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70-474: From a military perspective, opposing armies generally wear uniforms of contrasting colors to prevent incidents of friendly fire . Thus the term "turn-coat" indicates that an individual has changed sides and his uniform coat to one matching the color of his former enemy. For example, in the English Civil War during the 17th century, Oliver Cromwell 's soldiers turned their coats inside out to match

140-536: A neutral country ). Civilians in the territories of a party to an armed conflict are entitled to certain privileges under the customary laws of war and international treaties such as the Fourth Geneva Convention . The privileges that they enjoy under international law depends on whether the conflict is an internal one (a civil war ) or an international one. In some nations, uniformed members (or emergency response force ) of law enforcement ,

210-423: A revolution . Following the initial traumatic times, many of the citizens of the area in question quickly embrace the cause of the victors to benefit from the new system. This shift of allegiance is often done without much knowledge about the new order that is replacing the former one. In the face of fear and insecurity, the prime motive for a turncoat to draw away from former allegiances may be mere survival. Often

280-625: A "friendly" was rare, but in industrialized warfare, deaths from friendly fire are more common. Friendly fire should not be confused with fragging , which is the uncondoned intentional (or attempted) killing of servicemen by fellow personnel serving on the same side. Paul R. Syms argues that friendly fire is an ancient phenomenon. He notes recorded events in Ancient Greece and other early accounts of battles. He and other historians also note that weapons such as guns, artillery, and aircraft dramatically increased friendly-fire casualties. By

350-434: A German aircraft. Late in the war the "protection squadron" that covered the elite German jet fighter squadron as it landed or took off were brightly painted to distinguish them from raiding Allied fighters. Errors of response inhibition have recently been proposed as another potential cause of some friendly fire accidents. These types of errors are different from visual misidentification, and instead appear to be caused by

420-467: A comprehensive political component, supported by high force levels, overall professionalism, and the political stamina to stay present long-term. The disappointing outcomes, in Africa and elsewhere, have led some to criticize the way in which the decentralization policies have been implemented (MacFarlane and Weiss 1992; Berman 1998; Boulden 2003)." Most nations clearly distinguish military authorities from

490-399: A failure to inhibit a shooting response. A number of situations can lead to or exacerbate the risk of friendly fire. Difficult terrain and visibility are major factors. Soldiers fighting on unfamiliar ground can become disoriented more easily than on familiar terrain. The direction from which enemy fire comes may not be easy to identify, and poor weather conditions and combat stress may add to

560-495: A fog of war has come under considerable criticism, as it can be used as an excuse for poor planning, weak or compromised intelligence and incompetent command. Errors of position occur when fire aimed at enemy forces may accidentally end up hitting one's own. Such incidents are exacerbated by close proximity of combatants and were relatively common during the First and Second World Wars, where troops fought in close combat and targeting

630-626: A goal of encouraging regional states to police their own conflicts (such as the African Union policing African conflicts). Similarly, the UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan reminded UN Member states that they have common interests in protecting African civilians through a shared "commitments to human security, and its rationale of indivisibility of peace and security." Through a series of resolutions (1265, 1296, 1502 , 1674 , & 1738) and presidential statements

700-484: A high percentage of total casualties are bound to be the result of friendly fire, blunting the effectiveness of the shock and awe tactic. It is probably the fact that friendly fire has proven to be the only fundamental weakness of the tactics that has caused the American military to take significant steps to overturn a blasé attitude to friendly fire and assess ways to eliminate it. During Operation Husky , codename for

770-469: A longstanding history of such bias, Krakauer claims "the scale and sophistication of these recent propaganda efforts, and the unabashedness of their executors" in Iraq and Afghanistan is new. Friendly fire can arise from the " fog of war " – the confusion inherent in warfare. Friendly fire that is the result of apparent recklessness or incompetence may be improperly lumped into this category. The concept of

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840-613: A means of opposing dictatorial rule or foreign occupation: sometimes such campaigns happen at the same time as armed conflicts or guerrilla insurrections, but they are usually distinct from them as regards both their organization and participation. Officials directly involved in the maiming of civilians are conducting offensive combat operations and do not qualify as civilians. International humanitarian law (IHL) codifies treaties and conventions, signed and enforced by participating states, which serve to protect civilians during intra and interstate conflict. Even for non-treaty participants, it

910-488: A more literal origin. According to the Rotuli Chartarum 1199–1216 two barons changed fealty from William Marshal, 1st Earl of Pembroke , to King John . In other words, they turned their coats (of arms) from one lord to another, hence turncoat. A mass-shift in allegiance by a population may take place during military occupation , after a nation has been defeated in war or after a major social upheaval, such as

980-695: A multitude of radio beacons. Correct navigation is vital to ensuring units know where they are in relation to their own force and the enemy. Efforts to provide accurate compasses inside metal boxes in tanks and trucks has proven difficult, with GPS a major breakthrough. Other technological changes include hand-held navigational devices that use satellite signals, giving ground forces the exact location of enemy forces as well as their own. The use of infrared lights and thermal tape that are invisible to observers without night-goggles, or fibres and dyes that reflect only specific wavelengths are developing into key identifiers for friendly infantry units at night. There

1050-554: Is also some development of remote sensors to detect enemy vehicles – the Remotely Monitored Battlefield Sensor System (REMBASS) uses a combination of acoustic , seismic vibration, and infrared to not just detect, but identify vehicles. Some tactics make friendly fire virtually inevitable, such as the practice of dropping barrages of mortars on enemy machine gun posts in the final moments before capture. This practice continued throughout

1120-427: Is an attack by belligerent or neutral forces on friendly troops while attempting to attack enemy or hostile targets. Examples include misidentifying the target as hostile, cross-fire while engaging an enemy, long range ranging errors or inaccuracy. Accidental fire not intended to attack enemy or hostile targets, and deliberate firing on one's own troops for disciplinary reasons is not called friendly fire, and neither

1190-419: Is an untoward but inevitable aspect of warfare, so, too, is the tendency by military commanders to sweep such tragedies under the rug. It's part of a larger pattern: the temptation among generals and politicians to control how the press portrays their military campaigns, which all too often leads them to misrepresent the truth in order to bolster public support for the war of the moment. Although there may well be

1260-605: Is covered by the First Convention . There is no intermediate status; nobody in enemy hands can be outside the law. We feel that this is a satisfactory solution – not only satisfying to the mind, but also, and above all, satisfactory from the humanitarian point of view." The ICRC has expressed the opinion that "If civilians directly engage in hostilities, they are considered ' unlawful' or 'unprivileged' combatants or belligerents (the treaties of humanitarian law do not expressly contain these terms). They may be prosecuted under

1330-585: Is customary for international law to still apply. Additionally, IHL adheres to the principles of distinction , proportionality , and necessity ; which apply to the protection of civilians in armed conflict. Although, despite the UN deploying military forces to protect civilians, it lacks formal policies or military manuals addressing exactly these efforts. The UN Security Council Report No 4: Protection of Civilians in Armed Conflict provides further evidence of

1400-457: Is now commonplace for soldiers worldwide. Avoiding friendly fire can be as straightforward as ensuring fire discipline is instilled in troops, so that they fire and cease firing when they are told to. Firing ranges now also include "don't fire" targets . The increasing sophistication of weaponry, and the tactics employed against American forces to deliberately confuse them has meant that while overall casualties have fallen for American soldiers in

1470-709: Is often assumed that civilians are essentially passive onlookers of war, sometimes they have active roles in conflicts. These may be quasi-military, as when in November 1975 the Moroccan government organized the " green march " of civilians to cross the border into the former Spanish colony of Western Sahara to claim the territory for Morocco - all at the same time as Moroccan forces entered the territory clandestinely. In addition, and without necessarily calling into question their status as non-combatants, civilians sometimes take part in campaigns of nonviolent civil resistance as

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1540-507: Is proposed to indicate the African Union will no longer stand by to watch atrocities happen within the Union. As described by Said Djinnit (AU's Commissioner for Peace and Security) in 2004, "Africans cannot [...] watch the tragedies developing in the continent and say it is the UN's responsibility or somebody else's responsibility. We have moved from the concept of non-interference to non-indifference. We cannot, as Africans, remain indifferent to

1610-477: Is unintentional harm to civilian or neutral targets, which is sometimes referred to as collateral damage . Training accidents and bloodless incidents also do not qualify as friendly fire in terms of casualty reporting. Use of the term friendly in a military context for allied personnel started during the First World War , often when shells fell short of the targeted enemy. The term friendly fire

1680-451: The Allied invasion of Sicily , on the night of 11 July 1943, American C-47 transport planes were mistakenly fired upon by American ground and naval forces and 23 planes were shot down and 37 damaged, resulting in 318 casualties, with 60 airmen and 81 paratroopers killed. This led to the use of Invasion stripes that were used during D-Day as a visible way to prevent friendly fire. During

1750-662: The Napoleonic Wars , Admiral Nelson ordered that ships under his command adopt a common paint scheme to reduce friendly fire incidents; this pattern became known as the Nelson Chequer . Invasion stripes served a similar function during the Allied invasion of Normandy in World War II. When radar was developed during World War II, IFF (" Identification friend or foe ") systems to identify aircraft developed into

1820-525: The Russian invasion of Ukraine the Z (military symbol) has been used on Russian vehicles as a form of marking. There are various explanations as to its meaning, however, one is that both sides are using the same equipment. Ukrainian forces have responded by using visible Ukrainian flags on their vehicles. The picture has become more confused as both sides are using captured or abandoned equipment with Ukraine using captured Russian tanks. Incidents include:

1890-660: The UN Security Council "addresses: The Security Council is now involved in the protection of civilians in five main areas of action. In response to presidential statements and previous subcommittee work, the UN Security Council held a meeting in January 2009, specifically to address the protection of civilians within the context of the IHL. While no specific outcome followed this meeting, it did lead to

1960-564: The 20th and 21st centuries, friendly-fire casualties have likely become a significant percentage of combat injuries and fatalities. Jon Krakauer provides an overview of American casualties during and since the Second World War : While acknowledging that the "statistical dimensions of the friendly fire problem have yet to be defined; reliable data are simply not available in most cases," The Oxford Companion to American Military History estimates that between 2 percent and 25 percent of

2030-556: The 20th century since machine guns were first used in World War I. The high friendly fire risk has generally been accepted by troops since machine gun emplacements are tactically so valuable, and at the same time so dangerous that the attackers wanted them to be shelled, considering the shells far less deadly than the machine guns. Tactical adjustments include the use of "kill boxes", or zones that are placed off-limits to ground forces while allied aircraft attack targets, which goes back to

2100-654: The British Armed Forces' longest continuous operation. The many problems faced (and arguably caused by) Operation Banner have been influential in policy-making and the reluctance to deploy military forces domestically in anything other than exceptional circumstances (usually relating to serious terrorist threats). By contrast, German law prohibits entirely the peacetime intervention of military forces within Germany in armed roles. Military personnel may only be deployed in unarmed roles such as disaster relief. This

2170-655: The British Army was deployed to Northern Ireland under Operation Banner to support the local police in the wake of rioting. This deployment inflamed local tensions, with the Provisional IRA launching a guerilla campaign from 1970 to 1997, during which time controversial actions such as Operation Demetrius took place, as well as atrocities such as the Bloody Sunday massacre . Operation Banner ultimately lasted 37 years, formally ending in 2007 and becoming

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2240-617: The Commentary to the Protocol pointed that anyone who is not a member of the armed forces and does not take part of hostilities in time of war is a civilian. Civilians cannot take part in armed conflict. Civilians are given protection under the Geneva Conventions and Protocols thereto. Article 51 describes the protection that must be given to the civilian population and individual civilians. Chapter III of Protocol I regulates

2310-742: The Navy, Air Force and Marine Corp. In practice there are many nuances to this. The most notable being that the US Coast Guard operates under the U.S. Department of Homeland Security during peacetime but can be transferred to the U.S. Department of the Navy and rendered "military" during times of war. The US National Guard are organised at a State level and under mixed control. Under Title 32, State Governors may deploy National Guard personnel in support of civilian law enforcement - Posse Comitatus would only apply to personnel activated under Title 10 and operating under federal control. In colloquial usage,

2380-707: The Red Cross 1958 Commentary on 1949 Geneva Convention IV Relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War states: "Every person in enemy hands must have some status under international law : he is either a prisoner of war and, as such, covered by the Third Convention , a civilian covered by the Fourth Convention, or again, a member of the medical personnel of the armed forces who

2450-750: The South African constitution allows military forces to assist Police only with Presidential approval. The British military does not intervene in law enforcement matters other than by exceptional ministerial approval. During the 1980 Iranian Embassy Siege , the Metropolitan Police were able to request military support and the Prime Minister approved deployment of the SAS . Unarmed military personnel routinely deploy in support for natural disasters, bomb disposal, etc. under MACA . In 1969

2520-788: The armed forces in civil affairs varies from nation to nation. In France and Italy, the National Gendarmerie and Carabinieri are military agencies permanently tasked to supporting domestic civilian law-enforcement, usually focussed on serious organised crime and counter-terrorism. Until 2008, the South African Commando System (a volunteer militia within the South African Army) assisted the Police Service in rural areas until they were replaced by specialised Police units. Section 201 of

2590-418: The beginning of military aircraft in World War I. The shock and awe battle tactics adopted by the American military – overwhelming power, battlefield awareness, dominant maneuvers, and spectacular displays of force – are employed because they are believed to be the best way to win a war quickly and decisively, reducing casualties on both sides. However, if the only people doing the shooting are American, then

2660-525: The casualties in America's wars are attributable to friendly fire. In the annals of warfare, deaths at the hand of the enemy are often valorized, while those at the hand of friendly forces may be cast in shame. Moreover, because public relations and morale are important, especially in modern warfare, the military may be inclined to under-report incidents of friendly-fire, especially when in charge of both investigations and press releases : If fratricide

2730-465: The civil administration via the national constitution; or else in statute law where no codified constitution exists. This usually serves to place control of military forces under the presiding civilian government. "Civilian" is often not defined explicitly but is a "negative definition" where anyone who is not designated as military personnel is (by default) a civilian. In keeping with IHL, this offers no intermediary status. Involvement and jurisdiction of

2800-543: The colors of the Royal army (see Examples below). Even in a modern historical context "turncoat" is often synonymous with the term " renegade ", a term of religious origins having its origins in the Latin word "renegare" (to deny). Historical currents of great magnitude have periodically caught masses of people, along with their leaders, in their wake. In such a dire situation, new perspectives on past actions are laid bare and

2870-462: The confusion, especially if fire is exchanged. Accurate navigation and fire discipline are vital. In high-risk situations, leaders need to ensure units are properly informed of the location of friendly units and must issue clear, unambiguous orders, but they must also react correctly to responses from soldiers who are capable of using their own judgement. Miscommunication can be deadly. Radios, field telephones, and signalling systems can be used to address

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2940-577: The death of a turncoat his family and friends may wish to keep uncomfortable secrets from the past out of the light. There is a fear of loss of prestige as well as a wish to honor the memory of a family member from the part of those who have experienced the positive side of the person. In certain countries, individuals and organizations have actively investigated the past to bring turncoats to justice to face their responsibilities. There were many turncoats in history, including: Friendly fire In military terminology , friendly fire or fratricide

3010-436: The direct targeting of civilians is a breach of the customary laws of war and is binding on all belligerents . The actual position of the civilian in modern war remains problematic. It is complicated by a number of phenomena, including: Starting in the 1980s, it was often claimed that 90 percent of the victims of modern wars were civilians. These claims, though widely believed, are not supported by detailed examination of

3080-532: The domestic law of the detaining state for such action." Article 50 of the 1977 Protocol I Additional to the Geneva Conventions provides: The definition is negative and defines civilians as persons who do not belong to definite categories. The categories of persons mentioned in Article 4A(1), (2), (3) and (6) of the Third Convention and in Article 43 of the Protocol I are combatants. Therefore,

3150-769: The eight-hour firefight between British units during the Cyprus Emergency ; the sinking of the German destroyers Leberecht Maass and Max Schultz by the Luftwaffe in the North Sea during World War II; the downing of a British Army Gazelle helicopter by a British warship during the Falklands War ; the downing of two U.S. Army Black Hawk helicopters by USAF fighters in 1994 during the Iraqi no-fly zones ;

3220-409: The embracing of life under the new circumstances comes a need of burying and rewriting the past by concealing evidence . The fear of the past coming to upset the newly found stability is always present in the mind of the turncoat. The past is rewritten and whitewashed to cover former deeds. When successful, this activity results in the distortion and falsification of historical events. Even after

3290-581: The enemy. In addition, tank gunners must watch for "friendly" robotic tanks that pop out on training courses in California's Mojave Desert. They also study video footage to help them recognize American forces in battle more quickly. Improved technology to assist in identifying friendly forces is also an ongoing response to friendly fire problems. From the earliest days of warfare, identification systems were visual and developed into extremely elaborate suits of armour with distinctive heraldic patterns. During

3360-662: The evidence, particularly that relating to wars (such as those in former Yugoslavia and in Afghanistan ) that are central to the claims. In the opening years of the 21st century, despite the many problems associated with it, the legal category of the civilian has been the subject of considerable attention in public discourse, in the media and at the United Nations, and in justification of certain uses of armed force to protect endangered populations. It has "lost none of its political, legal and moral salience." Although it

3430-462: The fire service , or other emergency services colloquially refer to members of the public as civilians. The word "civilian" goes back to the late 14th century and is from Old French civilien . Civilian is believed to have been used to refer to non-combatants as early as 1829. The term "non-combatant" now refers to people in general who are not taking part of hostilities in time of war , rather than just civilians. The International Committee of

3500-572: The first Canadian casualties of the war in Afghanistan. [REDACTED] Media related to Friendly fire at Wikimedia Commons Civilian A civilian is a person who is not a member of an armed force nor a person engaged in hostilities. It is slightly different from a non-combatant , because some non-combatants are not civilians (for example, people who are not in a military but support war effort or military operations, military chaplains , or military personnel who are serving with

3570-488: The incident through training, tactics and technology. Most militaries use extensive training to ensure troop safety as part of normal coordination and planning, but are not always exposed to possible friendly-fire situations to ensure they are aware of situations where the risk is high. Difficult terrain and bad weather cannot be controlled, but soldiers must be trained to operate effectively in these conditions, as well as being trained to fight at night. Such simulated training

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3640-530: The internal management structure. Civilian crisis management is a central pillar of the EU Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP) , which in turn is part of the EU's Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP). The CSDP is an important instrument supporting the EU's role as a global security provider. Currently, the EU maintains civilian missions in countries including Georgia, Iraq, Mali, Somalia, and

3710-673: The killing of Royalist commander, the Earl of Kingston , by Royalist cannon fire during the English Civil War ; the bombing of American troops by Eighth Air Force bombers during Operation Cobra in World War II ; the attack on the Royal Navy 1st Minesweeping Flotilla off Cap d'Antifer , Le Havre by 263 Squadron and 266 Squadron RAF on 27 August 1944, sinking HMS  Britomart and Hussar , and irreparably damaging HMS Salamander , killing 117 sailors and wounding 153 more;

3780-508: The late 20th and 21st centuries, the overall percentage of deaths due to friendly fire in American actions has risen dramatically. In the 1991 Gulf War, most of the Americans killed by their own forces were crew members of armored vehicles hit by anti-tank rounds. The response in training includes recognition training for Apache helicopter crews to help them distinguish American tanks and armored vehicles at night and in bad weather from those of

3850-417: The leaders are the first to change loyalties, for they have had access to privileged information and are more aware of the hopelessness of the situation for their former cause. This is especially apparent in dictatorships and authoritarian states when most of the population has been fed propaganda and triumphalism and has been kept in the dark about important turns of events. As time goes by, along with

3920-486: The need for protection of civilians. Recognizing that large-scale civilian insecurity threatens international peace and stability, the UN aims to establish the means of protecting civilians and thereby work to ensure regional stability. Through the UN Security Council Report No 4, first published in 2008, the UN offers ways to support civilian protections in both intra and interstate conflict with

3990-444: The outcome of a battle. The effects of friendly fire, however, are not just material. Troops expect to be targeted by the enemy, but being hit by their own forces has a huge negative impact on morale. Forces doubt the competence of their command, and its prevalence makes commanders more cautious in the field. Attempts to reduce this effect by military leaders involve identifying the causes of friendly fire and overcoming repetition of

4060-429: The problem, but when these systems are used to co-ordinate multiple forces such as ground troops and aircraft, their breakdown can dramatically increase the risk of friendly fire. When allied troops are operating, the situation is even more complex, especially with language barriers to overcome. Some analyses dismiss the material impact of friendly fire, by concluding friendly-fire casualties are usually too few to affect

4130-556: The production of a 10-year assessment of Council actions since the passing of resolution 1265 in 1999. In addition to the UN treaties, regional treaties have also been established, such as the African Union Constitutive Act Article 4(h) which also outlines the protection of civilians and "affords the Union a right to forcibly intervene in one of its member states in 'grave circumstances', namely war crimes, genocide and crimes against humanity." This

4200-622: The question of personal treason becomes muddled. One example would be the situation that led to the Act of Abjuration or Plakkaat van Verlatinghe , signed on July 26, 1581, in the Netherlands, an instance where changing sides was given a positive meaning. The first written use of the term meaning was by J. Foxe in Actes & Monuments in 1570: "One who changes his principles or party; a renegade; an apostate." Cited 1571* "Turncoat" could also have

4270-625: The shooting down and killing of Italo Balbo , the Italian governor of Libya over Tobruk by Italian anti aircraft fire in 1940; the accidental shooting of Stonewall Jackson during the American Civil War; the killing of a Royal Military Policeman by a British sniper during the war in Afghanistan ; and the Tarnak Farm incident when US Air National Guard pilots in 2002 bombed 12 Canadian soldiers, four of whom were killed; these were

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4340-517: The shooting down of a British aircraft by a U.S. Patriot battery during the 2003 invasion of Iraq . In the Tarnak Farm incident , four Canadian soldiers were killed and eight others injured when a U.S. Air National Guard major dropped a 500 lb (230 kg) bomb from his F-16 onto the Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry regiment which was conducting a night firing exercise near Kandahar. Another case of such an accident

4410-525: The targeting of civilian objects. Article 8(2)(b)(i) of the 1998 Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court also includes this in its list of war crimes: "Intentionally directing attacks against the civilian population as such or against individual civilians not taking part in hostilities". Not all states have ratified 1977 Protocol I or the 1998 Rome Statute, but it is an accepted principle of international humanitarian law that

4480-459: The term "civilian staff" can refer to police employees who are not warranted constables . In keeping with Peelian Principles , the term "member of the public" is preferred for general usage to avoid suggesting that Police are something other than civilian. In the U.S., "Civilian oversight" or "Citizen oversight" is used to distinguish external committees (typically monitoring police conduct on behalf of civil administrations and taxpayers) from

4550-470: The term is sometimes used to distinguish non-military law enforcement officers , firefighters , EMS personnel, and other emergency services members from the general public. Regardless, such members are civilians - not military personnel - and are bound by municipal ; civil and criminal law to the same extent as other members of the public. In the United Kingdom, Australia and New Zealand

4620-578: The tragedy of our people" (IRIN News 2004). Although Article 4(h), while drafted, has not been activated, which raises the question of the AU's willingness to intervene in situations of "grave circumstance." Regardless of the lead organization (UN, AU, other) "there is clearly a risk involved for international organizations that in assuming a complicated security role such as civilian protection, they may raise expectations among local populations that cannot be met, usually not even by large-scale peace operations with

4690-631: Was found to be deeply restrictive during the 1972 Munich massacre when army snipers could not be deployed to assist Munich Police. GSG 9 was later formed within the Bundesgrenzschutz to provide an armed tactical capability within the civilian law enforcement structure. In the US, the 1878 Posse Comitatus Act forbids the use of the US Army for law enforcement purposes without the approval of Congress. A 2013 directive clarified that this included

4760-583: Was originally adopted by the United States military ; S.L.A. Marshall used the term in Men Against Fire in 1947. Many North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) militaries refer to these incidents as blue on blue , which derives from military exercises where NATO forces were identified by blue pennants and units representing Warsaw Pact forces by red pennants. In classical forms of warfare where hand-to-hand combat dominated, death from

4830-415: Was relatively inaccurate. As the accuracy of weapons improved, this class of incident has become less common but still occurs. Errors of identification happen when friendly troops are mistakenly attacked in the belief that they are the enemy. Highly mobile battles, and battles involving troops from many nations are more likely to cause this kind of incident as evidenced by incidents in the 1991 Gulf War , or

4900-489: Was the death of Pat Tillman in Afghanistan, although the exact circumstances of that incident are yet to be definitively determined. During World War II , " invasion stripes " were painted on Allied aircraft to assist identification in preparation for the invasion of Normandy . Similar markings had been used when the Hawker Typhoon was first introduced into use as it was otherwise very similar in profile to

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