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37-514: Tsorona ( Ge’ez  : ጾሮና) is a subregion in the southern Debub region of Eritrea . Its old name was Atkaro. The area was a major battle zone during the Eritrean-Ethiopian War . 14°37′17″N 39°11′42″E  /  14.621281°N 39.194981°E  / 14.621281; 39.194981 This Eritrea location article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Ge%E2%80%99ez Today, Geʽez

74-466: A glottalic egressive airstream . In the phonology of a particular language, ejectives may contrast with aspirated , voiced and tenuis consonants . Some languages have glottalized sonorants with creaky voice that pattern with ejectives phonologically, and other languages have ejectives that pattern with implosives , which has led to phonologists positing a phonological class of glottalic consonants , which includes ejectives. In producing an ejective,

111-403: A voiceless uvular stop . [pʼ] , on the other hand, is quite rare. That is the opposite pattern to what is found in the implosive consonants , in which the bilabial is common and the velar is rare. Ejective fricatives are rare for presumably the same reason: with the air escaping from the mouth while the pressure is being raised, like inflating a leaky bicycle tire, it is harder to distinguish

148-421: A series of allophonically ejective stops. Dahalo of Kenya , has ejectives, implosives, and click consonants . Non-contrastively, ejectives are found in many varieties of British English, usually replacing word-final fortis plosives in utterance-final or emphatic contexts. Almost all ejective consonants in the world's languages are stops or affricates , and all ejective consonants are obstruents . [kʼ]

185-522: A single sound. Often the constriction of the larynx causes it to rise in the vocal tract, but this is individual variation and not the initiator of the airflow. Such sounds generally remain voiced. Yeyi has a set of prenasalized ejectives like /ⁿtʼ, ᵑkʼ, ⁿtsʼ/. In the International Phonetic Alphabet , ejectives are indicated with a "modifier letter apostrophe" ⟨ ʼ ⟩ , as in this article. A reversed apostrophe

222-404: Is [kʼ] even if it is more difficult to produce than other ejectives like [tʼ] or [pʼ] because the auditory distinction between [kʼ] and [k] is greater than with other ejectives and voiceless consonants of the same place of articulation . In proportion to the frequency of uvular consonants , [qʼ] is even more common, as would be expected from the very small oral cavity used to pronounce

259-567: Is commonly seen with r , l and nasals, but that is Americanist phonetic notation for a glottalized consonant and does not indicate an ejective.) Other ejective sonorants are not known to occur. When sonorants are transcribed with an apostrophe in the literature as if they were ejective, they actually involve a different airstream mechanism: they are glottalized consonants and vowels whose glottalization partially or fully interrupts an otherwise normal voiced pulmonic airstream, somewhat like English uh-uh (either vocalic or nasal) pronounced as

296-456: Is even a tendency for nouns to follow the gender of the noun with a corresponding meaning in Greek. There are two numbers, singular and plural. The plural can be constructed either by suffixing ኣት -āt to a word (regardless of gender, but often ኣን -ān if it is a male human noun), or by using an internal plural . Nouns also have two cases: the nominative, which is not marked, and

333-419: Is interpreted by many as having an ejective fricative [sʼ] , at least historically, but it has been also analyzed as now being a sociolinguistic variant (Takkele Taddese 1992). An ejective retroflex stop [ʈʼ] is rare. It has been reported from Yawelmani and other Yokuts languages , Tolowa , and Gwich'in . Because the complete closing of the glottis required to form an ejective makes voicing impossible,

370-486: Is lost when a plural noun with a consonant-final stem has a pronoun suffix attached (generally replaced by the added -i- , as in -i-hu , "his"), thereby losing the case/state distinction, but the distinction may be retained in the case of consonant-final singular nouns. Furthermore, suffix pronouns may or may not attract stress to themselves. In the following table, pronouns without a stress mark (an acute) are not stressed, and vowel-initial suffixes have also been given

407-433: Is pronounced exactly the same as ḥ in the traditional pronunciation. Though the use of a different letter shows that it must originally have had some other pronunciation, what that pronunciation was is not certain. The chart below lists /ɬ/ and /t͡ɬʼ/ as possible values for ś ( ሠ ) and ḍ ( ፀ ) respectively. It also lists /χ/ as a possible value for ḫ ( ኀ ). These values are tentative, but based on

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444-602: Is sometimes used to represent light aspiration, as in Armenian linguistics ⟨ pʼ tʼ kʼ ⟩; this usage is obsolete in the IPA. In other transcription traditions (such as many romanisations of Russian , where it is transliterating the soft sign ), the apostrophe represents palatalization : ⟨ pʼ ⟩ = IPA ⟨ pʲ ⟩. In some Americanist traditions , an apostrophe indicates weak ejection and an exclamation mark strong ejection: ⟨ k̓ , k! ⟩. In

481-400: Is stressed on the ultima (e.g. ንግር nəgə́r , "speak!"), and that, in some patterns, words can be stressed on the third-, fourth- or even fifth-to-last syllable (e.g. በረከተ bárakata ). Due to the high predictability of stress location in most words, textbooks, dictionaries and grammars generally do not mark it. Minimal pairs do exist, however, such as yənaggərā́ ("he speaks to her", with

518-460: Is the most common ejective, and [qʼ] is common among languages with uvulars , [tʼ] less so, and [pʼ] is uncommon. Among affricates, [tsʼ], [tʃʼ], [tɬʼ] are all quite common, and [kxʼ] and [ʈʂʼ] are not unusual ( [kxʼ] is particularly common among the Khoisan languages , where it is the ejective equivalent of /k/ ). A few languages have ejective fricatives. In some dialects of Hausa ,

555-734: Is used as the main liturgical language of the Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church , the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church , Ethiopian Catholic Church , Eritrean Catholic Church , and the Beta Israel Jewish community. Hawulti Obelisk is an ancient pre-Aksumite Obelisk located in Matara , Eritrea. The monument dates to the early Aksumite period and bears an example of the ancient Geʽez script. In one study, Tigre

592-426: The se letter used for spelling the word nigūś "king") is reconstructed as descended from a Proto-Semitic voiceless lateral fricative [ɬ] . Like Arabic, Geʽez merged Proto-Semitic š and s in ሰ (also called se-isat : the se letter used for spelling the word isāt "fire"). Apart from this, Geʽez phonology is comparably conservative; the only other Proto-Semitic phonological contrasts lost may be

629-1065: The stylohyoid muscle and digastric muscle contract, causing the hyoid bone and the connected glottis to raise, and the forward articulation (at the velum in the case of [kʼ] ) is held, raising air pressure greatly in the mouth so when the oral articulators separate, there is a dramatic burst of air. The Adam's apple may be seen moving when the sound is pronounced. In the languages in which they are more obvious, ejectives are often described as sounding like “spat” consonants, but ejectives are often quite weak. In some contexts and in some languages, they are easy to mistake for tenuis or even voiced stops. These weakly ejective articulations are sometimes called intermediates in older American linguistic literature and are notated with different phonetic symbols: ⟨ C! ⟩ = strongly ejective, ⟨ Cʼ ⟩ = weakly ejective. Strong and weak ejectives have not been found to be contrastive in any natural language. In strict, technical terms, ejectives are glottalic egressive consonants. The most common ejective

666-509: The IPA, the distinction might be written ⟨ kʼ, kʼʼ ⟩, but it seems that no language distinguishes degrees of ejection. Transcriptions of the Caucasian languages often utilize combining dots above or below a letter to indicate an ejective. In alphabets using the Latin script, an IPA-like apostrophe for ejective consonants is common. However, there are other conventions. In Hausa ,

703-973: The South African Plateau (see Geography of Africa ). In the Americas, they are extremely common in the North American Cordillera . They also frequently occur throughout the Andes and Maya Mountains . Elsewhere, they are rare. Language families that distinguish ejective consonants include: According to the glottalic theory , the Proto-Indo-European language had a series of ejectives (or, in some versions, implosives ), but no extant Indo-European language has retained them. Ejectives are found today in Ossetian and some Armenian dialects only because of influence of

740-487: The accusative, which is marked with final -a . As in other Semitic languages, there are at least two "states", absolute (unmarked) and construct (marked with -a as well). As in Classical/Standard Arabic , singular and plural nouns often take the same final inflectional affixes for case and state, as number morphology is achieved via attaching a suffix to the stem and/or an internal change in

777-611: The allophonic voicing of ejective phonemes causes them to lose their glottalization; this occurs in Blin (modal voice) and Kabardian (creaky voice). A similar historical sound change also occurred in Veinakh and Lezgic in the Caucasus, and it has been postulated by the glottalic theory for Indo-European. Some Khoisan languages have voiced ejective stops and voiced ejective clicks ; however, they actually contain mixed voicing , and

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814-555: The base በ /b/ in the script. Noun phrases have the following overall order: በዛ ba-zā in-this: F ሀገር hagar city በዛ ሀገር ba-zā hagar in-this:F city in this city ንጉሥ nəguś king ክቡር kəbur glorious ንጉሥ ክቡር nəguś kəbur king glorious a/the glorious king Adjectives and determiners agree with the noun in gender and number: ዛቲ zāti this: FEM ንግሥት Ejective consonant In phonetics , ejective consonants are usually voiceless consonants that are pronounced with

851-483: The contrast here represented as a/ā is represented as ä/a. Geʽez is transliterated according to the following system (see the phoneme table below for IPA values): Because Geʽez is no longer spoken in daily life by large communities, the early pronunciation of some consonants is not completely certain. Gragg writes that "[t]he consonants corresponding to the graphemes ś (Geʽez ሠ ) and ḍ (Geʽez ፀ ) have merged with ሰ and ጸ respectively in

888-413: The ejective release is voiceless. Ejective trill s aren't attested in any language, even allophonically. An ejective [rʼ] would necessarily be voiceless, but the vibration of the trill, combined with a lack of the intense voiceless airflow of [r̥] , gives an impression like that of voicing. Similarly, ejective nasals such as [mʼ, nʼ, ŋʼ] (also necessarily voiceless) are possible. (An apostrophe

925-442: The following patterns. Quadriconsonantal and some triconsonantal nouns follow the following pattern. Triconsonantal nouns that take this pattern must have at least one "long" vowel (namely /i e o u/ ). In the independent pronouns, gender is not distinguished in the 1st person, and case is only distinguished in the 3rd person singular. Suffix pronouns attach at the end of a noun, preposition or verb. The accusative/construct -a

962-491: The hooked letter ƙ is used for /kʼ/ . In Zulu and Xhosa , whose ejection is variable between speakers, plain consonant letters are used: p t k ts tsh kr for /pʼ tʼ kʼ tsʼ tʃʼ kxʼ/ . In some conventions for Haida and Hadza , double letters are used: tt kk qq ttl tts for /tʼ kʼ qʼ tɬʼ tsʼ/ (Haida) and zz jj dl gg for /tsʼ tʃʼ c𝼆ʼ kxʼ/ (Hadza). A pattern can be observed wherein ejectives correlate geographically with mountainous regions. Everett (2013) argues that

999-420: The interdental fricatives and ghayn . There is no evidence within the script of stress rules in the ancient period, but stress patterns exist within the liturgical tradition(s). Accounts of these patterns are, however, contradictory. One early 20th-century account may be broadly summarized as follows: As one example of a discrepancy, a different late 19th-century account says the masculine singular imperative

1036-541: The last type. Upper Necaxa Totonac is unusual and perhaps unique in that it has ejective fricatives (alveolar, lateral, and postalveolar [sʼ], [ʃʼ], [ɬʼ] ) but lacks any ejective stop or affricate (Beck 2006). Other languages with ejective fricatives are Yuchi , which some sources analyze as having [ɸʼ], [sʼ], [ʃʼ], and [ɬʼ] (but not the analysis of the Misplaced Pages article), Keres dialects , with [sʼ], [ʂʼ] and [ɕʼ] , and Lakota , with [sʼ], [ʃʼ], and [xʼ] . Amharic

1073-595: The nearby Northeast Caucasian and/or Kartvelian language families. It had once been predicted that ejectives and implosives would not be found in the same language but both have been found phonemically at several points of articulation in Nilo-Saharan languages ( Gumuz , Me'en , and T'wampa ), Mayan language ( Yucatec ), Salishan ( Lushootseed ), and the Oto-Manguean Mazahua . Nguni languages , such as Zulu have an implosive b alongside

1110-564: The phonological system represented by the traditional pronunciation—and indeed in all modern Ethiopian Semitic. ... There is, however, no evidence either in the tradition or in Ethiopian Semitic [for] what value these consonants may have had in Geʽ;ez." A similar problem is found for the consonant transliterated ḫ . Gragg notes that it corresponds in etymology to velar or uvular fricatives in other Semitic languages, but it

1147-447: The pronoun suffix -(h)ā́ "her") vs. yənaggə́rā ("they speak", feminine plural), both written ይነግራ . Geʽez distinguishes two genders, masculine and feminine, the latter of which is sometimes marked with the suffix ት -t , e.g. እኅት ʼəxt ("sister"). These are less strongly distinguished than in other Semitic languages, as many nouns not denoting humans can be used in either gender: in translated Christian texts there

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1184-790: The reconstructed Proto-Semitic consonants that they are descended from. The following table presents the consonants of the Geʽez language. The reconstructed phonetic value of a phoneme is given in IPA transcription, followed by its representation in the Geʽez script and scholarly transliteration. Geʽez consonants have a triple opposition between voiceless, voiced, and ejective (or emphatic ) obstruents. The Proto-Semitic "emphasis" in Geʽez has been generalized to include emphatic p̣ /pʼ/ . Geʽez has phonologized labiovelars , descending from Proto-Semitic biphonemes. Geʽez ś ሠ Sawt (in Amharic, also called śe-nigūś , i.e.

1221-546: The resulting sound as salient as a [kʼ] . Ejectives occur in about 20% of the world's languages. Ejectives that phonemically contrast with pulmonic consonants occur in about 15% of languages around the world. The occurrence of ejectives often correlates to languages in mountainous regions such as the Caucasus which forms an island of ejective languages. They are also found frequently in the East African Rift and

1258-417: The standard affricate [tsʼ] is a fricative [sʼ] ; Ubykh (Northwest Caucasian, now extinct) had an ejective lateral fricative [ɬʼ] ; and the related Kabardian also has ejective labiodental and alveolopalatal fricatives, [fʼ], [ʃʼ], and [ɬʼ] . Tlingit is an extreme case, with ejective alveolar, lateral, velar, and uvular fricatives, [sʼ], [ɬʼ], [xʼ], [xʷʼ], [χʼ], [χʷʼ] ; it may be the only language with

1295-705: The stem. There is some morphological interaction between consonant-final nouns and a pronoun suffix (see the table of suffix pronouns below). For example, when followed by የ -ya ("my"), in both nominative and accusative the resulting form is ሊቅየ liqə́ya (i.e. the accusative is not * ሊቀየ *liqáya ), but with ከ -ka ("your", masculine singular) there's a distinction between nominative ሊቅከ liqə́ka and accusative ሊቀከ liqáka , and similarly with -hu ("his") between nominative ሊቁ liqú (< *liq-ə-hu ) and accusative ሊቆ liqó (< *liqa-hu ). Internal plurals follow certain patterns. Triconsonantal nouns follow one of

1332-555: The vowels /i, u, a/ with Proto-Semitic long *ī, *ū, *ā respectively, and /e, o/ with the Proto-Semitic diphthongs *ay and *aw . In Geʽez there still exist many alternations between /o/ and /aw/ , less so between /e/ and /aj/ , e.g. ተሎኩ taloku ~ ተለውኩ talawku ("I followed"). In the transcription employed by the Encyclopaedia Aethiopica , which is widely employed in academia,

1369-481: Was found to have a 71% lexical similarity to Ge'ez, while Tigrinya had a 68% lexical similarity to Geʽez, followed by Amharic at 62%. Most linguists believe that Geʽez does not constitute a common ancestor of modern Ethio-Semitic languages but became a separate language early on from another hypothetical unattested common language. Historically, /ɨ/ has a basic correspondence with Proto-Semitic short *i and *u , /æ ~ ɐ/ with short *a ,

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