Misplaced Pages

#610389

58-507: Although reproduction and modern medicine is widely understood in Trobriand society, their traditional beliefs have been remarkably resilient. For example, the real cause of pregnancy is believed to be a baloma , or ancestral spirit, that enters the body of a woman, and without which a woman cannot become pregnant; all babies are made or come into existence (ibubulisi) in Tuma. These tenets form

116-411: A child is born, it is the mother's brother, not the father, who presents a harvest of yams to his sister so that her child will be fed with food from its own matrilineage, not the father's. The Trobrianders practice many traditional magic spells. Young people learn spells from older kin in exchange for food, tobacco, and money. Spells are often partially or fully lost because the old people give away only

174-438: A few lines at a time to keep getting gifts. Often, the old person dies before they finish passing on the spells. Trobrianders believe that no one can make up a new magic spell. Sometimes, a man gives a woman magic spells because he wants to give her more than betel nuts or tobacco. People also buy and sell spells. Literate villagers write their magic spells in books and hide them. A person may direct magic spells toward heightening

232-521: A fresh-weight basis. Yams, with cassava , provide a much greater proportion of the protein intake in Africa, ranging from 5.9% in East and South Africa to about 15.9% in humid West Africa. As a relatively low-protein food, yam is not a good source of essential amino acids . Experts emphasize the need to supplement a yam-dominant diet with more protein-rich foods to support healthy growth in children. Yam

290-549: A great potential for increased production. D. hirtiflora subsp. pedicellata , lusala, busala or lwidi, is native to Tropical Africa . It is widely harvested and eaten in Southern Zambia where it grows in open forest areas. In Southern Zambia, it is an important addition to the March–September diets of almost all, and income of over half of rural households. Research on propagation of this subspecies to alleviate

348-418: A linguistic system, the concept of linear progress of time, geometric shapes, and even conventional methods of description are lost or altered. Lee gives the example of a specific indigenous yam. As the yam moves from sprouting through ripeness to overripeness, the name for it in each state changes entirely: the description of the object at different states of development relates to wholly different perceptions of

406-485: A lover. This is not only allowed, but encouraged. In the Trobriand Islands, there is no traditional marriage ceremony. A woman stays in her lover's house instead of leaving it before sunrise. The man and woman sit together in the morning and wait for the bride's mother to bring them cooked yams. The couple eat together for about a year, and then go back to eating separately. Once the man and woman eat together,

464-583: A myth or legend from Oceania is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Yam (vegetable) Yam is the common name for some plant species in the genus Dioscorea (family Dioscoreaceae ) that form edible tubers (some other species in the genus being toxic). Yams are perennial herbaceous vines native to Africa, Asia, and the Americas and cultivated for the consumption of their starchy tubers in many temperate and tropical regions. The tubers themselves, also called "yams", come in

522-496: A person dies, mourning lasts months. The spouse is joined in mourning by female kin and the dead person's father's sisters. They stay in the house and cry four times a day. If someone who did not attend the funeral comes to the village, they must immediately join in the mourning. Other workers observe many of the mourning taboos. Most shave their heads. People closely related to the deceased avoid eating "good food." Those more distantly related may wear black clothes. Before this, everyone

580-496: A pig for the gardener because he is unsatisfied with the number of yams, or is angry with the gardener for another reason. Once the yam houses are full, a man performs a special spell for the hamlet to ward off hunger by making people feel full. The women also use bundles of scored banana leaves as a type of currency among themselves. As many days of work are required to make the bundles, each one has an assigned value and can be used to buy canned food, or exchanged for other goods. When

638-760: A practice that complicates harvesting in some cases. In forested areas, tubers grow in areas where other tree roots are present. Harvesting the tuber then involves the additional step of freeing them from other roots. This often causes tuber damage. Aerial tubers or bulbils are harvested by manual plucking from the vine. Yields may improve and cost of yam production be lower if mechanization were to be developed and adopted. However, current crop production practices and species used pose considerable hurdles to successful mechanization of yam production, particularly for small-scale rural farmers. Extensive changes in traditional cultivation practices, such as mixed cropping, may be required. Modification of current tuber harvesting equipment

SECTION 10

#1732764747611

696-433: A preferred food and a culturally important food security crop in some sub-Saharan African countries. The following table shows the nutrient content of yam and major staple foods in a raw harvested form on a dry weight basis to account for their different water contents. Raw forms, however, are not edible and cannot be digested. These must be sprouted, or prepared and cooked for human consumption. In sprouted or cooked form,

754-415: A sexually provocative way. This emphasizes the relation between yams and sexuality. A few days later, the gardener comes and loads the yam house, and the man is now responsible for the yam. The yam house owner gives the gardener and young people cooked yams, taro , and pork. Sometimes no pig is killed, perhaps because the yam house owner did not have one to spare. The yam house owner also may decide not kill

812-437: A sign of wealth and power. Western visitors often buy items from Trobrianders with money. There is also a Kula exchange, a very important tradition in the Trobriand Islands. The women also use bundles of scored banana leaves. Each year, a man grows yams for his sister, and his daughter if she is married. The husband does not provide yams to his wife. The more yams a woman receives, the more powerful and rich she is. The husband

870-464: A single large tuber per year, generally weighing 5 to 10 kilograms (11 to 22 pounds). Yams suffer from relatively few pests and diseases. There is an anthracnose caused by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides which is widely distributed around the world's growing regions. Winch et al. , 1984 finds C. gloeosporioides afflicts a large number of Dioscorea spp. Despite the high labor requirements and production costs, consumer demand for yam

928-422: A spell can be used to make a team less efficient in scoring. A team is expected to lose when visiting a rival island. When a visiting team wins, there are often reports of vandalism and arson. During such events, yam houses are burned, which is considered a major insult. In essence, this form of cricket is more aggressive and an important part of Trobriand life. Trobrianders use yams as currency, and consider them

986-509: A team scores a special dance ritual is performed. These dances are an adaptation of former war rituals and often contain taunts and jeers at the other team. "The words are sexual metaphors, used as one team taunts the other and exhibits their physical and sexual prowess to the appraising eyes of the young women on the sidelines." There is also magic in Trobriandian cricket. Teams use charms and incantations to gain an advantage. For example,

1044-476: A variety of forms owing to numerous cultivars and related species. A monocot related to lilies and grasses, yams are vigorous herbaceous , perennially growing vines from a tuber . Some 870 species of yams are known, a few of which are widely grown for their edible tuber but others of which are toxic (such as D. communis ). Yam plants can grow up to 15 metres (49 feet) in length and 7.6 to 15.2 centimetres (3 to 6 inches) high. The tuber may grow into

1102-409: A vessel of salt water, in cold or hot fresh water or in a stream. The bitter compounds in these yams are water-soluble alkaloids which, on ingestion, produce severe and distressing symptoms. Severe cases of alkaloid intoxication may prove fatal. Aerial or potato yams ( D. bulbifera ) have antinutritional factors. In Asia, detoxification methods, involving water extraction, fermentation, and roasting of

1160-450: Is always a woman. There is a ceremony for this. The yams are loaded into the woman's husband's empty yam house. Young people come to the gardens dressed in their most festive traditional clothes early on the day the yams are delivered to the yam house. The young people are all related to the gardener, and carry the yam baskets to the owner's hamlet . When they arrive, they sing out to announce the yams' arrival while thrusting out their hips in

1218-567: Is an Austronesian language with a complex system of classifying nouns . Foreign languages are less commonly spoken, although by the 1980s, Trobrianders occasionally spoke Tok Pisin and English . The term "Trobriand" itself is not Kilivilan: the islands take this name from the French explorer Jean François Sylvestre Denis de Trobriand who visited in 1793. Drawing upon earlier work by Bronisław Malinowski , Dorothy D. Lee 's scholarly writings refer to "non-lineal codifications of reality". In such

SECTION 20

#1732764747611

1276-498: Is an important dietary element for Nigerian and West African people. It contributes more than 200 calories per person per day for more than 150 million people in West Africa, and is an important source of income. Yam is an attractive crop in poor farms with limited resources. It is rich in starch, and can be prepared in many ways. It is available all year round, unlike other, unreliable, seasonal crops. These characteristics make yam

1334-412: Is expected to give his wife's father or brother a gift in turn for the yams they give his wife. When the woman is first married, she receives yams from her father until the woman's brother thinks his sister and her husband are old enough for him to give the yams. At the beginning of the yam harvest, the yams stay on display in gardens for about a month before the gardener takes them to the owner. The owner

1392-588: Is high in certain subregions of Africa, making yam cultivation quite profitable to certain farmers. Many cultivated species of Dioscorea yams are found throughout the humid tropics. The most economically important are discussed below. Non- Dioscorea tubers that were historically important in Africa include Plectranthus rotundifolius (the Hausa potato) and P. esculentus (the Livingstone potato); these two tuber crops have now been largely displaced by

1450-560: Is native to China . The Chinese yam plant is somewhat smaller than the African, with the vines about 3 m (10 ft) long. It is tolerant to frost and can be grown in much cooler conditions than other yams. It is also grown in Korea and Japan . It was introduced to Europe in the 19th century, when the potato crop there was falling victim to disease, and is still grown in France for

1508-838: Is necessary given yam tuber architecture and its different physical properties. In 2020, world production of yams was 75 million metric tons (74,000,000 long tons; 83,000,000 short tons), led by Nigeria with 67% of the total (table). Unlike cassava , most varieties of edible, mature, cultivated yam do not contain toxic compounds. However, there are exceptions. Bitter compounds tend to accumulate in immature tuber tissues of white and yellow yams. These may be polyphenols or tannin -like compounds. Wild forms of bitter yams ( D. dumetorum ) do contain some toxins, such as dihydrodioscorine , that taste bitter, hence are referred to as bitter yam. Bitter yams are not normally eaten except at times of desperation in poor countries and in times of local food scarcity. They are usually detoxified by soaking in

1566-405: Is paid by the owners for their parts in the burial process. The first set of exchanges takes place the day after burial and involves yams, taro, and small amounts of money. The spouse, the spouse's matrilineage, the dead person's father or father's representative, and members of his matrilineage get the largest distribution. 'Missionisation' has had a mixed effect on daily Triobriand life. Most of

1624-487: Is perfectly acceptable to chew betel nuts , particularly when mixed with some pepper plant and slaked lime to make the nut less bitter. The betel nut acts as a stimulant and is commonly used by Trobrianders, causing their teeth to often appear red. Because in the past food was often scarce, to boast of having food is one of the Trobriand Islanders' chief glories and ambitions. Though food is most important, and

1682-428: Is preferred by most people. However, it is popular in home vegetable gardens because it produces a crop after only four months of growth and continues producing for the life of the vine, as long as two years. Also, the bulbils are easy to harvest and cook. In 1905, the air potato was introduced to Florida and has since become an invasive species in much of the state. Its rapid growth crowds out native vegetation and it

1740-481: Is said that they have also been used for criminal purposes. D. trifida , the cush-cush yam, is native to the Guyana region of South America and is the most important cultivated New World yam. Since they originated in tropical rainforest conditions, their growth cycle is less related to seasonal changes than other yams. Because of their relative ease of cultivation and their good flavor, they are considered to have

1798-491: Is second only to white yam. The tuber shape is generally cylindrical, but can vary. Tuber flesh is white and watery in texture. D. alata and D. esculenta (lesser yam) were important staple crops to the seafaring Austronesian cultures. They were carried along with the Austronesian migrations as canoe plants , from Island Southeast Asia to as far as Madagascar and Polynesia . D. polystachya , Chinese yam,

Trobriand people - Misplaced Pages Continue

1856-450: Is very difficult to remove since it can grow back from the tubers, and new vines can grow from the bulbils even after being cut down or burned. D. esculenta , the lesser yam, was one of the first yam species cultivated. It is native to Southeast Asia and is the third-most commonly cultivated species there, although it is cultivated very little in other parts of the world. Its vines seldom reach more than 3 m (10 ft) in length and

1914-765: The Caribbean , Asia, and Oceania . About 95% of yam crops are grown in Africa. A yam crop begins when whole seed tubers or tuber portions are planted into mounds or ridges, at the beginning of the rainy season. The crop yield depends on how and where the sets are planted, sizes of mounds, interplant spacing, provision of stakes for the resultant plants, yam species, and tuber sizes desired at harvest. Small-scale farmers in West and Central Africa often intercrop yams with cereals and vegetables. The seed yams are perishable and bulky to transport. Farmers who do not buy new seed yams usually set aside up to 30% of their harvest for planting

1972-585: The West African languages during trade. However, in Portuguese, this name commonly refers to the taro plant ( Colocasia esculenta ) from the genus Colocasia , as opposed to Dioscorea . The main derivations borrow from verbs meaning "to eat". True yams have various common names across multiple world regions. In some places, other (unrelated) root vegetables are sometimes referred to as "yams", including: Yams are native to Africa, Asia, and

2030-405: The bulbils which grow at the base of its leaves are the more important food product. They are about the size of potatoes (hence the name "air potato"), weighing from 0.5 to 2.0 kg (1 lb 2 oz to 4 lb 7 oz). Some varieties can be eaten raw, while some require soaking or boiling for detoxification before eating. It is not grown much commercially since the flavor of other yams

2088-429: The Americas. Three species were independently domesticated on those continents: D. rotundata (Africa), D. alata (Asia), and D. trifida (South America). Some yams are invasive plants , often considered a noxious weed outside cultivated areas. Yams are cultivated for the consumption of their starchy tubers in many temperate and tropical regions, especially in West Africa, South America and

2146-487: The Asian food market. The tubers are harvested after about 6 months of growth. Some are eaten right after harvesting and some are used as ingredients for other dishes, including noodles, and for traditional medicines. D. bulbifera , the air potato, is found in both Africa and Asia, with slight differences between those found in each place. It is a large vine, 6 m (20 ft) or more in length. It produces tubers, but

2204-692: The Okinawan purple "yam", which is a sweet potato ), greater yam, winged yam, water yam, and (ambiguously) white yam, was first cultivated in Southeast Asia. Although not grown in the same quantities as the African yams, it has the largest distribution worldwide of any cultivated yam, being grown in Asia, the Pacific islands, Africa, and the West Indies. Even in Africa, the popularity of water yam

2262-675: The Spirits of the Dead in the Trobriand Islands in The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland ). It plays a key role in conception ideologies and explains and maintains the matrilineal descent system by substituting the role of male sperm ("fathers") with that of a spirit. The baloma is that spirit of a deceased lineage member which impregnates the women while bathing in

2320-401: The Trobriand culture. The colonial powers were appalled by the violence and sexual displays associated with tribal warfare. Matches are often played between all-male teams and last several months. There are often feasts for the winning team. The islanders add elements to cricket that reflect their culture. For example, since the sport resembles war, there is no limit on team size. Also, every time

2378-405: The flesh is usually white and firm. Yellow yam has yellow flesh, caused by the presence of carotenoids. It looks similar to the white yam in outer appearance; its tuber skin is usually a bit firmer and less extensively grooved. The yellow yam has a longer period of vegetation and a shorter dormancy than white yam. The Kokoro variety is important in making dried yam chips. They are large plants;

Trobriand people - Misplaced Pages Continue

2436-452: The fragile tubers; however, wood tools need frequent replacement. Yam harvesting is labor-intensive and physically demanding. Tuber harvesting involves standing, bending, squatting , and sometimes sitting on the ground depending on the size of mound, size of tuber, or depth of tuber penetration. Care must be taken to avoid damage to the tuber, because damaged tubers do not store well and spoil rapidly. Some farmers use staking and mixed cropping,

2494-614: The grated tuber, are used for bitter cultivars of this yam. The bitter compounds in yams also known locally as air potato include diosbulbin and possibly saponins , such as diosgenin . In Indonesia, an extract of air potato is used in the preparation of arrow poison. Raw yam has only moderate nutrient density , with appreciable content (10% or more of the Daily Value , DV) limited to potassium , vitamin B6 , manganese , thiamin , dietary fiber , and vitamin C (table). But raw yam has

2552-417: The highest potassium levels amongst the 10 major staple foods of the world ( see nutritional chart ). Yam supplies 118 calories per 100 grams. Yam generally has a lower glycemic index , about 54% of glucose per 150 gram serving, compared to potato products. The protein content and quality of roots and tubers is lower than other food staples, with the content of yam and potato being around 2% on

2610-423: The introduction of cassava . D. rotundata , the white yam, and D. cayenensis , the yellow yam, are native to Africa. They are the most important cultivated yams. In the past, they were considered as two separate species, but most taxonomists now regard them as the same species. Over 200 varieties between them are cultivated. White yam tuber is roughly cylindrical in shape, the skin is smooth and brown, and

2668-505: The islanders adhere to native tribal traditions. In an attempt to counter this, missionaries who are experienced with animist tribes are sometimes sent. Such missionaries may, for example, try to insert Christian blessings in traditional funeral ceremonies. Baloma Baloma is the spirit of the dead in Trobriand society, as studied by Bronislaw Malinowski in the early 20th century, who published an article on it in 1916 ( Baloma;

2726-425: The main stratum of what can be termed popular or universal belief. In the past, many held this traditional belief because the yam , a major food of the island, included chemicals ( phytoestrogens and plant sterols ) whose effects are contraceptive, so the practical link between sex and pregnancy was not very evident. The Trobriand peoples speak Kilivila , though different dialects are spoken in different tribes. It

2784-407: The marriage is officially recognized. When a Trobriand couple want to marry, they show their interest by sleeping together, spending time together, and staying with each other for several weeks. The girl's parents approve of the couple when a girl accepts a gift from a boy. After that, the girl moves to the boy's house, eats her meals there, and accompanies her husband all day. Then word goes out that

2842-443: The next year. Yam crops face pressure from a range of insect pests and fungal and viral diseases, as well as nematodes . Their growth and dormant phases correspond respectively to the wet season and the dry season. For maximum yield, the yams require a humid tropical environment, with an annual rainfall over 1,500 millimetres (59 in) distributed uniformly throughout the growing season. White, yellow, and water yams typically produce

2900-438: The object. Ripeness is considered a "defining ingredient", and so when it becomes overripe, a yam is perceived as a new object altogether. The same is true of time and geometric shapes. In Trobriand society, it is taboo to eat in front of others. Jennifer Shute writes, "Trobrianders eat alone, retiring to their own hearths with their portions, turning their backs on one another and eating rapidly for fear of being observed." But it

2958-456: The sea, perpetuating the matrilineage intragenerationally. The role of sexual intercourse is only indirectly related to conception within Trobriand mentality and seen as a way of opening the path for the baloma to enter the woman's womb . This death -related article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This Papua New Guinea -related article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This article relating to

SECTION 50

#1732764747611

3016-501: The soil up to 1.5 m (5 ft) deep. The plant disperses by seed . The edible tuber has a rough skin that is difficult to peel but readily softened by cooking. The skins vary in color from dark brown to light pink. The majority, or meat, of the vegetable is composed of a much softer substance ranging in color from white or yellow to purple or pink in mature yams. The name "yam" appears to derive from Portuguese inhame or Canarian Spanish ñame , which derived from Fula , one of

3074-630: The subject of food is most discussed, at Miamala, the annual time of harvest and feasting, the islanders can face hunger and scarcity due to poor growing conditions at any time of year. In 2009, the problem of population pressure, leading to food insecurity, received much national and international media attention. Trobriand children as young as six are encouraged to have intercourse. They begin to play erotic games with each other and imitate adult seductive attitudes. Around age 13, they begin to pursue sexual partners. They change partners often. Women are just as assertive and dominant as men in pursuing or refusing

3132-698: The threat from wild harvest has been successful. D. japonica – known as East Asian mountain yam, yamaimo, or Japanese mountain yam – is a type of yam (Dioscorea) native to Japan (including Ryukyu and Bonin Islands), Korea, China, Taiwan, and Assam. D. japonica is used for food. Jinenjo, also called the wild yam, is a related variety of Japanese yam that is used as an ingredient in soba noodles. Yams in West Africa are typically harvested by hand, using sticks, spades, or diggers. Wood-based tools are preferred to metallic tools as they are less likely to damage

3190-564: The tubers are fairly small in most varieties. The tubers are eaten baked, boiled, or fried much like potatoes. Because of the small size of the tubers, mechanical cultivation is possible, which along with its easy preparation and good flavor, could help the lesser yam to become more popular in the future. D. dumetorum , the bitter yam, is popular as a vegetable in parts of West Africa, in part because their cultivation requires less labor than other yams. The wild forms are very toxic and are sometimes used to poison animals when mixed with bait. It

3248-414: The two are married. A married couple may get divorced after a year if the woman is unhappy with her husband or if the husband chooses another woman. The man may try to go back to the woman he left by giving her family yams and other gifts, but it is up to the woman whether she wants to be with him. Trobriands believe that conception is the result of an ancestral spirit entering the woman's body. Even after

3306-409: The vines can be as long as 10 to 12 m (33 to 39 ft). The tubers most often weigh about 2.5 to 5 kg (6 to 11 lb) each, but can weigh as much as 25 kg (55 lb). After 7 to 12 months' growth, the tubers are harvested. In Africa, most are pounded into a paste to make the traditional dish of "pounded yam", known as Iyan . D. alata , called purple yam (not to be confused with

3364-411: The visual and olfactory effects of their body to induce erotic feelings in their lover. Some spells are thought to make a person beautiful, even those who would normally be considered ugly. The beauty magic words are chanted into coconut oil, and then a person rubs it onto their skin, or into flowers and herbs that decorate their armbands and hair. After tribal conflict was banned, cricket replaced war in

#610389