 300 and 480 CE, surviving in much reduced form until c. 550. The Gupta period is generally regarded as a classic peak and golden age of North Indian art for all

6608-425: The artistic (and particularly, sculptural) canon for Buddhist art throughout the Asian continent up to the present. Though dating is uncertain, it appears that strongly Hellenistic styles lingered in the East for several centuries after they had declined around the Mediterranean, as late as the 5th century CE. Some aspects of Greek art were adopted while others did not spread beyond the Greco-Buddhist area; in particular

6726-427: The attendant spirits such as apsaras and yakshi often have sensuously curving poses. Carving is often highly detailed, with an intricate backing behind the main figure in high relief. The celebrated bronzes of the Chola dynasty (c. 850–1250) from south India , many designed to be carried in processions, include the iconic form of Shiva as Nataraja , with the massive granite carvings of Mahabalipuram dating from

6844-415: The best examples of Indian art and architecture. The temples have a rich display of intricately carved sculptures. While they are famous for their erotic sculptures, sexual themes cover less than a tenth of the temple sculpture. The sculptures depict various aspects the everyday life, mythical stories as well as symbolic display of various secular and spiritual values important in Hindu tradition. After

6962-432: The best-known works, and among the finest, above all the Lion Capital of Ashoka from Sarnath that is now the National Emblem of India . Coomaraswamy distinguishes between court art and a more popular art during the Mauryan period. Court art is represented by the pillars and their capitals, and surviving popular art by some stone pieces, and many smaller works in terracotta . The highly polished surface of court sculpture

7080-477: The capital city of the Seuna Kingdom By 1318 the Seuna Kingdom had been subjugated. The Hoysala capital Halebidu was besieged and sacked twice, in 1311 and 1327. By 1336, the Sultan had conquered the Pandyas of Madurai, the Kakatiyas of Warangal and the tiny Kingdom of Kampili. The Hoysalas were the only remaining Hindu Kingdom who resisted the invading armies. Veera Ballala III stationed himself at Tiruvannamalai and offered stiff resistance to invasions from

7198-446: The cave temples at Mamandur . The Pallava style in stone reliefs is influenced by the hardness of the stone mostly used; the relief is less deep and detail such as jewellery minimized, compared to further north. The figures are more slender and "delicately built and project sweetness and unmannered delicacy and refinement"; much the same figure type is continued in Chola sculpture in both stone and bronze. In large narrative panels some of

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7316-439: The chief treasurer was Mahabhandari or Hiranyabhandari . Dandanayakas were in charge of armies and the chief justice of the Hoysala court was the Dharmadhikari . The Kingdom was divided into provinces named Nadu , Vishaya , Kampana and Desha , listed in descending order of geographical size. Each province had a local governing body consisting of a minister ( Mahapradhana ) and a treasurer ( Bhandari ) that reported to

7434-422: The city of Kannanur Kuppam near Srirangam a provincial capital and taking control over the southern Deccan region. Vira Narasimha II 's son Vira Someshwara earned the honorific "uncle" ( Mamadi ) from the Pandyas and Cholas. From 1220 to 1245 the dynasty's hegemony increased southwards to cover both the Chola and Pandya Kingdoms. Toward the end of the 13th century, Veera Ballala III recaptured territory in

7552-414: The classical form of the stance at Sanchi , around 10 CE, and the Bhutesvara Yakshis (2nd century CE). The pose is used on many coins of the Gupta Empire (c. 319 to 543 CE), by both the kings on the obverse and the deities on the reverse, and in Gupta sculpture . During this period it became very common in both Buddhist and Hindu art (as well as Jain art ). The most famous ancient Indian painting,

7670-491: The demon Apasmara , the embodiment of ignorance. The Vijayanagara Empire was the last major Hindu empire, constructing very large temples at Hampi , the capital, of which much remains in generally good condition, despite the Mughal army spending a year destroying the city after its fall. Temples are often highly decorated, in a style that further elaborates the late Chola style, and was influential for later South Indian temples. Rows of horses rearing out from columns became

7788-402: The earliest art depictions, but evidence of ancient Indian architecture. The Amaravati school of Buddhist art was one of the three major Buddhist sculpture centres along with Mathura and Gandhara and flourished under Satavahanas, many limestone sculptures and tablets which once were plastered Buddhist stupas provide a fascinating insight into major early Buddhist school of arts. Stone sculpture

7906-633: The ecstatic experience of closeness to the deity ( vachanas and devaranama ). Literary works were written in it on palm leaves which were tied together. While in past centuries Jain works had dominated Kannada literature, Shaiva and early Brahminical works became popular during the Hoysala reign. Writings in Sanskrit included poetry, grammar, lexicon, manuals, rhetoric, commentaries on older works, prose fiction and drama. Inscriptions on stone ( Shilashasana ) and copper plates ( Tamarashasana ) were written mostly in Kannada but some were in Sanskrit or were bilingual. The sections of bilingual inscriptions stating

8024-550: The eighth century with the spread of Adi Shankara 's Advaita Vedanta . The only places of Buddhist worship during the Hoysala time were at Dambal and Balligavi . Shantala Devi, queen of Vishnuvardhana, was a Jain but nevertheless commissioned the Hindu Kappe Chennigaraya temple in Belur, evidence that the royal family was tolerant of all religions. During the rule of the Hoysalas, three important religious developments took place in present-day Karnataka inspired by three philosophers, Basava , Madhvacharya and Ramanuja . While

8142-407: The establishment of the Hoysala Kingdom, the Deccan Plateau saw a four-way struggle for hegemony between four dynasties: the Hoysalas, the Pandyans , the Kakatiyas , and the Seunas. In 1217, Veera Ballala II defeated the aggressive Pandya after they invaded the Chola Kingdom, and helped to restore the Chola king. The Hoysalas extended their foothold in modern-day Tamil Nadu around 1225, making

8260-436: The famous Tirumala Venkateswara Temple , Andhra Pradesh is also in the same posture. This style has also travels with Indian influence as in China where some sculptures at the Maijishan Grottoes built in the Later Qin era (384-417 CE). Some Buddha images in Thailand are also in the tribhanga (leaning) position and so are some of Boddhisattva in the ancient Yakushi-ji Buddhist temples in Nara, Japan , built in 680 CE,

8378-431: The flute. The Agamic texts suggest that Shiva sculptures are to be made in tribhanga posture facing the east as seen in temple dating 8th-12th centuries. The central deity at the Simhachalam temple near Visakhapatnam , the lion-man incarnation of Lord Mahavishnu is in the tribhanga posture. In the back it carries an inscription dating it 1098, the period of the Chola King Kuloththunga. The Tirumala Rama Idol at

8496-411: The form of cash, from trade and commerce generated considerable wealth for the Hoysala state, and enabled it to buy armaments, elephants, horses and precious goods. The state and the merchant class became interdependent, with some more prosperous merchants being known as Rajasresthigal (royal merchants), officially recognised on account of their wealth. They were seen as puramulasthamba ('the pillars of

8614-403: The founders of the Hoysala dynasty as Maleparolganda ('Lord of the hills'), basing their evidence on inscriptions that describes them as being originally from Malenadu . The earliest record of a member of the Hoysala dynasty is dated 950 and names Arekalla as the chieftain. Arekalla was succeeded in turn by Maruga and Nripa Kama I (976), and Munda (1006–1026). The next king, Nripa Kama I, had

8732-681: The influx of foreign stimuli initiated with the Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley , and the rise of alternative local faiths challenging Vedism , such as Buddhism and Jainism and local popular cults. Some rudimentary terracotta artifacts may date to this period, just before the Mauryan era. The surviving art of the Mauryan Empire which ruled, at least in theory, over most of the Indian subcontinent between 322 and 185 BCE

8850-420: The king releases them and gives up the practice of human sacrifice. In honour of this work, Janna received the title "Emperor among poets" ( Kavichakravarthi ) from King Veera Ballala II. Rudrabhatta , a Smarta Brahmin, was the earliest well-known Brahminical writer. His patron was Chandramouli, a minister of King Veera Ballala II. Based on the earlier work Vishnu Purana , he wrote Jagannatha Vijaya in

8968-559: The king to the level of "God on earth". Temple building served a commercial as well as a religious function and was not limited to any particular sect of Hinduism. Shaiva merchants of Halebidu financed the construction of the Hoysaleswara temple to compete with the Chennakesava temple built at Belur, elevating Halebidu to an important city as well. Hoysala temples however were secular and encouraged pilgrims of all Hindu sects,

9086-785: The land and in the forests. The praja gavunda ("the gavunda of the people") had a lower status than the wealthier prabhu gavunda ("of the lord") The Hoysala administration supported itself through revenues from an agrarian economy. Land was assessed as being wet land, dry land or garden land for the purposes of taxation, and judged according to the quality of the soil. Taxes on commodities (gold, precious stones, perfumes, sandalwood, ropes, yarn, housing, hearths, shops, cattle pans, sugarcane presses) as well as produce (black pepper, betel leaves, ghee, paddy, spices, palm leaves, coconuts, sugar) are noted in village records. The Hoysalas encouraged people to move to newly-built villages by means of land grants and tax concessions. Taxes, collected in

9204-696: The large figure of Padmapani in Cave 1 at the Ajanta Caves (c. 478) has the pose, which remains common in bodhisattva figures. The style of the stance changes somewhat over the centuries, and between different regions inside and outside India, as it was carried abroad, mainly to the east and south-east, in the art of both major religions. To simplify considerably, the earlier depictions in Gupta art and Post-Gupta art show major figures in mildly-bent stances, with more pronounced poses in minor figures and especially female ones such as apsaras and yakshini . By perhaps

9322-413: The last few centuries. Kushan art is highlighted by the appearance of extensive Buddhist arts in the form of Mathuras, Gandharan and Amaravathi schools of art. Mathura art flourished in the ancient city of Mathura and predominantly red sandstone has been used in making Buddhist and Jain sculptures. Greco-Buddhist art is the artistic manifestation of Greco-Buddhism , a cultural syncretism between

9440-586: The late development of stone architecture and sculpture in the south, "the mystery remains". The form of the Gudimallam Lingam, for example, would be a natural one to evolve in wood, using a straight tree trunk very efficiently, but to say that it did so is pure speculation in our present state of knowledge. Wooden sculpture, and architecture, has remained common in Kerala , where stone is hard to come by, but this means survivals are very largely limited to

9558-642: The legends "victor at Nolambavadi" ( Nolambavadigonda ), "victor at Talakad" ( Talakadugonda ), "chief of the Malepas" ( Maleparolganda ), "Brave of Malepa" ( malapavira ) in Hoysala style Kannada script. Their gold coin was called Honnu or Gadyana and weighed 62  grains of gold. Pana or Hana was a tenth of the Honnu , Haga was a fourth of the Pana and Visa was fourth of Haga . There were other coins called Bele and Kani . The first Hoysala capital

9676-509: The major deities, respectively Buddha , Vishnu and Shiva . The dynasty had a partiality to Vishnu, who now features more prominently, where the Kushan imperial family generally had preferred Shiva. Minor figures such as yakshi , which had been very prominent in preceding periods, are now smaller and less frequently represented, and the crowded scenes illustrating Jataka tales of the Buddha's previous lives are rare. When scenes include one of

9794-572: The major figures and other less important ones, there is a great difference in scale, with the major figures many times larger. This is also the case in representations of incidents from the Buddha's life, which earlier had showed all the figures on the same scale. The lingam was the central murti in most temples. Some new figures appear, including personifications of the Ganges and Yamuna rivers, not yet worshipped, but placed on either side of entrances; these were "the two great rivers encompassing

9912-495: The major religious groups. Although painting was evidently widespread, the surviving works are almost all religious sculpture. The period saw the emergence of the iconic carved stone deity in Hindu art, while the production of the Buddha-figure and Jain tirthankara figures continued to expand, the latter often on a very large scale. The traditional main centre of sculpture was Mathura , which continued to flourish, with

10030-504: The margins. According to historian Sheldon Pollock, the Hoysala era saw the complete displacement of Sanskrit, with Kannada dominating as the courtly language. Temples served as local schools where learned Brahmins taught in Sanskrit, while Jain and Buddhist monasteries educated novice monks. Schools of higher learning were called Ghatikas . The local Kannada language was widely used in the rising number of devotional movements to express

10148-565: The marketplace, Nagara or Nagaram , the marketplace serving as the nuclei of a city. Some towns such as Shravanabelagola developed from a religious settlement in the 7th century to an important trading centre by the 12th century with the arrival of rich traders, while towns like Belur attained the atmosphere of a regal city when King Vishnuvardhana built the Chennakesava Temple there. Large temples supported by royal patronage served religious, social, and judiciary purposes, elevating

10266-475: The members of the royal family at all times. These servants moved closely yet inconspicuously by the side of their master, their loyalty being so complete that they committed suicide after his death. Hero stones ( virgal ) erected in memory of these bodyguards are called Garuda pillars. The Garuda pillar at the Hoysaleswara temple in Halebidu was erected in honor of Kuvara Lakshma, a minister and bodyguard of King Veera Ballala II. King Vishnuvardhana's coins had

10384-422: The most common of all. The Sanskrit term Tribhanga means Three Bhanga and according to K. M. Varma the term Tribhanga was in the original Shilpa Shastras literature not the name of a particular standing position but used, contrary to the modern usage in art history , to describe the group of the "Three Bhangas", namely Abhanga , Samabhanga , and Atibhanga . Indian sculpture Sculpture in

10502-544: The name 'Hoy-sala'. The legend purporting to show how Sala became the founder of the Hoysala dynasty is shown in the Belur inscription of the Hoysala king Vishnuvardhana , dated c.  1117 , but owing to several inconsistencies in the story it remains in the realm of folklore. Vishnuvardhana achieved a victory over the Cholas at Talakadu in 1116, and the legend may have arisen or gained popularity after this event, as

10620-612: The north and the Madurai Sultanate to the south. Then, after nearly three decades of resistance, Veera Ballala III was killed at the battle of Madurai in 1343, and the sovereign territories of the Hoysala Kingdom were merged with the areas administered by Harihara I in the Tungabhadra River region. This new Hindu Kingdom resisted the northern invasions and would later prosper and come to be known as

10738-430: The notable examples of Hoysala art. While the temples at Belur and Halebidu are the best known because of the beauty of their sculptures, the Hoysala art finds more complete expression in the smaller and lesser known temples. The outer walls of all these temples contain an intricate array of stone sculptures and horizontal friezes (decorative mouldings) that depict the Hindu epics. These depictions are generally clockwise in

10856-504: The numbers produced were increasing. These were mostly made for domestic shrines of the well-off, and from monasteries. Gradually, Hindu figures come to outnumber Buddhist ones, reflecting the terminal decline of Indian Buddhism, even in east India, its last stronghold. The temples of Khajuraho , a complex of Hindu and Jain temples, were constructed from the 9th to the 11th centuries by the Chandela dynasty . They are considered one of

10974-595: The origin of Lingayatism is debated, the movement grew through its association with Basava in the 12th century. Madhvacharya was critical of the teachings of Adi Shankara and argued the world is real and not an illusion. His Dvaita Vedanta gained popularity, enabling him to establish eight mathas in Udupi . Ramanuja, head of the Vaishnava monastery in Srirangam, preached the way of devotion ( bhakti marga ) and wrote

11092-451: The outside. The Pallava style was broadly continued. Chola bronzes, the largest mostly about half life-size, are some of the most iconic and famous sculptures of India, using a similar elegant but powerful style to the stone pieces. They were created using the lost wax technique . The sculptures were of Shiva in various avatars with his consort Parvati , and Vishnu with his consort Lakshmi , among other deities. Even large bronzes had

11210-482: The participation of women in the fine arts, such as Queen Shantala Devi's skill in dance and music, and the 12th-century vachana sahitya poet and Lingayati mystic Akka Mahadevi 's devotion to the bhakti movement is well known. Temple dancers ( Devadasi ) were common and some were well educated and accomplished in the arts. These qualifications gave them more freedom than other urban and rural women who were restricted to daily mundane tasks. The practice of sati in

11328-416: The penis is relatively naturalistic, with the glans shown clearly. The stone is local, and the style described by Harle as " Satavahana -related". It is dated to the 3rd century BCE, or 2nd/1st century BCE. Though the hardness of local granites , the relatively limited penetration of Buddhism and Jainism in the deep south, and a presumed persistent preference for wood have all been proposed as factors in

11446-458: The present-day site of Halebid . It became capital in 1062 and remained capital until the dynasty's end. The reason for the shift is unknown, but it may have been for administrative convenience. Canals were dug connecting Dwarasamudra with Belur and bringing water from the Yagachi to Dwarasamudra. Two trade routes passed through the city, and scores of temples were built in it. The city declined in

11564-511: The previous Pallava dynasty. The first known sculpture in the Indian subcontinent is from the Indus Valley Civilization (3300–1700 BCE). These include the famous small bronze Dancing Girl . However such figures in bronze and stone are rare and greatly outnumbered by pottery figurines and stone seals, often of animals or deities very finely depicted and crafted. Some very early depictions of deities seem to appear in

11682-417: The ruler of that province ( Dandanayaka ). Under this local ruler were officials called Heggaddes and Gavundas who hired and supervised the local farmers and labourers recruited to till the land. Subordinate ruling clans such as Alupas continued to govern their respective territories while following the policies set by the empire. An elite and well-trained force of bodyguards known as Garudas protected

11800-489: The shape of wealthy Buddhist monasteries . Although Sanskrit literature remained popular during the Hoysala rule, royal patronage of local Kannada scholars increased. In the 12th century some works were written in the Champu style, but distinctive Kannada metres became more widely accepted. The Sangatya metre used in compositions, Shatpadi (six line), tripadi (three line) metres in verses and ragale (lyrical poems) became fashionable. Jain works continued to extol

11918-708: The small Indo-Greek kingdom (180 BCE-10 BCE). Under the Indo-Greeks and then the Kushans , the interaction of Greek and Buddhist culture flourished in the area of Gandhara , in today's northern Pakistan , before spreading further into India, influencing the art of Mathura , and then the Hindu art of the Gupta Empire , which was to extend to the rest of South-East Asia. The influence of Greco-Buddhist art also spread northward towards Central Asia , strongly affecting

12036-399: The society became increasingly sophisticated. The status of women was varied. Some royal women were involved in administrative matters as shown in contemporary records describing Queen Umadevi's administration of Halebidu in the absence of Veera Ballala II during his long military campaigns in northern territories. She also fought and defeated some antagonistic feudal rebels . Records describe

12154-450: The stance is often said to reach back to the famous Dancing Girl from Mohenjo-Daro , of about c. 2300–1750 BCE, although this does not exactly show the usual later form. It may well derive from dance before art, but the remaining record in early art is more clear. The earliest versions are nearly all in female figures, but it gradually spread to males. Versions of the stance can be seen in (Buddhist) yakshi at Bharhut , c. 100 BCE, and

12272-637: The standing figure, often with a relaxed pose and one leg flexed, and the flying cupids or victories, who became popular across Asia as apsaras . Greek foliage decoration was also influential, with Indian versions of the Corinthian capital appearing. Although India had a long sculptural tradition and a mastery of rich iconography, the Buddha was never represented in human form before this time, but only through some of his symbols. This may be because Gandharan Buddhist sculpture in modern Afghanistan displays Greek and Persian artistic influence. Artistically,

12390-483: The state. The Hoysalas put resources into repairing breached tanks and broken sluices , easily damaged by heavy rainfall. They collected taxes on irrigation systems, canals and wells, all of which were built and maintained at the expense of local villagers. Repairs were undertaken by the landlords as well as their workers; such repairs were considered to be a duty and a pious act. Importing horses for use as general transportation and in army cavalries of Indian Kingdoms

12508-570: The subjects are distinctively Tamil, such as Korravai ( Durga as goddess of victory), and Somaskanda , a seated family group of Shiva , his consort Parvati and Skanda ( Murugan ) as a child. The "imperial" Chola dynasty begins about 850, controlling much of the south, with a slow decline from about 1150. Large numbers of temples were constructed, which mostly suffered far less from Muslim destruction than those further north. These were heavily decorated with stone relief sculpture, both large narrative panels and single figures, mostly in niches on

12626-504: The terracotta arts of Shunga period. Mathura which has its basis in the pre-Mauryan period also emerges as an important center for Jain, Hindu and Buddhist art. The Satavahana dynasty ruled much of the Deccan and sometimes other areas, including Maharashtra , between about the 2nd-century BCE and 2nd century CE. They were a Hindu dynasty, who made many generous donations to Buddhist monks ; some queens may have been Buddhist. The most significant remains of their sculptural patronage are

12744-681: The title Permanadi , showing that an early alliance with the Western Ganga dynasty existed at the time of his reign. Vishnuvardhana's ambition of creating an independent Kingdom was fulfilled by his grandson Veera Ballala II , who freed the Hoysalas from domination by the Chalukya Empire during the first 20 years of his reign. He declared war against the Yadavas and defeated the Kadambas . He declared independence in 1193. During

12862-413: The towns'). The increased prosperity and prestige of some merchants encouraged them to open markets and weekly fairs, with some becoming Pattanaswami (town administrators), who had the authority to collect tolls on goods that entered the town. Merchants engaged in minting activities, sometimes producing the coins and supplying them to the state. Tanks (large reservoirs) were created at the expense of

12980-568: The traditional direction of circumambulation ( pradakshina ). The temple of Halebidu has been described as an outstanding example of Hindu architecture and an important milestone in Indian architecture. The temples of Belur and Halebidu are a proposed UNESCO world heritage sites . The support of the Hoysala rulers for the Kannada language was strong, and this is seen even in their epigraphs , often written in polished and poetic language, rather than prose, with illustrations of floral designs in

13098-489: The use of Soapstone (Chloritic schist), a soft stone as basic building and sculptural material. The Chennakesava Temple at Belur (1117), the Hoysaleswara Temple at Halebidu (1121), the Chennakesava Temple at Somanathapura (1279), the temples at Arasikere (1220), Amruthapura (1196), Belavadi (1200), Nuggehalli (1246), Hosaholalu (1250), Aralaguppe (1250), Korvangla (1173), Haranhalli (1235), Mosale and Basaralu (1234) are some of

13216-458: The use of religious sculpture by around the start of the Common Era , and the use of stone was becoming increasingly widespread. The first known sculpture in the Indian subcontinent is from the Indus Valley Civilization , and a more widespread tradition of small terracotta figures, mostly either of women or animals, which predates it. After the collapse of the Indus Valley civilization there

13334-457: The virtues of Tirthankaras (Jain saviour figures). The Hoysala court supported such notable poets as Janna , Rudrabhatta, Harihara and his nephew Raghavanka, whose works are enduring masterpieces in Kannada. In 1209, the Jain scholar Janna wrote Yashodharacharite , the story of a king who intends to perform a ritual sacrifice of two young boys to a local deity, Mariamma. Taking pity on the boys,

13452-475: Was Sosavur (also called Sasakapura, Sosevuru, or Sosavurpattana), at present-day Angadi in Chikmagalur district . Sosavur was the Hoysala capital from 1026 to 1048. Even after the capital was moved, though, Sosavur remained an important commercial and administrative centre, as well as a Jain religious centre. In 1048, the Hoysala capital was moved to Belur . Several factors made Belur an attractive site as

13570-539: Was a flourishing business on the western seaboard. Song dynasty records from China mention the presence of Indian merchants in ports of South China, indicating active trade with overseas Kingdoms. South India exported textiles, spices, medicinal plants, precious stones, pottery, salt made from salt pans, jewels, gold, ivory, rhino horn, ebony , aloe wood , perfumes, sandalwood , camphor and condiments to China, Dhofar , Aden , and Siraf (the entryport to Egypt, Arabia and Persia ). In its administrative practices,

13688-510: Was later moved to Halebidu . The Hoysala rulers were originally from Malenadu , an elevated region in the Western Ghats . In the 12th century, taking advantage of the internecine warfare between the Western Chalukya Empire and Kalachuris of Kalyani , the Hoysalas annexed areas of present-day Karnataka and the fertile areas north of the Kaveri delta in present-day Tamil Nadu . By the 13th century, they governed most of Karnataka, north-western Tamil Nadu and parts of western Andhra Pradesh in

13806-503: Was much later to arrive in South India than the north, and the earliest period is only represented by the Gudimallam Lingam with a standing figure of Shiva, from the southern tip of Andhra Pradesh . The "mysteriousness" of this "lies in the total absence so far of any object in an even remotely similar manner within many hundreds of miles, and indeed anywhere in South India". It is some 5 ft in height and one foot thick;

13924-553: Was then followed by the "Post-Gupta" period, with (to a reducing extent over time) many similar characteristics; Harle ends this around 950. Three main schools of Gupta sculpture are often recognised, based in Mathura , Varanasi /Sarnath and to a lesser extent Nalanda . The distinctively different stones used for sculptures exported from the main centres described below aids identification greatly. Both Buddhist and Hindu sculpture concentrate on large, often near life-size, figures of

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