Turpentine (which is also called spirit of turpentine , oil of turpentine , terebenthine , terebenthene , terebinthine and, colloquially, turps ) is a fluid obtained by the distillation of resin harvested from living trees, mainly pines . Principally used as a specialized solvent , it is also a source of material for organic syntheses .
109-464: Turpentine is composed of terpenes , primarily the monoterpenes alpha- and beta-pinene , with lesser amounts of carene , camphene , limonene , and terpinolene . Substitutes include white spirit or other petroleum distillates – although the constituent chemicals are very different. The word turpentine derives (via French and Latin ) from the Greek word τερεβινθίνη terebinthine , in turn
218-561: A 2014 review essay, historian Daniel E. Sutherland observed that "scholars who insist that 'total' wars must be defined by saturation bombing or the callous dismissal of dead civilians as collateral damage often seem eager to sanitize the American Civil War by making it appear less uncivil than it was in fact. They might consider, as Brady and Nelson [authors of two 2012 studies] have done, that absolute destruction and dislocation can take many forms and must ultimately be defined by
327-452: A 2022 American Economic Journal study which sought to measure the medium- and long-term economic impact of Sherman's March, "the capital destruction induced by the March led to a large contraction in agricultural investment, farming asset prices, and manufacturing activity. Elements of the decline in agriculture persisted through 1920". Union soldiers sang many songs during the March, but it
436-602: A bridge 2 miles (3.2 km) away from the bluff across the Oconee River , and 200 soldiers crossed to flank the Confederate position. On November 25–26 at Sandersville , Wheeler struck at Slocum's advance guard. Kilpatrick was ordered to make a feint toward Augusta before destroying the railroad bridge at Brier Creek and moving to liberate the Camp Lawton prisoner of war camp at Millen . Kilpatrick slipped by
545-559: A center of the camphine industry. In cities, gas lighting was also available, but used by the upper classes. Camphine was the fuel of the average family. Zallen reports that after Ft. Sumter , turpentine producers were cut off from major markets. Emancipation left them without manpower to collect and process turpentine. The camps were flammable. Many were burned in William Tecumseh Sherman 's march from Savannah to Goldsboro . Crude turpentine collected from
654-449: A chest rub or inhaler for nasal and throat ailments. Vicks chest rubs still contain turpentine in their formulations, although not as an active ingredient. Turpentine, now understood to be dangerous for consumption, was a common medicine among seamen during the Age of Discovery . It was one of several products carried aboard Ferdinand Magellan 's fleet during the first circumnavigation of
763-420: A class of natural products consisting of compounds with the formula (C 5 H 8 ) n for n ≥ 2. Terpenes are major biosynthetic building blocks. Comprising more than 30,000 compounds, these unsaturated hydrocarbons are produced predominantly by plants , particularly conifers . In plants, terpenes and terpenoids are important mediators of ecological interactions , while some insects use some terpenes as
872-598: A destructive effect on the morale of the civilian population it encountered in its wide sweep through the state. The second objective of the campaign was more traditional. Grant's armies in Virginia continued in a stalemate against Robert E. Lee 's army, besieged in Petersburg, Virginia . By encroaching into the rear of Lee's positions, Sherman could increase pressure on Lee's Army of Northern Virginia and keep Confederate reinforcements from reaching him. The campaign
981-463: A form of defense. Other functions of terpenoids include cell growth modulation and plant elongation, light harvesting and photoprotection, and membrane permeability and fluidity control. Terpenes are classified by the number of carbons: monoterpenes (C 10 ), sesquiterpenes (C 15 ), diterpenes (C 20 ), as examples. The terpene alpha-pinene is a major component of the common solvent , turpentine . The one terpene that has major applications
1090-493: A great light. But what next? I suppose it will be safer if I leave General Grant and yourself to decide. Please make my grateful acknowledgments to your whole army, officers and men. The March attracted a huge number of refugees, to whom Sherman assigned land with his Special Field Orders No. 15 . These orders have been depicted in popular culture as the origin of the " 40 acres and a mule " promise. The Army's stay in Savannah
1199-401: A halt or a camp they may be permitted to gather turnips, apples, and other vegetables, and to drive in stock in sight of their camp. To regular foraging parties must be intrusted the gathering of provisions and forage at any distance from the road traveled. V. To army corps commanders alone is intrusted the power to destroy mills, houses, cotton-gins, &c., and for them this general principle
SECTION 10
#17327838451261308-658: A hostile people, and must make old and young, rich and poor, feel the hard hand of war, as well as their organized armies. I know that this recent movement of mine through Georgia has had a wonderful effect in this respect. Thousands who had been deceived by their lying papers into the belief that we were being whipped all the time, realized the truth, and have no appetite for a repetition of the same experience. Letter, Sherman to Henry W. Halleck , December 24, 1864. Sherman's scorched earth policies have always been highly controversial, and Sherman's memory has long been reviled by many Southerners . Slaves' opinions varied concerning
1417-473: A message to Hardee in the city: I have already received guns that can cast heavy and destructive shot as far as the heart of your city; also, I have for some days held and controlled every avenue by which the people and garrison of Savannah can be supplied, and I am therefore justified in demanding the surrender of the city of Savannah, and its dependent forts, and shall wait a reasonable time for your answer, before opening with heavy ordnance. Should you entertain
1526-469: A mixture of terpenes (e.g., pinene ), obtained from the distillation of pine tree resin , is used as an organic solvent and as a chemical feedstock (mainly for the production of other terpenoids). Rosin , another by-product of conifer tree resin, is widely used as an ingredient in a variety of industrial products, such as inks , varnishes and adhesives . Rosin is also used by violinists (and players of similar bowed instruments) to increase friction on
1635-637: A month-long delay for rest, Sherman marched north in the spring in the Carolinas Campaign , intending to complete his turning movement and combine his armies with Grant's against Robert E. Lee. Sherman's next major action was the capture of Columbia , the strategically important capital of South Carolina. After a successful two-month campaign, Sherman accepted the surrender of General Joseph E. Johnston and his forces in North Carolina on April 26, 1865. We are not only fighting armies, but
1744-421: A natural mechanism of cloud seeding . The clouds reflect sunlight, allowing the forest temperature to regulate. Some insects use some terpenes as a form of defense. For example, termites of the subfamily Nasutitermitinae ward off predatory insects through the use of a specialized mechanism called a fontanellar gun , which ejects a resinous mixture of terpenes. The one terpene that has major applications
1853-514: A poem about the Savannah campaign, which he titled "Sherman's March to the Sea" and which was set to music by fellow prisoner W. O. Rockwell. When Byers was freed by the Union Capture of Columbia , he approached General Sherman and handed him a scrap of paper. On it was Byers' poem. Reading the paper later in the day, Sherman was so moved by Byers' poem that he promoted Byers to his staff where
1962-535: A reputation for being 'rather loose on the handle.' " Sherman responded to the South Carolina increase in sexual assaults by punishing "the rape of white women, whose race and class provided some privileges and protections" in North Carolina. The records of Sherman's punitive actions in North Carolina revealed that punishments were commensurate with the conditions of Confederate rape victims, as well as
2071-446: A solvent, turpentine is used for thinning oil-based paints , for producing varnishes , and as a raw material for the chemical industry. Its use as a solvent in industrialized nations has largely been replaced by the much cheaper turpentine substitutes obtained from petroleum such as white spirit . A solution of turpentine and beeswax or carnauba wax has long been used as a furniture wax. Spirits of turpentine, called camphine ,
2180-399: Is natural rubber (i.e., polyisoprene ). The possibility that other terpenes could be used as precursors to produce synthetic polymers has been investigated as an alternative to the use of petroleum-based feedstocks. However, few of these applications have been commercialized. Many other terpenes, however, have smaller scale commercial and industrial applications. For example, turpentine ,
2289-411: Is natural rubber (i.e., polyisoprene ). The possibility that other terpenes could be used as precursors to produce synthetic polymers has been investigated. Many terpenes have been shown to have pharmacological effects. Terpenes are also components of some traditional medicines, such as aromatherapy , and as active ingredients of pesticides in agriculture. The term terpene was coined in 1866 by
SECTION 20
#17327838451262398-576: Is a shortened form of "terpentine", an obsolete spelling of " turpentine ". Although sometimes used interchangeably with "terpenes", terpenoids (or isoprenoids ) are modified terpenes that contain additional functional groups , usually oxygen-containing. The terms terpenes and terpenoids are often used interchangeably, however. Furthermore, terpenes are produced from terpenoids and many terpenoids are produced from terpenes. Both have strong and often pleasant odors, which may protect their hosts or attract pollinators. The number of terpenes and terpenoids
2507-423: Is associated with di- and trisubstituted alkenes . Di- and trisubstituted alkenes resist polymerization (low ceiling temperatures ) but are susceptible to acid-induced carbocation formation. Terpenes may be classified by the number of isoprene units in the molecule; a prefix in the name indicates the number of isoprene pairs needed to assemble the molecule. Commonly, terpenes contain 2, 3, 4 or 6 isoprene units;
2616-559: Is distributed in all three domains of life; archaea, bacteria and eukaryotes. The MVA pathway is universally distributed in archaea and non-photosynthetic eukaryotes, while the pathway is sparse in bacteria. In photosynthetic eukaryotes, some species possess the MVA pathway, while others have the MEP pathway or both MVA and MEP pathways. This is due to the acquisition of the MEP pathway by a common ancestor of Archaeplastida (algae + land plants) through
2725-479: Is estimated at 55,000 chemical entities. The 1939 Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded to Leopold Ružička "for his work on polymethylenes and higher terpenes", "including the first chemical synthesis of male sex hormones ." Terpenes are major biosynthetic building blocks. Steroids , for example, are derivatives of the triterpene squalene . Terpenes and terpenoids are also the primary constituents of
2834-430: Is isomerized to DMAPP by the enzyme isopentenyl pyrophosphate isomerase. IPP and DMAPP condense to give geranyl pyrophosphate , the precursor to monoterpenes and monoterpenoids. Geranyl pyrophosphate is also converted to farnesyl pyrophosphate and geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate , respectively C 15 and C 20 precursors to sesquiterpenes and diterpenes (as well as sesequiterpenoids and diterpenoids). Biosynthesis
2943-465: Is laid down: In districts and neighborhoods where the army is unmolested no destruction of such property should be permitted; but should guerrillas or bushwhackers molest our march, or should the inhabitants burn bridges, obstruct roads, or otherwise manifest local hostility, then army commanders should order and enforce a devastation more or less relentless according to the measure of such hostility. VI. As for horses, mules, wagons, &c., belonging to
3052-503: Is mediated by terpene synthase . The genomes of many plant species contain genes that encode terpenoid synthase enzymes imparting terpenes with their basic structure, and cytochrome P450s that modify this basic structure. Terpenes can be visualized as the result of linking isoprene (C 5 H 8 ) units "head to tail" to form chains and rings. A few terpenes are linked “tail to tail”, and larger branched terpenes may be linked “tail to mid”. Strictly speaking all monoterpenes have
3161-539: Is now seen as a post synopsis of Confederate nationalism. A Confederate officer estimated that 10,000 liberated slaves followed Sherman's army, and hundreds died of "hunger, disease, or exposure" along the way. The March to the Sea was devastating to Georgia and the Confederacy. Sherman himself estimated that the campaign had inflicted $ 100 million (equivalent to $ 982 million in 2023) in destruction, about one fifth of which "inured to our advantage" while
3270-460: Is one written afterward that has come to symbolize the campaign: " Marching Through Georgia ", written by Henry Clay Work in 1865. Sung from the point of view of a Union soldier, the lyrics detail the freeing of slaves and punishing the Confederacy for starting the war. Sherman came to dislike the song, in part because he was never one to rejoice over a fallen foe, and in part because it was played at almost every public appearance that he attended. It
3379-504: Is the oleoresin of larch ), or the volatile oil part thereof, namely oil (spirit) of turpentine; the later usage is much more common today. Important pines for turpentine production include: maritime pine ( Pinus pinaster ), Aleppo pine ( Pinus halepensis ), Masson's pine ( Pinus massoniana ), Sumatran pine ( Pinus merkusii ), longleaf pine ( Pinus palustris ), loblolly pine ( Pinus taeda ), slash pine ( Pinus elliottii ), and ponderosa pine ( Pinus ponderosa ). To tap into
Turpentine - Misplaced Pages Continue
3488-666: Is to see to them who bear arms... Sherman, commanding the Military Division of the Mississippi , did not employ his entire army group in the campaign. Confederate Lt. Gen. John Bell Hood was threatening Chattanooga , and Sherman detached two armies under Maj. Gen. George H. Thomas to deal with Hood in the Franklin–Nashville campaign . Thomas would go on to defeat Hood, leaving Sherman's main army effectively unopposed. When Sherman had prepared his forces for
3597-493: The Atlanta Campaign , which immediately preceded the March to the Sea, he took rigorous steps to ensure that only the most physically fit men were accepted, that every man in the army could march for long distances and would fight without reservations. Sherman wanted only the "best fighting material." Doctors performed in-depth examinations to weed out the weak and those suffering from disease, and because of this 1% of
3706-695: The Charleston and Savannah Railroad . At the Battle of Honey Hill on November 30, Hatch fought a vigorous battle against G.W. Smith's 1,500 Georgia militiamen, 3 miles (4.8 km) south of Grahamville Station, South Carolina. Smith's militia fought off the Union attacks, and Hatch withdrew after suffering about 650 casualties, versus Smith's 50. Sherman's armies reached the outskirts of Savannah on December 10 but found that Hardee had entrenched 10,000 men in favorable fighting positions, and his soldiers had flooded
3815-472: The Confederacy 's strategic capacity for warfare could be decisively broken. Sherman therefore planned an operation that has been compared to the modern principles of scorched earth warfare. Although his formal orders specified control over destruction of infrastructure in areas in which his army was unmolested by guerrilla activity, he recognized that supplying an army through liberal foraging would have
3924-486: The Union Army . The campaign began on November 15 with Sherman's troops leaving Atlanta , recently taken by Union forces , and ended with the capture of the port of Savannah on December 21. His forces followed a " scorched earth " policy, destroying military targets as well as industry, infrastructure, and civilian property, disrupting the Confederacy's economy and transportation networks . The operation debilitated
4033-599: The bow hair, by ballet dancers on the soles of their shoes to maintain traction on the floor, by gymnasts to keep their grips while performing, and by baseball pitchers to improve their control of the baseball. Terpenes are widely used as fragrances and flavors in consumer products such as perfumes , cosmetics and cleaning products , as well as food and drink products. For example, the aroma and flavor of hops comes, in part, from sesquiterpenes (mainly α-humulene and β-caryophyllene ), which affect beer quality. Some form hydroperoxides that are valued as catalysts in
4142-489: The endosymbiosis of ancestral cyanobacteria that possessed the MEP pathway. The MVA and MEP pathways were selectively lost in individual photosynthetic lineages. Also, the archaeal MVA pathway is not completely homologous to the eukaryotic MVA pathway. Instead, the eukaryotic MVA pathway is closer to the bacterial MVA pathway. The non-mevalonate pathway or the 2- C -methyl-D-erythritol 4-phosphate (MEP) pathway starts with pyruvate and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P) as
4251-655: The essential oils of many types of plants and flowers. In plants, terpenes and terpenoids are important mediators of ecological interactions . For example, they play a role in plant defense against herbivory , disease resistance , attraction of mutualists such as pollinators , as well as potentially plant- plant communication . They appear to play roles as antifeedants . Other functions of terpenoids include cell growth modulation and plant elongation, light harvesting and photoprotection, and membrane permeability and fluidity control. Higher amounts of terpenes are released by trees in warmer weather, where they may function as
4360-544: The glycosides , which are linked to sugars. These are water-soluble solids. Conceptually derived from isoprenes , the structures and formulas of terpenes follow the biogenetic isoprene rule or the C 5 rule , as described in 1953 by Leopold Ružička and colleagues. The C 5 isoprene units are provided in the form of dimethylallyl pyrophosphate (DMAPP) and isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP). DMAPP and IPP are structural isomers to each other. This pair of building blocks are produced by two distinct metabolic pathways :
4469-420: The lungs and respiratory system, as well as the central nervous system when inhaled, and cause damage to the renal system when ingested, among other things. Ingestion can cause burning sensations, abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, confusion, convulsions, diarrhea, tachycardia , unconsciousness, respiratory failure, and chemical pneumonia . The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set
Turpentine - Misplaced Pages Continue
4578-532: The mevalonate (MVA) pathway and the non-mevalonate (MEP) pathway . These two pathways are mutually exclusive in most organisms, except for some bacteria and land plants. In general, most archaea and eukaryotes use the MVA pathway, while bacteria mostly have the MEP pathway. IPP and DMAPP are final products of both MVA and MEP pathways and the relative abundance of these two isoprene units is enzymatically regulated in host organisms. This pathway conjugates three molecules of acetyl CoA . The mevalonate (MVA) pathway
4687-474: The "hard hand of war" to the Carolinas in less than a week. According to the general, "the invariable reply was, 'Well, if you will make those people feel the utmost severities of war, we will pardon you for your desolation of Georgia.' I look upon Columbia as quite as bad as Charleston, and I doubt if we will spare the public buildings there as we did at Milledgeville." One example of an outspoken exponent of
4796-500: The "hard war" classification was W. Todd Groce, President and Chief Executive Officer (CEO) of the Georgia Historical Society . In his publications, Groce focused on the March to the Sea, contending that "it lacked the wholesale destruction of human life that characterized World War II" and that "Sherman's primary targets – foodstuffs and industrial, government and military property – were carefully chosen to create
4905-403: The "remainder is simple waste and destruction". The Army wrecked 300 miles (480 km) of railroad and numerous bridges and miles of telegraph lines. It seized 5,000 horses, 4,000 mules, and 13,000 head of cattle. It confiscated 9.5 million pounds of corn and 10.5 million pounds of fodder, and destroyed uncounted cotton gins and mills. Military historians Herman Hattaway and Archer Jones cited
5014-469: The 1840s camphine (also spelled camphene) became one of the dominant lamp fuels in the US. The pine trees of North Carolina were well suited to camphine production. The business also provided additional need for slaves as production expanded. Backwoods became more productive. Slaves were often leased in winter when agriculture was slower. The value of many was protected by life insurance . Wilmington became
5123-485: The Confederacy and helped lead to its eventual surrender . Sherman's decision to operate deep within enemy territory without supply lines was unusual for its time, and the campaign is regarded by some historians as an early example of total war or "hard war" in modern warfare . Following the March to the Sea, Sherman's army headed north for the Carolinas campaign . The portion of this march through South Carolina
5232-455: The German chemist August Kekulé to denote all hydrocarbons having the empirical formula C 10 H 16 , of which camphene was one. Previously, many hydrocarbons having the empirical formula C 10 H 16 had been called "camphene", but many other hydrocarbons of the same composition had had different names. Kekulé coined the term "terpene" in order to reduce the confusion. The name "terpene"
5341-420: The Sea was evidence for his contention that Sherman fought "to bring rebels back into the Union, not to annihilate them." Groce rested this corollary conclusion on a vignette from the Carolinas campaign. According to Groce, Sherman "told one South Carolina woman that he was ransacking her plantation so that her soldier husband would come home and Grant would not have to kill him in the trenches at Petersburg." In
5450-448: The Sea. Historians still consider this number comparatively low. There was, however, a "shift to hard war" in the ensuing Carolinas campaign, with mounting Confederate civilian fatalities matching a surge in the number of confirmed sexual assaults on Confederate women by male Union soldiers. During the South Carolina stage of the so-called "March North from the Sea", historian Lisa Tendrich Frank maintained, Union soldiers had "earned
5559-404: The actions of Sherman and his army. Some who welcomed him as a liberator chose to follow his armies. Jacqueline Campbell has written, on the other hand, that some slaves looked upon the Union army's ransacking and invasive actions with disdain. They often felt betrayed, as they "suffered along with their owners, complicating their decision of whether to flee with or from Union troops", although that
SECTION 50
#17327838451265668-425: The anthem of " John Brown's Body "; the men caught up the strain, and never before or since have I heard the chorus of "Glory, glory, hallelujah!" done with more spirit, or in better harmony of time and place. Sherman's personal escort on the march was the 1st Alabama Cavalry Regiment , a unit made up entirely of Southerners who remained loyal to the Union . The two wings of the army attempted to confuse and deceive
5777-454: The army would be out of touch with the North throughout the campaign, Sherman gave explicit orders, Sherman's Special Field Orders, No. 120 , regarding the conduct of the campaign. The following is an excerpt from those orders: ... IV. The army will forage liberally on the country during the march. To this end, each brigade commander will organize a good and sufficient foraging party, under
5886-438: The baggage of its officers; the number of tents carried was curtailed. The staffs of the various headquarters were ruthlessly restricted, and much clerical work was done by permanent offices in the rear. This was the process by which the 62,000 men (55,000 infantry, 5,000 cavalry, and 2,000 artillerymen manning 64 guns) Sherman commanded were assembled, and would leave Atlanta for Savannah. They were divided into two columns for
5995-597: The black smoke rising high in air, and hanging like a pall over the ruined city. Away off in the distance, on the McDonough road, was the rear of Howard's column, the gun-barrels glistening in the sun, the white-topped wagons stretching away to the south; and right before us the Fourteenth Corps, marching steadily and rapidly, with a cheery look and swinging pace, that made light of the thousand miles that lay between us and Richmond. Some band, by accident, struck up
6104-596: The campaign, the Confederate War Department brought in additional men from Florida and the Carolinas, but they never were able to increase their effective force beyond 13,000. Both U.S. President Abraham Lincoln and General Ulysses S. Grant had serious reservations about Sherman's plans. Still, Grant trusted Sherman's assessment and on November 2, 1864, he sent Sherman a telegram stating simply, "Go as you propose." The 300-mile (480 km) march began on November 15. Sherman recounted in his memoirs
6213-451: The carbon source. C 5 IPP and C 5 DMAPP are the end-products in either pathway and are the precursors of terpenoids with various carbon numbers (typically C 5 to C 40 ), side chains of (bacterio) chlorophylls , hemes and quinones . Synthesis of all higher terpenoids proceeds via formation of geranyl pyrophosphate (GPP), farnesyl pyrophosphate (FPP), and geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate (GGPP). In both MVA and MEP pathways, IPP
6322-413: The chief chemical components of turpentine. These pinenes are separated and purified by distillation. The mixture of diterpenes and triterpenes that is left as residue after turpentine distillation is sold as rosin . Turpentine and petroleum distillates such as coal oil and kerosene, were used in folk medicine for abrasions and wounds, as a treatment for lice , and when mixed with animal fat , as
6431-416: The city and held a mock legislative session in the capitol building, jokingly voting Georgia back into the Union. Several small actions followed. Wheeler and some infantry struck in a rearguard action at Ball's Ferry on November 24 and November 25. While Howard's wing was delayed near Ball's Bluff, the 1st Alabama Cavalry (a Federal regiment) engaged Confederate pickets. Overnight, Union engineers constructed
6540-590: The city's citizens and their property. Geary telegraphed Sherman, who advised him to accept the offer. Arnold presented him with the key to the city, and Sherman's men, led by Geary's division of the XX Corps, occupied the city the same day. Sherman telegraphed to President Lincoln, "I beg to present you as a Christmas gift the City of Savannah, with one hundred and fifty heavy guns and plenty of ammunition and about twenty-five thousand bales of cotton." On December 26,
6649-399: The command of one or more discreet officers, who will gather, near the route traveled, corn or forage of any kind, meat of any kind, vegetables, corn-meal, or whatever is needed by the command, aiming at all times to keep in the wagons at least ten days' provisions for the command and three days' forage. Soldiers must not enter the dwellings of the inhabitants, or commit any trespass, but during
SECTION 60
#17327838451266758-465: The days of Julius Caesar." The Confederate opposition from Lt. Gen. William J. Hardee 's Department of South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida was meager. Hood had taken the bulk of forces in Georgia on his campaign to Tennessee in hopes of diverting Sherman to pursue him. Considering Sherman's military priorities, however, this tactical maneuver by his enemy to get out of his force's path was welcomed to
6867-423: The defense, and the division of Georgia militia launched several hours of badly coordinated attacks, eventually retreating with about 1,100 casualties (of which about 600 were prisoners), versus the Union's 100. At the same time, Slocum's left wing approached the state capital at Milledgeville, prompting the hasty departure of Governor Joseph Brown and the state legislature. On November 23, Slocum's troops captured
6976-436: The defensive line that Wheeler had placed near Brier Creek, but on the night of November 26 Wheeler attacked and drove the 8th Indiana and 2nd Kentucky Cavalry away from their camps at Sylvan Grove. Kilpatrick abandoned his plans to destroy the railroad bridge and he also learned that the prisoners had been moved from Camp Lawton, so he rejoined the army at Louisville . At the Battle of Buck Head Creek on November 28, Kilpatrick
7085-430: The desired effect, and never included mass killing of civilians." Groce premised his arguments on the notion that Sherman's Special Field Orders No. 120 (1864), which prohibited Union soldiers from entering Confederate dwellings and encouraged Union soldiers to appropriate Confederate horses, mules, and wagons only from "the rich", had successfully mitigated the effects of the previous year's Lieber Code . Groce summarized
7194-494: The ends of repairing the Union and abolishing slavery justified the means. Grant, Sheridan, and Sherman all said as much." Historians who attempted to classify the Civil War as a "total war" or scorched-earth "hard war" confounded their own conceptual frameworks for the persistence of this consequentialist bellum , a thinly-veiled justification for racially-motivated hate crimes that largely spared Confederate noncombatants. During
7303-587: The enemy about their destinations; the Confederates could not tell from the initial movements whether Sherman would march on Macon , Augusta , or Savannah. Howard's wing, led by Kilpatrick's cavalry, marched south along the railroad to Lovejoy's Station , which caused the defenders there to conduct a fighting retreat to Macon. The cavalry captured two Confederate guns at Lovejoy's Station, and then two more and 50 prisoners at Bear Creek Station . Howard's infantry marched through Jonesboro to Gordon, southwest of
7412-496: The feminine form (to conform to the feminine gender of the Greek word, which means 'resin') of an adjective (τερεβίνθινος) derived from the Greek noun (τερέβινθος) for the terebinth tree. Although the word originally referred to the resinous exudate of terebinth trees (e.g. Chios turpentine , Cyprus turpentine , and Persian turpentine ), it now refers to that of coniferous trees, namely crude turpentine (e.g. Venice turpentine
7521-460: The fort in the Battle of Fort McAllister and captured it within 15 minutes. Some of the 134 Union casualties were caused by torpedoes, a name for crude land mines that were used only rarely in the war. Now that Sherman had contact with the Navy fleet under Rear Admiral John A. Dahlgren , he was able to obtain the supplies and siege artillery he required to invest Savannah. On December 17, he sent
7630-418: The globe . Taken internally it was used as a treatment for intestinal parasites . This is dangerous, due to the chemical's toxicity. Turpentine enemas , a very harsh purgative, had formerly been used for stubborn constipation or impaction. They were also given punitively to political dissenters in post-independence Argentina. As an organic solvent, turpentine's vapour can irritate the skin and eyes, damage
7739-481: The inhabitants, the cavalry and artillery may appropriate freely and without limit, discriminating, however, between the rich, who are usually hostile, and the poor or industrious, usually neutral or friendly. Foraging parties may also take mules or horses to replace the jaded animals of their trains, or to serve as pack-mules for the regiments or brigades. In all foraging, of whatever kind, the parties engaged will refrain from abusive or threatening language, and may, where
7848-637: The interim ten days between his March to the Sea and Carolinas campaign . He first distinguished between "this war" and "European wars in particular": Union soldiers were "not only fighting hostile armies, but a hostile people, and must make old and young, rich and poor, feel the hard hand of war, as well as their organized armies." Sherman acknowledged that "the whole army is burning with an insatiable desire to wreak vengeance upon South Carolina. I almost tremble at her fate, but feel that she deserves all that seems in store for her." The general endeavored to assure southern Unionists in Georgia that he planned on applying
7957-459: The latter code, signed into law by Lincoln on the eve of the Battle of Gettysburg, as authorizing the Union "Army to destroy civilian property, starve noncombatants, shell towns, keep enemy civilians in besieged cities, free slaves and summarily execute guerrillas if such measures were deemed necessary to winning the war and defending the country." The sole exception to Groce's focus on the March to
8066-521: The legal limit ( permissible exposure limit ) for turpentine exposure in the workplace as 100 ppm (560 mg/m) over an 8-hour workday. The same threshold was adopted by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) as the recommended exposure limit (REL). At levels of 800 ppm (4480 mg/m3), turpentine is immediately dangerous to life and health . Terpene Terpenes ( / ˈ t ɜːr p iː n / ) are
8175-429: The light end of the heavy naphtha fraction (boiling between 90 and 115 °C or 195 and 240 °F) from a crude oil refinery . Such turpentine is called wood turpentine . Multi-stage counter-current extraction is commonly used so fresh naphtha first contacts wood leached in previous stages and naphtha laden with turpentine from previous stages contacts fresh wood before vacuum distillation to recover naphtha from
8284-548: The local high society turned its nose up at the Union Army, refusing to be seen at social events with Union officers present, Sherman was ironically focused on protecting them. Sherman received numerous letters from the very Confederate officers he was fighting against, requesting that Sherman ensure the protection of their families. Sherman dutifully complied with the letters of protection he received, from both North and South, regardless of social standing. From Savannah, after
8393-419: The manufacturing and agricultural infrastructure of Georgia. In planning for the march, Sherman used livestock and crop production data from the 1860 census to lead his troops through areas where he believed they would be able to forage most effectively. The twisted and broken railroad rails that the troops heated over fires, wrapped around tree trunks and left behind became known as Sherman's neckties . As
8502-552: The march: In 1929, British military historian B. H. Liddell Hart described the men of Sherman's army as "probably the finest army of military 'workmen' the modern world has seen. An army of individuals trained in the school of experience to look after their own food and health, to march far and fast with the least fatigue, to fight with the least exposure, above all, to act swiftly and to work thoroughly." After his surrender to Sherman, Confederate General Joseph E. Johnston said of Sherman's men that "there has been no such army since
8611-604: The men were left behind. Eighty percent of the remaining soldiers were long-time veterans of campaigns in both the Western theatre, primarily, and the Eastern, a minority. Sherman had ruthlessly cut to the bone the supplies carried, intending as he did for the army to live off the land as much as possible. Each division and brigade had a supply train, but the size of the train was strictly limited. Each regiment had one wagon and one ambulance, and each company had one pack mule for
8720-423: The number of sexual assaults by a given perpetrator. For instance, one soldier " 'did by physical force and violence commit rape upon the person of one Miss Letitia Craft' in North Carolina", but the case was pending because the soldier may have been involved in the gang or serial rape of two additional Confederate women. As the Carolinas campaign continued, the racial contours of Sherman's disciplinary efforts shifted
8829-407: The officer in command thinks proper, give written certificates of the facts, but no receipts, and they will endeavor to leave with each family a reasonable portion for their maintenance. VII. Negroes who are able-bodied and can be of service to the several columns may be taken along, but each army commander will bear in mind that the question of supplies is a very important one and that his first duty
8938-712: The paper and tall oil industries. For example, α-pinene , which is readily obtainable from natural sources, is converted to citronellal and camphor . Citronellal is also converted to rose oxide and menthol . Sherman%27s March to the Sea Sherman's March to the Sea (also known as the Savannah campaign or simply Sherman's March ) was a military campaign of the American Civil War conducted through Georgia from November 15 until December 21, 1864, by William Tecumseh Sherman , major general of
9047-489: The point of remarking, "If he will go to the Ohio River, I'll give him rations." There were about 13,000 men remaining at Lovejoy's Station , south of Atlanta. Maj. Gen. Gustavus W. Smith 's Georgia militia had about 3,050 soldiers, most of whom were boys and elderly men. The Cavalry Corps of Maj. Gen. Joseph Wheeler , reinforced by a brigade under Brig. Gen. William H. Jackson , had approximately 10,000 troopers. During
9156-498: The president replied in a letter: Many, many thanks for your Christmas gift, the capture of Savannah. When you were about leaving Atlanta for the Atlantic coast, I was anxious, if not fearful; but feeling that you were the better judge, and remembering that 'nothing risked, nothing gained,' I did not interfere. Now, the undertaking being a success, the honor is yours; for I believe none of us went further than to acquiesce. And taking
9265-1235: The production of polymers. Many terpenes have been shown to have pharmacological effects, although most studies are from laboratory research, and clinical research in humans is preliminary. Terpenes are also components of some traditional medicines, such as aromatherapy . Reflecting their defensive role in plants, terpenes are used as active ingredients of pesticides in agriculture. Terpenes are colorless, although impure samples are often yellow. Boiling points scale with molecular size: terpenes, sesquiterpenes, and diterpenes respectively at 110, 160, and 220 °C. Being highly non-polar, they are insoluble in water. Being hydrocarbons, they are highly flammable and have low specific gravity (float on water). They are tactilely light oils considerably less viscous than familiar vegetable oils like corn oil (28 cP ), with viscosity ranging from 1 cP (à la water) to 6 cP. Terpenes are local irritants and can cause gastrointestinal disturbances if ingested. Terpenoids (mono-, sesqui-, di-, etc.) have similar physical properties but tend to be more polar and hence slightly more soluble in water and somewhat less volatile than their terpene analogues. Highly polar derivatives of terpenoids are
9374-593: The proposition, I am prepared to grant liberal terms to the inhabitants and garrison; but should I be forced to resort to assault, or the slower and surer process of starvation, I shall then feel justified in resorting to the harshest measures, and shall make little effort to restrain my army—burning to avenge the national wrong which they attach to Savannah and other large cities which have been so prominent in dragging our country into civil war. Hardee decided not to surrender but to escape. Historian Barrett assesses that Sherman could have stopped Hardee, but failed to because he
9483-630: The same chemical formula C 10 H 16 . Similarly all sesquiterpenes and diterpenes have formulas of C 15 H 24 and C 20 H 32 respectively. The structural diversity of mono-, sesqui-, and diterpenes is a consequence of isomerism. Terpenes and terpenoids are usually chiral . Chiral compounds can exist as non-superposable mirror images, which exhibit distinct physical properties such as odor or toxicity. Most terpenes and terpenoids feature C=C groups, i.e. they exhibit unsaturation. Since they carry no functional groups aside from their unsaturation, terpenes are structurally distinctive. The unsaturation
9592-495: The sap producing layers of the tree, harvesters used a series of hacks to remove the pine bark. Once debarked, pine trees secrete crude turpentine ( oleoresin ) onto the surface of the wound as a protective measure to seal the opening, resist exposure to micro-organisms and insects, and prevent vital sap loss. Harvesters wounded trees in V-shaped streaks down the length of the trunks to channel the crude turpentine into containers. It
9701-540: The scene when he left at 7 am the following day: ... We rode out of Atlanta by the Decatur road, filled by the marching troops and wagons of the Fourteenth Corps; and reaching the hill, just outside of the old rebel works, we naturally paused to look back upon the scenes of our past battles. We stood upon the very ground whereon was fought the bloody battle of July 22d, and could see the copse of wood where McPherson fell. Behind us lay Atlanta, smouldering and in ruins,
9810-509: The significant damage wrought to railroads and Southern logistics in the campaign and stated that "Sherman's raid succeeded in 'knocking the Confederate war effort to pieces'." David J. Eicher wrote that "Sherman had accomplished an amazing task. He had defied military principles by operating deep within enemy territory and without lines of supply or communication. He destroyed much of the South's potential and psychology to wage war." According to
9919-500: The state capital, Milledgeville . Slocum's wing, accompanied by Sherman, moved to the east, in the direction of Augusta. They destroyed the bridge across the Oconee River and then turned south. The first real resistance was felt by Howard's right wing at the Battle of Griswoldville on November 22. Confederate Maj. Gen. Wheeler's cavalry struck Brig. Gen. Kilpatrick's, killing one, wounding two and capturing 18. The infantry brigade of Brig. Gen. Charles C. Walcutt arrived to stabilize
10028-462: The surrounding rice fields, leaving only narrow causeways available to approach the city. Sherman was blocked from linking up with the U.S. Navy as he had planned, so he dispatched cavalry to Fort McAllister, guarding the Ogeechee River , in hopes of unblocking his route and obtaining supplies awaiting him on the Navy ships. On December 13, William B. Hazen's division of Howard's wing stormed
10137-485: The targets of sexual assault from Confederate women to freedwomen because his men "rarely suffered consequences for their sexual assaults on African American women." Consequentialism and the Ovidian-Machiavellian aphorism, "the end justifies the means", played roles in Union military strategy. According to Sutherland, Union generals believed that, "however destructive Union military policy proved to be,
10246-564: The tetraterpenes (8 isoprene units) form a separate class of compounds called carotenoids; the others are rare. While terpenes and terpenoids occur widely, their extraction from natural sources is often problematic. Consequently, they are produced by chemical synthesis, usually from petrochemicals . In one route, acetone and acetylene are condensed to give 2-Methylbut-3-yn-2-ol , which is extended with acetoacetic ester to give geranyl alcohol . Others are prepared from those terpenes and terpenoids that are readily isolated in quantity, say from
10355-439: The trees may be evaporated by steam distillation in a copper still. Molten rosin remains in the still bottoms after turpentine has been distilled out. Such turpentine is called gum turpentine . The term gum turpentine may also refer to crude turpentine, which may cause some confusion. Turpentine may alternatively be extracted from destructive distillation of pine wood, such as shredded pine stumps, roots, and slash, using
10464-563: The turpentine. Leached wood is steamed for additional naphtha recovery prior to burning for energy recovery . When producing chemical wood pulp from pines or other coniferous trees , sulfate turpentine may be condensed from the gas generated in Kraft process pulp digesters . The average yield of crude sulfate turpentine is 5–10 kg/t pulp. Unless burned at the mill for energy production, sulfate turpentine may require additional treatment measures to remove traces of sulfur compounds. As
10573-410: The two became lifelong friends. The poem would go on to lend its name to Sherman's campaign, and a version set to music became an instant hit with Sherman's Army and later the public. Sherman's "March to the Sea" followed his successful Atlanta Campaign of May to September 1864. He and the Union Army's commander, Lt. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant , believed that the Civil War would come to an end only if
10682-551: The victims of war." The historiographical debates between scorched earth "hard war" proponents and "total war" mainstays threatened to overshadow studies on the ecological devastation wrought by, for example, the Valley Campaigns of 1864 , or Union soldier violations of the " 'spatial and corporeal privacy' of Confederate women" during the Carolinas campaign. Unverified estimates indicate that nine Confederate civilians died every 72 hours during Sherman's 37-day March to
10791-413: The work of General Thomas into the count, as it should be taken, it is indeed a great success. Not only does it afford the obvious and immediate military advantages, but, in showing to the world that your army could be divided, putting the stronger part to an important new service, and yet leaving enough to vanquish the old opposing force of the whole – Hood's army – it brings those who sat in darkness to see
10900-578: The years following World War II , several writers argued that the total war tactics used during World War II were comparable to the tactics used during Sherman's March. Subsequent historians have objected to the comparison, arguing that Sherman's tactics were not as severe or indiscriminate. Some historians refer to Sherman's tactics as "hard war" to emphasize the distinction between Sherman's tactics and those used during World War II. The "hard war" doctrine in Civil War historiography first appeared in quotes from Sherman's correspondence, specifically during
11009-548: Was burned in lamps with glass chimneys in the 1830s through the 1860s. Turpentine blended with grain alcohol was known as burning fluid. Both were used as domestic lamp fuels, gradually replacing whale oil , until kerosene , gas lighting and electric lights began to predominate. Turpentine is also used as a source of raw materials in the synthesis of fragrant chemical compounds. Commercially used camphor , linalool , alpha-terpineol , and geraniol are all usually produced from alpha-pinene and beta-pinene , which are two of
11118-412: Was designed by Grant and Sherman to be similar to Grant's innovative and successful Vicksburg campaign and Sherman's Meridian campaign , in that Sherman's armies would reduce their need for traditional supply lines by "living off the land" after consuming their 20 days of rations. Foragers, known as " bummers ", would provide food seized from local farms for the army while they destroyed the railroads and
11227-402: Was doubly distilled to make turpentine and rosin (aka resin)–hence the name tar heel . The trees were scored with a ledge called a "box" to collect the sap. Large numbers of enslaved people were used to score the trees, and collect and process the sap. Historian Jeremy B. Zallen describes this as industrial slavery, which was different from the more common instance of slaves in agriculture. By
11336-451: Was even more destructive than the Savannah campaign, since Sherman and his men harbored much ill-will for that state's part in bringing on the Civil War; the following portion, through North Carolina , was less so. The March to the Sea owes its common name to a poem written by S. H. M. Byers in late 1864. Byers was a Union prisoner of war held at Camp Sorghum , near Columbia, South Carolina . During his imprisonment, Byers wrote
11445-484: Was generally without incident. The Army was on its best behavior, in part because anyone caught doing "unsoldier-like deeds" was to be summarily executed. As the Army recuperated, Sherman quickly tackled a variety of local problems. He organized relief for the flood of refugees that had inundated the city. Sherman further arranged for 50,000 bushels of captured rice to be sold in the North to raise money to feed Savannah. While
11554-503: Was hesitant to overcommit his forces. On December 20, Hardee led his men across the Savannah River on a makeshift pontoon bridge. The next morning, Savannah Mayor Richard Dennis Arnold, with a delegation of aldermen and ladies of the city, rode out (until they were unhorsed by fleeing Confederate cavalrymen) to offer a proposition: The city would surrender and offer no resistance, in exchange for General Geary's promise to protect
11663-501: Was surprised and nearly captured, but the 5th Ohio Cavalry halted Wheeler's advance, and Wheeler was later stopped decisively by Union barricades at Reynolds's Plantation. On December 4, Kilpatrick's cavalry routed Wheeler's at the Battle of Waynesboro . More Union troops entered the campaign from an unlikely direction. Maj. Gen. John G. Foster dispatched 5,500 men and 10 guns under Brig. Gen. John P. Hatch from Hilton Head , hoping to assist Sherman's arrival near Savannah by securing
11772-477: Was then collected and processed into spirits of turpentine. Crude turpentine yield may be increased by as much as 40% by applying paraquat herbicides to the exposed wood. The V-shaped cuts are called "catfaces" for their resemblance to a cat's whiskers. These marks on a pine tree indicate it was used to collect resin for turpentine production. Turpentine (and rosin) are produced as naval stores . Pine trees especially in North Carolina were tapped for sap which
11881-610: Was widely popular among US soldiers of 20th-century wars. Hundreds of African Americans drowned trying to cross in Ebenezer Creek north of Savannah while attempting to follow Sherman's Army in its March to the Sea. In 2011, a historical marker was erected there by the Georgia Historical Society to commemorate the African Americans who had risked so much for freedom. There has been disagreement among historians on whether Sherman's March constituted total war . In
#125874