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99-611: The legend of the Tripurasuras is first mentioned in the Taittirīya Samhita of the Krishna Yajurveda : The Asuras had three citadels; the lowest was of iron, then there was one of silver, then one of gold. The gods could not conquer them; they sought to conquer them by siege; therefore they say--both those who know thus and those who do not--'By siege they conquer great citadels.' They made ready an arrow, Agni as

198-420: A city and had many palaces and vimanas inside. The asuras populated the three forts and began to flourish. The gods did not like this at all. They first went to Brahma, but Brahma said he could not help them. After all, the asuras had gotten Tripura thanks to his boon. The gods then went to Shiva for help, but Shiva said that the asuras were doing nothing wrong. As long as that was the case, he did not see why

297-697: A conditionally sufficient mark or sign. This Vaisheshika theory is adopted in the early Sanskrit medical literature. Like the Upanishads, where linga means "mark, sign, characteristic", the texts of the Nyaya school of Hindu philosophy use linga in the same sense. In the Samkhya sutras , and in Gaudapada 's commentary on Samkhyakarika , the term linga has many contextual meanings such as in verses 1.124.136, 3.9.16 and 5.21.61, as it develops its theory of

396-420: A figure of Lakulisha , the ascetic manifestation of Shiva , carved on the front, holding an antelope and axe in his hands. He stands on top of a Apasmara (demon) dwarf , who symbolizes spiritual ignorance, greed, sensual desires or Kama and nonsensical speech on the spiritual path, hence must be subdued in spiritual pursuits. In this earliest representation, the phallic representation illustrates

495-447: A forest that was near Tripura and began to preach. They were trained by Vishnu himself. Therefore, their teachings were convincing and they had many converts. Even the sage Narada got confused and was converted. In fact, it was Narada who carried news of this wonderful new religion to King Vidyunmali . "King" he said, "there is a wonderful new teacher with a wonderful new religion. I have never heard before. I have been converted." Since

594-465: A god, or that he is, as it were, a king, or "I am this altogether," that is his highest world, This indeed is his (true) form, free from desires, free from evil, free from fear. Now as a man, when embraced by a beloved wife, knows nothing that is without, nothing that is within, thus this person, when embraced by the Prajna (conscious, aware) Self, knows nothing that is without, nothing that

693-430: A hundred years they meditated standing only on one leg. For a thousand more years, they lived on air and meditated. They stood on their heads and meditated in this posture for yet another thousand years. Brahma was pleased with this difficult tapasya. He appeared before them and asked them which boon they wanted. When Tarakasura's sons ask for immortality, Brahma declined to grant them that boon, saying that he did not have

792-482: A key role in the diagnosis of a sickness, the disease. The author of classical Sanskrit grammar treatise, Panini, states that the verbal root ling which means "paint, variegate", has the sense "that which paints, variegates, characterizes". Panini as well as Patanjali additionally mention lingam with the contextual meaning of the "gender". In the Vaisheshika Sutras , it means "proof or evidence", as

891-515: A linga. Another Indus stamp seal often called the Pashupati seal , states Doniger, has an image with a general resemblance with Shiva and "the Indus people may well have created the symbolism of the divine phallus", but given the available evidence we cannot be certain, nor do we know that it had the same meaning as some currently project them to might have meant. The word lingam is not found in

990-575: A lingam, is still in worship in the Parashurameshwara temple, Gudimallam , in a hilly forest about 20 kilometres (12 mi) east of Tirupati in Andhra Pradesh . It has been dated to the 3rd-century BCE, or to the 2nd   century BCE, and is mostly accepted to be from the 3rd- to 1st-century BCE, though some later dates have been proposed. The stone lingam is clearly a representation of an anatomically accurate phallus , with

1089-470: A male sexual organ. Since the 19th century, states Dasgupta, the popular literature has represented the lingam as the male sex organ. This view contrasts with the traditional abstract values they represent in Shaivism wherein the lingam-yoni connote the masculine and feminine principles in the entirety of creation and all existence. The colonial era Orientalists and Christian missionaries , raised in

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1188-488: A milk bath. Priests chant hymns, while the devotees go to the sanctum for a darshana followed by a clockwise circumambulation of the sanctum. On the sanctum walls, typically are reliefs of Dakshinamurti, Brahma and Vishnu. Often, near the sanctum are other shrines, particularly for Shakti (Durga), Ganesha and Murugan (Kartikeya). In the Hindu tradition, special pilgrimage sites include those where natural lingams are found in

1287-489: A modern Shivlinga [a tubular stone]." According to Srinivasan, in the Harappan sites , objects that resemble "lingam" have been found. That includes "a seated trident-headed ithyphallic figure", which was found on Indus seals, "has been compared to Shiva as meditating ascetic ", states Srinivasan. According to Encyclopædia Britannica, while Harappan discoveries include "short cylindrical pillars with rounded tops", there

1386-415: A part of the literature corpus regards lingam to be the phallus of Shiva, while another group of texts does not. Sexuality in the former is inherently sacred and spiritual, while the latter emphasizes the ascetic nature of Shiva and renunciation to be spiritual symbolism of lingam . This tension between the pursuit of spirituality through householder lifestyle and the pursuit of renunciate sannyasi lifestyle

1485-568: A religion that is completely against the Vedas . You will then get the impression that there is no Svarga (heaven) and no Naraka (hell) and that both heaven and hell are on earth. You will not believe that rewards and punishments for deeds committed on earth are meted out after death. Go to Tripura and teach the demons this religion, by which they will be dislodged from the righteous path. Then we will do something about Tripura". The being did as he had been asked to. He and four of his disciples went to

1584-595: A sacrificial prayer, formula, particularly mantras uttered in a peculiar manner at a sacrifice". Veda means "knowledge". Johnson states yajus means "(mostly) prose formulae or mantras, contained in the Yajur Veda, which are muttered". Michael Witzel interprets Yajurveda to mean a "knowledge text of prose mantras" used in Vedic rituals. Ralph Griffith interprets the name to mean "knowledge of sacrifice or sacrificial texts and formulas". Carl Olson states that Yajurveda

1683-482: A second, I am formless". It is only the outward symbol of formless being, Shiva, who is eternal , ever-pure, immortal essence of this vast universe, who is your innermost Self or Atman , and who is identical with the Supreme Brahman , states Sivananda Saraswati. To some Shaivites the lingam symbolizes the axis of the universe . According to Shaiva Siddhanta , the linga is the ideal substrate in which

1782-547: A second. At the exact time, Shiva invoked the most destructive weapon controlled by him, the Pashupatastra . With his capable arms, he fired a single arrow into the three forts at the exact instant they merged into one, thus burning to ashes the three forts of the asuras. Shiva thus earned Himself the epithet Tripurantaka - the one who ended Tripura, and Paśupatinath - wielder of the Pashupatastra. He also earned

1881-412: A single arrow, that shall be the death destined for us". This rather unusual boon Brahma granted. There was a Danava named Maya who was a very skilled builder. Brahma asked him to build the forts. The golden fort was built in heaven, the silver one in the sky and the iron one on earth. Tarakaksha got the golden fort, Kamalaksha the silver one, and Vidyunmali the iron one. Each of the forts was as big as

1980-707: Is a text of "mantras (sacred formulas) that are repeated and used in rituals". The core text of the Yajurveda falls within the classical Mantra period of Vedic Sanskrit at the end of the 2nd millennium BCE – younger than the Rigveda , and roughly contemporary with the Atharvaveda , the Rigvedic Khilani , and the Sāmaveda . The scholarly consensus dates the bulk of the Yajurveda and Atharvaveda hymns to

2079-403: Is among the earliest extensive discussions of the Hindu concept of dharma , karma and moksha (liberation from sorrow, freedom, emancipation, self-realization). Paul Deussen calls it, "unique in its richness and warmth of presentation", with profoundness that retains its full worth in modern times. Max Muller illustrated its style as follows, But when he [Self] fancies that he is, as it were,

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2178-595: Is an abstract or aniconic representation of the Hindu god Shiva in Shaivism . The word lingam is found in the Upanishads and epic literature , where it means a "mark, sign, emblem, characteristic," the "evidence, proof, symptom" of God and God's power. The lingam of the Shaivism tradition is a short cylindrical pillar-like symbol of Shiva, made of stone, metal, gem, wood, clay or precious stones. It

2277-559: Is broadly grouped into two – the "black" or "dark" ( Krishna ) Yajurveda and the "white" or "bright" ( Shukla ) Yajurveda. The term "black" implies "the un-arranged, unclear, motley collection" of verses in Yajurveda, in contrast to the "white" which implies the "well arranged, clear" Yajurveda. The black Yajurveda has survived in four recensions, while two recensions of white Yajurveda have survived into modern times. The earliest and most ancient layer of Yajurveda samhita includes about 1,875 verses, that are distinct yet borrow and build upon

2376-594: Is found in Sanskrit texts , such as Shvetashvatara Upanishad , Samkhya , Vaisheshika and others texts with the meaning of "evidence" of God and God's existence, or existence of formless Brahman . The original meaning of lingam as "sign" is used in Shvetashvatara Upanishad , which says "Shiva, the Supreme Lord, has no liūga", liuga ( Sanskrit : लि‌ऊग IAST : liūga ) meaning he

2475-571: Is found in the White Yajurveda. It is one of the Mukhya Upanishads , and among the largest and oldest as well (~700 BCE). It is a key scripture of Hinduism that has influenced all schools of Hindu philosophy . The text is a treatise on Ātman (Soul, Self), with passages on metaphysics, ethics and a yearning for knowledge that influenced various Indian religions , ancient and medieval scholars. The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad

2574-536: Is historic, reflects the different interpretations of the lingam and what lingam worship means to its devotees. It remains a continuing debate within Hinduism to this day, states Doniger. To one group, it is a part of Shiva's body and symbolically saguna Shiva (he in a physical form with attributes). To the other group, it is an abstract symbol of nirguna Shiva (he in the universal Absolute Reality, formless, without attributes). In Tamil Shaiva tradition, for example,

2673-602: Is introductory, the next three are structured in a question-answer style and discuss metaphysical questions relating to Atman (Self, Soul), while the fifth to seventh Prapathaka are supplements. However, several manuscripts discovered in different parts of India contain lesser number of Prapathakas , with a Telugu-language version showing just four. Linga This is an accepted version of this page Saiddhantika Non - Saiddhantika A lingam ( Sanskrit : लिङ्ग IAST : liṅga , lit. "sign, symbol or mark"), sometimes referred to as linga or Shiva linga ,

2772-584: Is no evidence that the people of Indus Valley Civilization worshipped these artifacts as lingams. Scholars such as Arthur Llewellyn Basham dispute whether such artifacts discovered at the archaeological sites of Indus Valley sites are yoni. According to the Indologist Asko Parpola , "it is true that Marshall's and Mackay's hypotheses of linga and yoni worship by the Harappans has rested on rather slender grounds, and that for instance,

2871-534: Is notable for its discussion of the concept of personal god – Ishvara , and suggesting it to be a path to one's own Highest Self. The text is also notable for its multiple mentions of both Rudra and Shiva , along with other Vedic deities, and of crystallization of Shiva as a central theme. The Maitrayaniya Upanishad , also known as the Maitri Upanishad, is found in the black Yajurveda. It consists of seven Prapathakas (lessons). The first Prapathaka

2970-416: Is often represented within a disc-shaped platform, the yoni – its feminine counterpart, consisting of a flat element, horizontal compared to the vertical lingam, and designed to allow liquid offerings to drain away for collection. The lingam is an emblem of generative and destructive power. While rooted in representations of the male sexual organ, the lingam is regarded as the "outward symbol" of

3069-639: Is practically a variant of the Kāṭhaka saṃhitā . Each regional edition (recension) of Yajurveda had Samhita , Brahmana , Aranyakas , Upanishads as part of the text, with Shrautasutras , Grhyasutras and Pratishakhya attached to the text. In Shukla Yajurveda, the text organization is same for both Madhayndina and Kanva shakhas. The texts attached to Shukla Yajurveda include the Katyayana Shrautasutra , Paraskara Grhyasutra and Shukla Yajurveda Pratishakhya . In Krishna Yajurveda, each of

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3168-414: Is regarded to be the absolute reality, the timeless, formless, and spaceless. In the representation of Parashakti, Shiva is regarded to be all-pervasive, pure consciousness , the power and primal substance of all that exists. Parashakti is regarded to possess form, unlike Parashiva, which is formless. According to Sivananda Saraswati , the lingam speaks unmistakable language of silence: "I am one without

3267-690: Is shown that the said Skambha is put in place of the eternal Brahman . Just as the Yajna (sacrificial) fire, its smoke, ashes, and flames, the Soma plant, and the ox that used to carry on its back the wood for the Vedic sacrifice gave place to the conceptions of the brightness of Shiva's body, his tawny matted hair, his blue throat, and the riding on the bull of the Shiva, the Yupa-Skambha gave place in time to

3366-589: Is that the Siva Lingam represents the phallus or the virile organ, the emblem of the generative power or principle in nature. This is not only a serious mistake but a grave blunder. In the post-Vedic period, the Linga has become symbolic of the generative power of Lord Siva. Linga is the differentiating mark. It is certainly not the sex mark. The traditional lingam rituals in major Shiva temples includes offerings of flowers, grass, dried rice, fruits, leaves, water and

3465-476: Is the gross body (sthūla śarīra), or concrete reality as it appears to the sense organs. In between the Ultimate and concrete reality is Prakṛti , also called Pradhana which is the imperceptible substratum of the manifest world or pre-matter. Out of this imperceptible cosmic substance, all things have come out, and to which they will return ultimately. The Gudimallam Lingam , one of the oldest examples of

3564-554: Is the liūga of the thing. The insight of the Shvetashvatara Upanishad conveyed through the word liūga is formulated explicitly in Samkhya and schools of Yoga or ways of looking at things , that is, looking at their appearance and at Ultimate Reality. Liriga here denotes the subtle body , (liṇga śarīra) underlying and ontologically preceding anything perceptible. The perceptible state, in this context,

3663-562: Is the Veda primarily of prose mantras for worship rituals. An ancient Vedic Sanskrit text, it is a compilation of ritual-offering formulas that were said by a priest while an individual performed ritual actions such as those before the yajna fire. Yajurveda is one of the four Vedas , and one of the scriptures of Hinduism . The exact century of Yajurveda's composition is unknown, and estimated by Witzel to be between 1200 and 800 BCE, contemporaneous with Samaveda and Atharvaveda . The Yajurveda

3762-493: Is transcendental, beyond any characteristic and, specifically, the sign of gender. The term also appears in early Indian texts on logic, where an inference is based on a sign (linga), such as "if there is smoke, there is fire" where the linga is the smoke. It is a religious symbol in Hinduism representing Shiva as the generative power, all of existence, all creativity and fertility at every cosmic level. In early Sanskrit medical texts, linga means "symptom, signs" and plays

3861-439: Is typically the primary murti or devotional image in Hindu temples dedicated to Shiva, also found in smaller shrines, or as self-manifested natural objects. Lingam, states Monier Monier-Williams , appears in the Upanishads and epic literature , where it means a "mark, sign, emblem, characteristic". Other contextual meanings of the term include "evidence, proof, symptom" of God and God's power. The word lingam

3960-597: Is within. This indeed is his (true) form, in which his wishes are fulfilled, in which the Self only is his wish, in which no other wish is left, he is free from any sorrow. The Isha Upanishad is found in the White Yajurveda. It is one of the shortest Upanishads , embedded as the final chapter of the Shukla Yajurveda. A key scripture of the Vedanta sub-schools of Hinduism, its name is derived from "hidden in

4059-607: The Rigveda , or the other Vedas. However, Rudra (proto-Shiva) is found in the Vedic literature. Worship of the lingam was not a part of the Vedic religion . The worship of the lingam originated from the famous hymn in the Atharva Veda Samhita sung in praise of the Yupa-Stambha , the sacrificial post. In that hymn, a description is found of the beginningless and endless Stambha or Skambha , and it

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4158-595: The Savita (Sun), Indra, Agni, Prajapati, Rudra and others. The Taittiriya Samhita in Book 4, for example, includes the following verses for the Agnicayana ritual recitation (abridged), First harnessing the mind, Savita; creating thoughts and perceiving light, brought Agni from the earth. Harnessing the gods with mind; they who go with thought to the sky, to heaven, Savita instigates those who will make great light. With

4257-542: The Shiva-Linga . In the text Linga Purana , the same hymn is expanded in the shape of stories, meant to establish the glory of the great Stambha and the superiority of Shiva as Mahadeva. There is a hymn in the Atharvaveda that praises a pillar ( stambha ), and this is one possible origin of linga worship. According to Swami Vivekananda, the Shiva-linga had origins in the idea of Yupa-Stambha or Skambha of

4356-603: The Shvetashvatara Upanishad and the Maitri Upanishad . Two of the oldest surviving manuscript copies of the Shukla Yajurveda sections have been discovered in Nepal and Western Tibet , and these are dated to the 12th-century CE. Yajurveda is a compound Sanskrit word, composed of yajus (यजुस्) and Veda (वेद). Monier-Williams translates yajus as "religious reverence, veneration, worship, sacrifice,

4455-717: The Siksha Valli , the Ananda Valli and the Bhrigu Valli . The Taittiriya Upanishad includes verses that are partly prayers and benedictions, partly instruction on phonetics and praxis, partly advice on ethics and morals given to graduating students from ancient Vedic gurukul (schools), partly a treatise on allegory, and partly philosophical instruction. The text offers a view of education system in ancient India. It also includes sections on ethics and invocation for one's personal development. Max Muller translates

4554-406: The Vedanta sub-schools. It asserts that "Atman (Soul, Self) exists", teaches the precept "seek Self-knowledge which is Highest Bliss", and expounds on this premise like the other primary Upanishads of Hinduism. The detailed teachings of Katha Upanishad have been variously interpreted, as Dvaita (dualistic) and as Advaita ( non-dualistic ). The Katha Upanishad found in the Yajurveda is among

4653-573: The Victorian mindset by avoiding the use of words such as penis, vulva, vagina and other direct or indirect sexual terms in the Sanskrit text to discuss sex, sexual relationships and human sexual positions. Burton used the terms lingam and yoni instead throughout the translation. This conscious and incorrect word substitution, states Doniger, thus served as an Orientalist means to "anthropologize sex, distance it, make it safe for English readers by assuring them, or pretending to assure them, that

4752-423: The Victorian mold where sex and sexual imagery were a taboo subject, were shocked by and were hostile to the lingam-yoni iconography and reverence they witnessed. The 19th and early 20th-century colonial and missionary literature described lingam-yoni , and related theology as obscene, corrupt, licentious, hyper-sexualized, puerile, impure, demonic and a culture that had become too feminine and dissolute. To

4851-409: The "formless Reality", the symbolization of merging of the 'primordial matter' ( Prakṛti ) with the 'pure consciousness' ( Purusha ) in transcendental context . The lingam-yoni iconography symbolizes the merging of microcosmos and macrocosmos , the divine eternal process of creation and regeneration, and the union of the feminine and the masculine that recreates all of existence. The lingam

4950-477: The "indicative sign is in a Vedic passage". The term linga also appears in Buddhist and Jaina literature, where it means "sign, evidence" in one context, or "subtle body" with sexual connotations in another. The lingam of the Shaivism tradition is a short cylindrical pillar-like symbol of Shiva, made of stone, metal, gem, wood, clay or precious stones. Various styles of lingam iconography are found on

5049-585: The Hindus, particularly the Shaivites , these icons and ideas were the abstract, a symbol of the entirety of creation and spirituality. The colonial disparagement in part triggered the opposite reaction from Bengali nationalists, who more explicitly valorised the feminine. Swami Vivekananda called for the revival of the Mother Goddess as a feminine force, inviting his countrymen to "proclaim her to all

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5148-519: The Indian subcontinent and southeast Asia. The historic lingam iconography has included: A lingam may be made of clay ( mrinmaya ), metal ( lohaja ), precious stone ( ratnaja ), wood ( daruja ), stone ( sailaja , most common), or a disposable material ( kshanika ). The construction method, proportions and design is described in Shaiva Agama texts. The lingam is typically set in

5247-572: The Krishna Yajurveda – Taittirīya saṃhitā , Maitrayani saṃhitā , Kaṭha saṃhitā and Kapiṣṭhala saṃhitā . A total of eighty six recensions are mentioned to exist in Vayu Purana, however vast majority of them are believed to be lost. The Katha school is referred to as a sub-school of Carakas (wanderers) in some ancient texts of India, because they did their scholarship as they wandered from place to place. In contrast to

5346-570: The Lord (Self)". The Isha Upanishad discusses the Atman (Soul, Self) theory of Hinduism, and is referenced by both Dvaita (dualism) and Advaita (non-dualism) sub-schools of Vedanta. It is classified as a "poetic Upanishad" along with Kena, Katha, Svetasvatara and Mandukya Upanishads. The Taittiriya Upanishad is found in the black Yajurveda. It is the seventh, eighth and ninth chapters of Taittiriya Aranyaka , which are also called, respectively,

5445-738: The Mackay's hypothesis cannot be ruled out because erotic and sexual scenes such as ithyphallic males, naked females, a human couple having intercourse and trefoil imprints have now been identified at the Harappan sites. The "finely polished circular stand" found by Mackay may be yoni although it was found without the linga. The absence of linga, states Parpola, maybe because it was made from wood which did not survive. Indologist Wendy Doniger rejects Srinivasan's interpretation, and states that this relatively rare artifact can be interpreted in many ways and has unduly been used for wild speculations such as being

5544-538: The Shiva tradition is "only a symbol of the productive and creative principle of nature as embodied in Shiva", and it has no historical trace in any obscene phallic cult. According to Alex Wayman, various works on Shaivism by some Indian authors, following the Shaiva philosophical texts and spiritual interpretations, "deny that the linga is a phallus." To the Shaivites, a linga is neither a phallus nor do they practice

5643-513: The Shukla Yajurveda, the saṃhitās of the Krishna Yajurveda contained both mantras and explanatory prose (which would usually belong to the brāhmaṇas). (part of Vadhula Srautrasutra) Katha-Shiksha Upanishad The most modern recensions is the Taittirīya saṃhitā . Some attribute it to Tittiri, a pupil of Yaska and mentioned by Panini . The text is associated with the Taittiriya school of

5742-524: The Vajasaneyi Samhita (VS): Vajasaneyi Madhyandina and Vajasaneyi Kanva . The lost recensions of the White Yajurveda, mentioned in other texts of ancient India, include Jabala , Baudhya , Sapeyi , Tapaniya , Kapola , Paundravatsa , Avati , Paramavatika , Parasara , Vaineya , Vaidheya , Katyayana and Vaijyavapa . (Madhyandin) (Kanva) (different from madhyandina) (different from above) There are four surviving recensions of

5841-418: The Veda, by sage Trisanku." The Katha Upanishad is found in the black Yajurveda. The Upanishad is the legendary story of a little boy, Nachiketa – the son of sage Vajasravasa, who meets Yama – the Indian deity of death. Their conversation evolves to a discussion of the nature of man, knowledge, Ātman (Soul, Self) and moksha (liberation). The Kathaka Upanishad is an important ancient Sanskrit corpus of

5940-697: The Vedas. The last of the four eras was Kali Yuga and during Kali Yuga , evil would reign supreme. When Kali Yuga arrived, they were to come back and begin their teaching afresh. And once they were at their peak, Vishnu would be reborn as Kalki and wipe them from earth, and once again the world would be free from all kinds of evil and asuras. Krishna Yajurveda Divisions Sama vedic Yajur vedic Atharva vedic Vaishnava puranas Shaiva puranas Shakta puranas The Yajurveda ( Sanskrit : यजुर्वेद , IAST : yajurveda , from यजुस् , "worship", and वेद , "knowledge")

6039-421: The Vedic rituals, where the term meant the sacrificial post which was then idealized as the eternal Brahman . The Yupa-Skambha gave place in time to the Shiva-Linga , quite possibly with influence from Buddhism's stupa shaped like the top of a stone linga, according to Vivekananda. Shvetashvatara Upanishad states that, of the three significations of Lingam , the primary one is " the imperishable Purusha ",

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6138-512: The Yajurveda, and attributed to the pupils of sage Tittiri (literally, partridge birds). The Maitrayani saṃhitā is the oldest Yajurveda Samhita that has survived, and it differs largely in content from the Taittiriyas, as well as in some different arrangement of chapters, but is much more detailed. The Kāṭhaka saṃhitā or the Caraka-Kaṭha saṃhitā , according to tradition

6237-549: The absolute reality , whereby the linga is "sign", a mark that provides the existence of Brahman , which is itself formless. Furthermore, it mentioned that Shiva is transcendent, beyond any characteristic or liūga , specifically the sign of gender. Linga, "sign", not only signifies the existence of perceptible "things" but also denotes the imperceptible essence of "a thing" or pieces of Brahman called Atma even before that thing has come to exist in any concrete form. The imperceptible essence of "a thing", in its potentiality,

6336-582: The archaeological sites at Harappa and Mohenjo-daro , part of the Indus Valley civilisation . According to Chakravarti, "some of the stones found in Mohenjodaro are unmistakably phallic stones". These are dated to some time before 2300 BCE. Similarly, states Chakravarti, the Kalibangan site of Harappa has a small terracotta representation that "would undoubtedly be considered the replica of

6435-463: The bust of a male with his left hand holding a vase and the right hand in the abhaya (no-fear) mudra. The pillar itself is, once again, a realistic depiction of phallus but neither symbolizes fertility nor sexuality, but the refined energetic principles of Urdhva Retas during Sannyasa or Asceticism . The Mathura archaeological site has revealed similar lingams, with a standing Shiva in front (2nd century CE) and with one or four faces around

6534-403: The center of a pindika (also called yoni or pithas, symbolizing Shakti). A pindika may be circular, square, octagonal, hexagonal, duodecagonal, sixteen sided, elliptical, triangular or another shape. Some lingams are miniaturized and they are carried on one's person, such as by Lingayats in a necklace. These are called chala-lingams . The Hindu temple design manuals recommend geometric ratios for

6633-587: The centrality of the energetic principle of Urdhva Retas ( Sanskrit : ऊर्ध्वरेतस् IAST : Ūrdhvaretas , lit. "ascent of vital energies or fluid") the upward flow of energy in spiritual pursuits and practice of celibacy ( Brahmacarya ), contrary to fertility or release of vital energies. Lakulisa as an ascetic manifestation of Shiva is seen in later peninsular Indian scriptures whose ithyphallic aspects connotes asceticism and conserved procreative potentialities ( Brahmacarya or celibacy ), rather than mere eroticism . According to Stella Kramrisch,

6732-474: The cities with a mere smile . While the celebrations were going on, the shaven-headed religious teachers arrived. "What are we supposed to do now?" they asked. Brahma and Vishnu told them to go to the desert, where no humans exist. The desert is Arab (mentioned in Bhavisya Purana), where Tripurasura will reincarnate as a human, propagate the same ideology among humans, and establish a religion against

6831-530: The common term for lingam is kuRi or "sign, mark" which is asexual. Similarly, in Lingayatism tradition, the lingam is a spiritual symbol and "was never said to have any sexual connotations", according to Doniger. According to Dasgupta, the lingam symbolizes Shiva in Hinduism, and it is also a phallic symbol. Some extant ancient ligams, such as the Gudimallam Lingam , unambiguously depict

6930-432: The early Indian Iron Age , after c. 1200 and before 800 BCE. The Yajurveda text includes Shukla Yajurveda of which about 16 recensions (known as Shaakhaa s) are known, while the Krishna Yajurveda may have had as many as 86 recensions. Only two recensions of the Shukla Yajurveda have survived, Madhyandina and Kanva, and others are known by name only because they are mentioned in other texts. These two recensions are nearly

7029-510: The epithet Tripurari. Another version that is widely quoted in Tamil literature has Shiva destroying Tripura with a mere smile. When all the battlefield was filled with warriors, with Brahma and Vishnu in attendance, there occurred the instant when the forts came together. Shiva merely smiled. The forts were burned to ashes. The battle was over before it began! In Tamil, Shiva has the epithet, " Sirithu Purameritha Peruman " which means, He who burnt

7128-419: The esoteric Kaula and Tantra practices, as well as the Shaivism and Shaktism traditions of Hinduism. The lingam and yoni together symbolize the merging of microcosmos and macrocosmos , the divine eternal process of creation and regeneration, and the union of the feminine and the masculine that recreates all of existence. The lingam is regarded as the "outward symbol" of the "formless Reality",

7227-641: The form of cylindrical rocks or ice or rocky hill. These are called Svayambhuva lingam, and about 70 of these are known on the Indian subcontinent, the most significant being one in Kashi ( Varanasi ) followed by Prayaga, Naimisha and Gaya. The colonial-era archaeologists John Marshall and Ernest Mackay proposed that certain artifacts found at Harappan sites may be evidence of yoni-linga worship in Indus Valley Civilization. Jones and Ryan state that lingam/yoni shapes have been recovered from

7326-761: The foundation of verses in Rigveda . The middle layer includes the Satapatha Brahmana , one of the largest Brahmana texts in the Vedic collection. The youngest layer of Yajurveda text includes the largest collection of primary Upanishads, influential to various schools of Hindu philosophy . These include the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad , the Isha Upanishad , the Taittiriya Upanishad , the Katha Upanishad ,

7425-494: The gods were so bothered. They next went to Vishnu , who suggested that if the problem was that the asuras were doing nothing wrong, then the solution was to persuade them to become sinners. Out of his powers, Vishnu created a man. This man's head was shaven, his clothes were faded and he carried a wooden water-pot in his hands. He approached Vishnu and asked him what orders he would be given, to which Vishnu replied: "Let me explain to you why you have been created. I will teach you

7524-511: The gods, gaining friends, always victorious, winning wealth, winning heaven ! The title Satapatha Brahmana means "Brahmana of the Hundred Paths". It is one of the largest Brahmana text that has survived. It includes, states Staal, a "veritable encyclopedia of meandering opinions on ritual and other matters". The Satapatha Brahmana was translated by Eggeling in late 19th-century, reprinted often and has been well read because of

7623-469: The great sage Narada had been converted, Vidyunmali also accepted the new religion, and in due course, so did Tarakaksha and Kamalaksha. The asuras gave up revering the Vedas, they stopped worshipping Shiva linga. Now the gods then went to Shiva and began to pray to him. When Shiva appeared, they told him that the asuras had now become evil and should be destroyed. They had even stopped worshipping Shiva's linga . Shiva agreed to destroy Tripura. Vishvakarma

7722-473: The interpretation of the so-called ring-stones as yonis seems untenable". He quotes Dales 1984 paper, which states "with the single exception of the unidentified photography of a realistic phallic object in Marshall's report, there is no archaeological evidence to support claims of special sexually-oriented aspects of Harappan religion". However, adds Parpola, a re-examination at Indus Valley sites suggest that

7821-442: The linga, the sanctum and the various architectural features of the temple according to certain mathematical rules it considers perfect and sacred. Anthropologist Christopher John Fuller states that although most sculpted images ( murtis ) are anthropomorphic or theriomorphic, the aniconic Shiva Linga is an important exception. The lingam is conceptualized both as an emblem of generative and destructive power, particularly in

7920-509: The lingam icon with the male sexual organ; the 11th-century Kashmir text Narmamala by Kshemendra on satire and fiction writing explains his ideas on parallelism with divine lingam and human lingam in a sexual context. Various Shaiva texts, such as the Skanda Purana in section 1.8 states that all creatures have the signs of Shiva or Shakti through their lingam (male sexual organ) or pindi (female sexual organ). According to Doniger,

8019-482: The mind harnessed, we are instigated by god Savita, for strength to go to heaven. Whose journey the other gods follow, praising the power of the god, who measured the radiant regions of the earth, he is the great god Savita. God Savita, impel the ritual, impel for good fortune the lord of ritual ! Divine Gandharva, purifier of thought, purify our thoughts ! May the lord of speech make our words sweet ! God Savita, impel for us this ritual, Honoring

8118-405: The more sensual aspects of their own religious literature". Some contemporary Hindus, states Doniger, in their passion to spiritualize Hinduism and for their Hindutva campaign have sought to sanitize the historic earthly sexual meanings, and insist on the abstract spiritual meaning only. The sexualization is criticized by Stella Kramrisch and Moriz Winternitz who opines that the lingam in

8217-467: The most widely studied Upanishads. Philosophers such as Arthur Schopenhauer praised it, Edwin Arnold rendered it in verse as "The Secret of Death", and Ralph Waldo Emerson credited Katha Upanishad for the central story at the end of his essay Immortality , as well as his poem " Brahma ". The Shvetashvatara Upanishad is found in the black Yajurveda. The text opens with metaphysical questions about

8316-478: The nature of Atman (Self) and Sarira (body, prakriti ) and its proposed mechanism of rebirth. In the Purva Mimamsa Sutra and the Vedanta sutra , as well as the commentaries on them, the term linga appears quite often, particularly in the form of "lingadarsanacca" as a form of citing or referencing prior Hindu literature. This phrase connotes "[we have found an] indicative sign", such as

8415-576: The pictorial symbol of the Gudimallam lingam should not be mistaken for fertility or eroticism, due to incomplete or impure understanding of the underlying refined principles. The Bhita linga – now at the Lucknow museum – is also dated to about the 2nd century BCE, and has four directional faces on the pillar and a Brahmi script inscription at the bottom. Above the four faces, the Bhita linga has

8514-621: The point, Soma as the socket, Visnu as the shaft. They said, 'Who shall shoot it?' ' Rudra ', they said, 'Rudra is fierce, let him shoot it.' He said, 'Let me choose a boon; let me be overlord of Pashus.' Therefore is Rudra overlord of Pashus. Rudra let it go; it cleft the Citadels and drove the Asuras away from these worlds. This legend is later told in the Itihāsas and Purānas with more detail. The three brothers began to perform tapasya . For

8613-470: The power to do so, and suggested that they ask for a different boon instead. Tarakaksha, Vidyunmāli and Kamalaksha responded: "Grant us the following: Let three forts be made. The first will be of gold, the second of silver and the third of iron. We will live in these forts for a thousand years. These forts built in different worlds shall align once in every 1,000 years. This combined fort will be called Tripura . And if anyone can then destroy Tripura with only

8712-488: The primal cause of all existence, its origin, its end, and what role if any did time, nature, necessity, chance, the spirit had as primal cause? It then develops its answer, concluding that "the Universal Soul exists in every individual, it expresses itself in every creature, everything in the world is a projection of it, and that there is Oneness, a unity of souls in one and only Self". The Shvetashvatara Upanishad

8811-543: The recensions has or had their Brahmana text mixed into the Samhita text, thus creating a motley of the prose and verses, and making it unclear, disorganized. The Vajasaneyi Samhita has forty chapters or adhyayas , containing the formulas used with the following rituals: and Cāturmāsya The various ritual mantras in the Yajurveda Samhitas are typically set in a meter, and call on Vedic deities such as

8910-537: The same, except for a few differences. In contrast to Shukla Yajurveda, the four surviving recensions of Krishna Yajurveda are very different versions. The samhita in the Shukla Yajurveda is called the Vajasaneyi Samhita . The name Vajasaneyi is derived from Vajasaneya, the patronymic of Yajnavalkya , and the founder of the Vajasaneyi branch. There are two (nearly identical) surviving recensions of

9009-414: The symbolization of merging of the 'primordial matter' ( Prakṛti ) with the 'pure consciousness' ( Purusha ) in transcendental context . Sivaya Subramuniyaswami elaborates that the lingam signifies three perfections of Shiva . The upper oval part of the lingam represents Parashiva and the lower part of the lingam, called the pitha, represents Parashakti . In the representation of Parashiva, Shiva

9108-552: The text was not about real sexual organs, their sexual organs, but merely about the appendages of weird, dark people far away." Similar Orientalist literature of the Christian missionaries and the British era, states Doniger, stripped all spiritual meanings and insisted on the Victorian vulgar interpretation only, which had "a negative effect on the self-perception that Hindus had of their own bodies" and they became "ashamed of

9207-401: The text's tenth anuvaka, for example, as an affirmation of one's Self as a capable, empowered blissful being. The tenth anuvaka asserts, "I am he who shakes the tree. I am glorious like the top of a mountain. I, whose pure light (of knowledge) has risen, am that which is truly immortal, as it resides in the sun. I (Soul, Self) am the treasure, wise, immortal, imperishable. This is the teaching of

9306-455: The translation. However, it has been misinterpreted and misused, states Staal, because "it contains enough material to support any theory". Eggeling, the first translator of Satapatha Brahmana called it "flimsy symbolism rather than serious reasoning", similar to "speculative vaporings" found in the Christian and non-Christian variety of Gnosticism . The Yajurveda has six primary Upanishads embedded within it. The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad

9405-487: The world with the voice of peace and benediction". According to Doniger, the terms lingam and yoni became explicitly associated with human sexual organs in the western imagination after the widely popular first Kamasutra translation by Sir Richard Burton in 1883. In his translation, even though the original Sanskrit text does not use the words lingam or yoni for sexual organs, and almost always uses other terms, Burton adroitly avoided being viewed as obscene to

9504-438: The worship of erotic penis-vulva, rather the linga-yoni is a symbol of cosmic mysteries, the creative powers and the metaphor for the spiritual truths of their faith. According to Swami Sivananda , the correlation of the linga and phallus is wrong; the lingam is only the external symbol of Shiva's formless being. He further states that it is the light or power of consciousness, manifesting from Sadashiva . The popular belief

9603-404: The worshipper should install and worship the five-faced and ten-armed Sadāśiva, the form of Shiva who is the focal divinity of that school of Shaivism. Scholars, such as Wendy Doniger and Rohit Dasgupta , view linga as extrapolations of what was originally a phallic symbol. According to Doniger, there is persuasive evidence in later Sanskrit literature that the early Indians associated

9702-528: Was compiled by Katha, a disciple of Vaisampayana . Like the Maitrayani Samhita, it offers much more detailed discussion of some rituals than the younger Taittiriya samhita that frequently summarizes such accounts. The Kapiṣṭhala saṃhitā or the Kapiṣṭhala-Kaṭha saṃhitā , named after the sage Kapisthala is extant only in some large fragments and edited without accent marks. This text

9801-434: Was the architect of the gods. Shiva called Vishvakarma and asked him to make a suitable chariot, bow and arrow. The chariot was made entirely out of gold. Brahma himself became the charioteer and the chariot was speedily driven towards Tripura. The gods accompanied Shiva with diverse weapons. When Shiva's army reached the battlefield, the three forts were about to merge into a single Tripura, which condition would last for just

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