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88-579: Tusculum is located on Tuscolo hill on the northern edge of the outer crater rim of the Alban volcano . The volcano itself is located in the Alban Hills 6 km (4 mi) south of the present-day town of Frascati . The summit of the hill is 670 m (2,200 ft) above sea level and affords a view of the Roman Campagna , with Rome lying 25 km (16 mi) to the north-west. It had

176-563: A big open quarry of materials for the inhabitants of the neighbouring towns of the Alban Hills . In 1806 the first campaign of archaeological excavation on the top of the Tuscolo hill was begun by Lucien Bonaparte . In 1825 the archaeologist Luigi Biondi excavated to find out Tusculum, engaged by Queen Maria Cristina of Bourbon , wife of Charles Felix of Sardinia . In 1839 and 1840 the architect and archaeologist Luigi Canina , called by

264-489: A certain age and level of experience before running for any particular office. Sulla also wanted to reduce the risk that a future general might attempt to seize power, as he himself had done. To this end he reaffirmed the requirement that any individual wait for ten years before being re-elected to any office. Sulla then established a system where all consuls and praetors served in Rome during their year in office, and then commanded

352-506: A general collapse and Marius army scattered in rout. Marius lost 28,000 men (killed, captured, turned coat or fled) while Sulla claimed to have only lost 23 men. Marius survived the Battle of Sacriportus and retreated with 7,000 men to Praeneste . The first to arrive were lucky and could enter through the gates, but as the Sullan forces got closer the terrified townspeople of Praeneste shut

440-534: A home in Tusculum or Tibur for health reasons or as a summer residence, will calculate how much yearly payments are". In 45 BC Cicero wrote a series of books in his Roman villa in Tusculum, the Tusculanae Quaestiones . In his times there were eighteen owners of villas there. An example is the so-called villa of Lucullus , which later belonged to Flavia gens , which was built in terraces on

528-553: A man called Albinovanus, hatched a plan with the Sullans to assassinate Norbanus and his senior officers (to show his good faith). At a feast Albinovanus had organized Norbanus' officers were murdered. Norbanus was unable to attend the feast and survived. After the assassination and the Lucanians defection, Ariminum went over to Sulla as well. Norbanus abandoned his army and fled from Italy. Meanwhile, Sulla and his army had arrived at

616-550: A peace with Romans, and Tarquinius failed to win back his throne. Subsequently, he sought refuge with his son-in-law Octavius Mamilius , one of the leading men of Tusculum. The Mamilii claimed to be descended from Telegonus , the founder of the city. Mamilius commanded the army of the Latins against the Romans at the Battle of Lake Regillus , where he was killed in 498 BC. This is the point at which Rome gained predominance among

704-485: A promise that they would never again fight against him or rejoin Carbo. However, Scipio broke his promise immediately after their release and went straight to Carbo in Rome. Sulla then defeated Norbanus for a second time. Norbanus, however, escaped back to Rome and had Metellus Pius and all other senators marching with Sulla declared enemies of the state. In Rome the elections for the consulship of 82 were held; Gaius Marius

792-418: A proscribed person was punishable by death, while killing a proscribed person was rewarded. Family members of the proscribed were not excluded from punishment, and slaves were not excluded from rewards. As a result, "husbands were butchered in the arms of their wives, sons in the arms of their mothers". The majority of the proscribed had not been enemies of Sulla, but instead were killed for their property, which

880-408: A provincial army as a governor for the year after they left office. Finally, in a demonstration of his absolute power, Sulla expanded the " Pomerium ", the sacred boundary of Rome, unchanged since the time of the kings. Sulla's reforms both looked to the past (often re-passing former laws) and regulated for the future, particularly in his redefinition of majestas (treason) laws and in his reform of

968-583: A response to similar killings which Marius and Cinna had implemented while they controlled the Republic during Sulla's absence. Proscribing or outlawing every one of those whom he perceived to have acted against the best interests of the Republic while he was in the East, Sulla ordered some 1,500 nobles ( i.e., senators and equites ) executed, although it is estimated that as many as 9,000 people were killed. The purge went on for several months. Helping or sheltering

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1056-414: A result of this war, Sulla was installed as dictator of Rome , but many Italian towns and cities were heavily damaged: for instance, Sullan forces inflicted extensive damage upon Forlì ( Forum Livii ), which had allied with Marius. The reconstruction took decades. In total control of Rome and Italy, Sulla instituted a series of proscriptions (a program of executing those whom he perceived as enemies of

1144-523: A special college of Roman equites was formed to take charge of the cults of the gods at Tusculum, and especially of the Dioscuri , the citizens resident there were neither numerous nor men of distinction. In Roman times the city had expanded into two parts: the acropolis with the temples of the Dioscuri and Jupiter Maius , and the main city along the ridge of the hill where the main street passes through

1232-690: A strategic position controlling the route from the territory of the Aequi and the Volsci to Rome which was important in earlier times. Later Rome was reached by the Via Latina (from which a branch road ascended to Tusculum, while the main road passed through the valley to the south of it), or by the Via Labicana to the north. Most of the ancient city and the acropolis and amphitheatre have not yet been excavated archaeologically. According to legend,

1320-405: A very hard-fought and drawn-out battle, emerged victorious. It was afterwards estimated that ca. 50,000 men lost their lives on the battlefield that day. Damasippus, Carrinas and Censorinus were brought to Sulla the following day and executed. Their heads and those of Lamponius and Telesinus were displayed to Marius at Praeneste. Sulla subsequently entered Rome as a saviour (he had saved Rome from

1408-567: A very large villa (the substructures of which are preserved), by some attributed to Cicero, by others to Tiberius, near the latter. Between the amphitheatre and the theatre is the site of the Forum , of which nothing is now visible, and to the south on a projecting spur were tombs of the Roman period. There are also many remains of houses and villas. The citadel—which stood on the highest point an abrupt rock—was approached only on one side, that towards

1496-404: Is an altar and an iron cross 19 metres (62,33 ft) high. The height of cross underlines the fact that it was built 19 centuries after the death of Jesus Christ. Strabo wrote about Tusculum in his Geography , V 3 § 12.: But still closer to Rome than the mountainous country where these cities lie, there is another ridge, which leaves a valley (the valley near Algidum) between them and

1584-511: Is high as far as Mount Albanus. It is on this chain that Tusculum is situated, a city with no mean equipment of buildings; and it is adorned by the plantings and villas encircling it, and particularly by those that extend below the city in the general direction of the city of Rome; for here Tusculum is a fertile and well-watered hill, which in many places rises gently into crests and admits of magnificently devised royal palaces. Alban volcano The Alban Hills ( Italian : Colli Albani ) are

1672-505: The First Mithridatic War . This departure allowed Gaius Marius and his son Gaius Marius the younger to return to Rome with an army and, with Lucius Cornelius Cinna , to wrest control of Rome back from Sulla's supporter Gnaeus Octavius during Sulla's absence. Based on the orders of Marius, some of his soldiers went through Rome killing the leading supporters of Sulla, including Octavius. Their heads were exhibited in

1760-661: The Gracchian popularis reforms, was an optimate; though his coming to the side of the traditional Senate originally could be described as more reactionary when dealing with the Tribunate and legislative bodies, while more visionary when reforming the court system, governorships and membership of the Senate. As such, he sought to strengthen the aristocracy, and thus the Senate. Sulla retained his earlier reforms, which required senatorial approval before any bill could be submitted to

1848-742: The Marsi and Pompey to raise further legions in Picenum, also recruiting soldiers from Calabria and Apulia . As the campaigning season opened, Sulla advanced along the Via Latina towards the capital and Metellus supported by Pompey led Sullan forces into northern Italy. Carbo threw himself against Metellus whilst the young Marius defended the city of Rome itself. Marius the Younger marched his army south-east into Campania and met Sulla's forces at Sacriportus (near Signia). After an initial engagement Sulla decided to pitch camp. While Sulla's men were preparing

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1936-542: The Plebeian Council (the principal popular assembly), and which had also restored the older, more aristocratic "Servian" organization to the Centuriate Assembly (assembly of soldiers). Sulla, himself a patrician and thus ineligible for election to the office of Plebeian Tribune , thoroughly disliked the office. As Sulla viewed the office, the Tribunate was especially dangerous and his intention

2024-645: The Pope Eugene III from 1149, Louis VII of France and his wife Eleanor of Aquitaine in 1149, Frederick Barbarossa and the English Pope Adrian IV in 1155. In 1167 the Roman communal army attacked Tusculum ( Battle of Monte Porzio ), but it was defeated by the Emperor-allied army, headed by Christian I, Archbishop of Mainz ; in the summer of the same year, however, a plague decimated the imperial army and Frederick Barbarossa

2112-506: The caldera remains of a quiescent volcanic complex in Italy , located 20 km (12 mi) southeast of Rome and about 24 km (15 mi) north of Anzio . The 950 m (3,120 ft) high Monte Cavo forms a highly visible peak in the centre of the caldera, but the highest point is Maschio delle Faete approximately 2 km (1.2 mi) to the east of Cavo and 6 m (20 ft) taller. There are subsidiary calderas along

2200-617: The 5th to the 10th century there are no historical mentions of Tusculum. In the 10th century it was the base of the Counts of Tusculum , an important family in the Medieval History of Rome . They were a clan system whose first mentioned member is Theophylact I (died 924). His daughter Marozia married Alberic I , Marquis of Spoleto and Camerino, and was for a while the arbiter of political and religious affairs in Rome —a position which

2288-444: The 8th–7th centuries BC demonstrate a human presence in the late phases of Latin culture in this area. Tusculum is first mentioned in history as an independent city-state with a king, a constitution and gods of its own. When Lucius Tarquinius Superbus , the last King of Rome, was expelled from the city in 509 BC, he sought military help from Lars Porsenna , king of Clusium . After the war between Clusium and Rome , Porsenna made

2376-458: The Aequi at the battle of Mount Algidus . In 381 BC, after an expression of complete submission to Rome, the people of Tusculum received a franchise from Rome. Tusculum became the first " municipium cum suffragio", or self-governing city. The Tusculum citizens were therefore recorded in the " Tribus Papiria ". Other accounts, however, speak of Tusculum as often allied with Rome's enemies,

2464-531: The Alban Hills are known as the Castelli Romani . Examination of deposits have dated the four most recent eruptions to two temporal peaks, around 36,000 and 39,000 years ago. The area exhibits small localised earthquake swarms, bradyseism , and release of carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide into the atmosphere. The uplift and earthquake swarms have been interpreted as caused by a slowly growing spherical magma chamber 5-6 kilometres below

2552-534: The Counts held for a long period of time. They were pro-Byzantine and against the German Emperors. From their clan came several Popes in the period between 914 and 1049. Gregory I of Tusculum rebuilt the fortress on the Tuscolo hill, and gave as a gift the "Criptaferrata" to Saint Nilus the Younger , where the latter built a famous abbey. Gregory also headed the rebellion of the Roman people of 1001 against

2640-501: The Forum. After five days, Cinna ordered his more disciplined troops to kill Marius's rampaging soldiers. All told some 100 Roman nobles had been murdered. Marius declared Sulla's reforms and laws invalid, officially exiled Sulla, had himself elected to Sulla's eastern command, and Cinna and himself elected consuls for the year 86 BC. Marius died a fortnight after and Cinna was left in sole control of Rome. Having managed this achievement,

2728-536: The German Emperor Otto III . After 1049 the Counts of Tusculum Papacy declined as the particular "formula" of the papacy-family became outdated. Subsequent events from 1062 confirmed the change of the Counts' politics, which became pro-Emperor in opposition to the Commune of Rome . Tusculum had in this time several notable guests: Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor , and his wife Empress Agnes in 1046,

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2816-602: The Latin cities. The city walls can be dated between the 5th and 4th c. BC from the type and technique of construction, as visible on the North slope of the hill. According to some accounts Tusculum subsequently became an ally of Rome, incurring the frequent hostilities of the other Latin cities. In 460 BC a Sabine named Appius Herdonius occupied the Capitol . Of the Latin cities, only Tusculum quickly sent troops, commanded by

2904-604: The Marian forces, made his way to join Sulla. When Pompey met Sulla, he addressed him as Imperator . Publius Cornelius Cethegus , a firm supporter of Marius, now also joined the Sullan cause. To check his enemies' unresisted advance, Gnaeus Papirius Carbo (consul 85 BC) sent his newly elected puppet consuls, Gaius Norbanus and Cornelius Scipio Asiaticus , both with armies, against Sulla. When Sulla arrived in Campania he found

2992-585: The Marian-Cinna regime flocked to his banner. The most prominent among them were Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius , Marcus Licinius Crassus , and Lucius Marcius Philippus . Metellus and Crassus did so at the head of their own independently-raised armies. Philippus, who was governing Sardinia , secured the island for the Sullan cause. Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (Pompey), son of Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo , raised three legions from among his father's veterans in his native Picenum and, defeating and outmanoeuvering

3080-467: The Marians sent out Lucius Valerius Flaccus with an army to relieve Sulla of his command in the east. Flaccus had been given as second in command Gaius Flavius Fimbria , an individual whom history records had few virtues. According to Plutarch's biography on Sulla, Gaius Flavius Fimbra eventually agitated against his commanding officer and incited the troops to murder Flaccus in 84 BC. In the meantime,

3168-574: The Samnites, Rome's ancient enemy). A meeting of the Senate was convened in the Temple of Bellona ; as Sulla was addressing the senators, the sound of terrified screams drifted in from the Campus Martius . Sulla calmed the senators by attributing the screams to 'some criminals that are receiving correction.' In reality, what the Senate had heard was the sound of 8,000 prisoners who had surrendered

3256-402: The Senate. Near the end of 81 BC, Sulla, true to his traditionalist sentiments, resigned his dictatorship, disbanded his legions and re-established normal consular government. He stood for office (with Metellus Pius ) and won election as consul for the following year, 80 BC. He dismissed his lictors and walked unguarded in the Forum, offering to give account of his actions to any citizen. In

3344-495: The Sullan siege. Unfortunately for them, Sulla and his army put themselves in their path in a very defensible position. Damasippus, Censorinus and Carrinas then joined their men with the Samnites and Lucanians and together they decided to march on Rome. When Sulla found out he immediately pursued them. Outside the walls of Rome, the last decisive battle of the civil war, the Battle of the Colline Gate , took place; Sulla, after

3432-689: The Tusculum monuments, reporting the results in The Roman Campagna in Classical Times published in London in 1927. Earlier, he had described the remains thus in the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition : On the hill of Tusculum itself are remains of a small theatre (excavated in 1839), with a reservoir behind it, and an amphitheatre . Both belong probably to the imperial period, and so does

3520-408: The Younger (the son of the great Gaius Marius) and Gnaeus Papirius Carbo (re-elected for the second time) were elected. At the end of the campaigning season of 83 BC, Marcus Lucullus , one of Sulla's legates, defeated a numerically superior force (50 cohorts to his 16) at Fidentia . The new consuls for the year 82 BC were Gnaeus Papirius Carbo, for his third term, and Gaius Marius the Younger, who

3608-608: The Younger died in this Greek monastery on 27 December 1005. The Portrait of "Madonna del Tuscolo", placed nowadays in a little aedicule on the Tuscolo hill, is a reproduction in ceramic of an earlier original icon from Tusculum, spoil of war, which now is in the Abbey of St. Mary in Grottaferrata . In the extra-urban area located south of the city, between it and the Via Latina, there is archeological evidence of burials in

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3696-455: The acropolis. The Greek monastery of St. Agatha lay at the foot of the Tuscolo hill, at the 15th mile of the Via Latina road, the old "Statio Roboraria" : it was founded in 370 AD by the basilian monk John of Cappadocia, a disciple of St. Basil of Caesarea , called St. Basil the Great. He brought here a relic of the master, handed it over to him by monk Gregory Nazianzus . Saint Nilus

3784-685: The archaeologist Maurizio Borda excavated a necropolis with cinerary urns. From 1994 to 1999 was held the last excavation campaigns of archaeologist Xavier Dupré and his staff undertaken by Escuela Espanola de Historia y Arqueologia en Roma. The Roman theatre on the hill of Tuscolo and the Villa of Tiberius were excavated between 1825 and 1841 and are now accessible. In the High Middle Ages , there were three churches in Tusculum: St. Saviour and Holy Trinity "in civitate", and St. Thomas on

3872-541: The architectural fragments of the temple were still in existence until 1777, when they were used to build the Passionist monastery by Cardinal York , but the Via Triumphalis leading up to it can still be seen. In Roman times, the area was often used by the rich as a way to escape the heat and crowds of Rome, as it is today as shown by the many villas and country houses present. The towns and villages in

3960-411: The camp (digging a ditch, throwing up earthworks) Marius suddenly attacked. Sulla's veterans simply stuck their pila into the ground to create a makeshift barricade and drew their swords. When they had organized their battle lines the Sullans counter-attacked. Marius' force were put on the defensive, their left began to waver and five cohorts of foot soldiers and two of horse deserted to Sulla. This cause

4048-530: The city was founded either by Telegonus , the son of Odysseus and Circe , or by the Latin king Latinus Silvius , a descendant of Aeneas , who according to Titus Livius was the founder of most of the towns and cities in Latium . The geographer Filippo Cluverio discounts these legends, asserting that the city was founded by Latins about three hundred years before the Trojan War . Funerary urns datable to

4136-526: The city, and even here by a steep ascent of 150 feet. Upon it remains of the medieval castle, which stood here until 1191, alone are visible. The city walls, of which some remains still exist below the theatre, are built of blocks of the native lapis Albanus , or peperino . They probably belong to the Republican period. Below them is a well-house, with a roof formed of a pointed arch. Cicero 's favourite residence and retreat for study and literary work

4224-592: The city. Damasippus called a meeting of the Senate and there, in the Curia itself, the marked men were cut down by assassins. Some, such as Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus were killed on the senate steps as they tried to flee, and the Pontifex Maximus , chief priest of Rome, Quintus Mucius Scaevola was murdered in the Temple of Vesta ; the bodies of the murdered were then thrown into the Tiber . Meanwhile in

4312-458: The city. He was saved through the efforts of his relatives, many of whom were Sulla's supporters, but Sulla noted in his memoirs that he regretted sparing Caesar's life, because of the young man's notorious ambition. The historian Suetonius records that when agreeing to spare Caesar, Sulla warned those who were pleading his case that he would become a danger to them in the future, saying: "In this Caesar there are many Mariuses." Sulla, who opposed

4400-444: The consul Norbanus blocking the road to Capua . Eager not to appear a war-hungry invader, Sulla sent deputations to Norbanus offering to negotiate, but these were rejected. Norbanus then moved to block Sulla's advance at Canusium and became the first to engage him in the Battle of Mount Tifata . Here Sulla inflicted a crushing defeat on the Marians, with Norbanus losing six thousand of his men to Sulla's seventy. Norbanus withdrew with

4488-429: The dictator Lucius Mamilius , to help the Romans. Together with the forces of the consul Publius Valerius Poplicola they were able to quash the revolt. In 458 BC the Aequi attacked Tusculum and captured its citadel. Because of the assistance given Rome the previous year, the Romans came to their defense, and helped regain the citadel, with soldiers under the command of Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus , who defeated

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4576-495: The forum to the theatre. The villas of the neighbourhood, of which 36 owners are recorded in the Republican era and 131 villa sites identified, had indeed acquired greater importance than the town itself, which was not easily accessible. By the end of the Republic, and still more during the imperial period, the territory of Tusculum was a favorite place of residence for wealthy Romans. Seneca wrote: "Nobody who wants to acquire

4664-408: The gates. Marius himself had to be hoisted in on a rope, while hundreds of Marians trapped between the walls and the Sullans were massacred. Sulla then left his lieutenant Lucretius Afella besieging Praeneste and moved on the now-undefended Rome. Upon his defeat Marius sent word to the praetor Lucius Junius Brutus Damasippus in Rome, to kill any remaining Sullan sympathisers left before Sulla could take

4752-528: The gens Iuventia—all other municipia (together) do not have so many (consular families) coming from them". Varro wrote about the laws of Tusculum in De Lingua Latina , Volume 5: "New wine shall not be taken into the town before the Vinalia are proclaimed". The town council kept the name of senate, but the title of dictator gave place to that of aedile . Notwithstanding this, and the fact that

4840-598: The ground in the absence of wind. The asphyxiation of 29 cows in September 1999 prompted a detailed survey, which found that concentration of the gas at 1.5 m above the ground in a residential area on the northwestern flank sometimes exceeded the occupational health threshold of 0.5%. Eight sheep were killed in a similar incident in October 2001. Writers and artists who have produced work about this area include: Sulla%27s civil war Sulla's civil war

4928-610: The island for the Sullan cause. Marcus Lucullus, bottled up in Placentia , was able to break the siege. Norbanus coming to the rescue of the besiegers tried to surprise Lucullus by a forced-march, but Lucullus was ready for him and slaughtered his exhausted troops. Having taken and looted the town of Sena, Crassus and Pompey severely defeated Carrinas who had marched against them, killing 3,000 Marian soldiers and forcing him to seek refuge in Spoletium . On his way to Praeneste, Sulla

5016-523: The last being the Samnites in 323 BC. In Sulla's civil war Tusculum supported the Marians but after Sulla 's victory in 82 BC it became a colonia and parts of the city wall were rebuilt. In 54 BC, in his Orationes Pro Cn. Plancio , Marcus Tullius Cicero said: "You are from the most ancient municipium of Tusculum, from which so many consular families are originating, among which even

5104-549: The legendary Alba Longa and Tusculum ). The area was inhabited by the Latini during the 5th to 3rd centuries BC. The ancient Romans called Monte Cavo Albanus Mons . On the summit was the sanctuary of Jupiter Latiaris, in which the consuls celebrated the Feriae Latinae , and several generals celebrated victories here during times when they were not accorded regular triumphs in Rome. The foundations and some of

5192-522: The moment and Cinna now dead as a result of a mutiny in Ancona, Sulla was determined to regain control of Rome from his enemies. In the spring of 83 BC Sulla landed his army in two divisions in southern Italy: one division at Brundisium and another at Tarentum . At Tarentum Sulla made sacrifices to the gods. As soon as he had set foot in Italy, the outlawed nobles and old Sullan supporters who had survived

5280-537: The north, Metellus working in tandem with Pompey fought the consul Carbo and his legates Gaius Carrinas and Gaius Marcius Censorinus . Metellus defeated Carrinas at the River Aesis, only to be blockaded by Carbo himself. Upon hearing that Marius the Younger had been defeated at Sacriportus, Carbo withdrew to Ariminum , severely harassed by cavalry attacks on his rearguard by Pompey. Some time later Metellus and Pompey defeated Censorinus near Sena Gallica and sacked

5368-734: The north. Sulla divided his army in two, sending one division to Saturnia by way of the Via Clodia while he commanded the other division to Clusium along the Via Cassia . Carbo decided to take on Sulla himself. Their two armies met near Clussium, where an indecisive all-day battle was fought. The next day Sulla retreated because he was informed that the Samnites and Lucanians were threatening Afella's army at Praeneste. The other Sullan force had meanwhile been completely successful, defeating its opponent near Saturnia. Lucius Marcius Philippus enjoyed another success on Sardinia , slowly winning

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5456-402: The number of magistrates elected in any given year, and required that all newly elected quaestors gain automatic membership in the Senate. These two reforms were enacted primarily to allow Sulla to increase the size of the Senate from 300 to 600 senators. This also removed the need for the censor to draw up a list of senators, since there were always more than enough former magistrates to fill

5544-402: The other, on a lower site, shaded by rows of trees, was called the "Academy." The main building contained a covered portion, or cloister, with recesses containing seats. It also had bathrooms, and contained a number of works of art, both pictures and statues in bronze and marble. The cost of this and the other house which he built at Pompeii led to him being burdened with debt. In 1955 and 1956

5632-536: The place of a medieval church already in ruin after 1191 and dating to the 13th century, found by the last archeological excavation (1999). The cross of Tusculum there was already in 1840, as reported by Cardinal Nicholas Wiseman , rector of the English College . In October, 1864 the students of the English College rebuilt the plinth of foundation of the old cross. Now on the top of the Tuscolo hill

5720-417: The power to initiate legislation. Sulla then prohibited ex-tribunes from ever holding any other office, so ambitious individuals would no longer seek election to the Tribunate, since such an election would end their political career. Finally, Sulla revoked the power of the tribunes to veto acts of the Senate, although he left intact the tribunes' power to protect individual Roman citizens. Sulla then increased

5808-558: The previous day being executed on Sulla's orders; none of the captured were spared from execution. Soon after the Battle of the Colline Gate, Sulla had himself declared Dictator , and now held supreme power over the Republic. Marius tried to escape through the drains under Praeneste, but failed and committed suicide. The town surrendered; most of the defenders were executed, but Sulla spared the lives of its Roman citizens. Sulla and his lieutenants then campaigned all through Italy, mopping up

5896-554: The remaining resistance. The cities of Aesernia , Norba and Volterrae , all Marian strongholds were destroyed. The survivors of the Marian cause were given refuge on Sicily by Marcus Perperna , in Africa by Domitius Ahenobarbus and in Spain by Quintus Sertorius . Sulla sent Pompey to Sicily with a large force (six legions, 120 warships and 800 transport ships). According to Plutarch, Perpenna fled and left Sicily to Pompey. Carbo

5984-448: The remnants of his army to Capua . Sulla pursued him, but was stopped by Norbanus' consular colleague, Scipio Asiagenus, who was encamped at Capua. Scipio was unwilling to risk a battle with his opponent's battle-hardened army and welcomed Sulla's offer to negotiate. Quintus Sertorius , one of Scipio's legates, did not trust Sulla, and advised Scipio to force a decisive action. Instead, he was sent to Norbanus to explain that an armistice

6072-405: The rim of the Alban Hills that contain the lakes Albano and Nemi . The hills are composed of peperino (lapis albanus), a variety of tuff that is useful for construction and provides a mineral-rich substrate for nearby vineyards . The hills, especially around the shores of the lakes, have been popular since prehistoric times. From the 9th to 7th century BC, there were numerous villages (see

6160-405: The same royal family, excavated the Theatre area of Tusculum. The ancient works of art excavated were sent to Savoy Castle of Agliè in Piedmont . In 1825 Lucien Bonaparte found the so-called Tusculum portrait of Julius Caesar at the city's forum . In 1890 Thomas Ashby arrived to Rome as Director of the British School in Rome. He was an expert in ancient monuments topography and studied

6248-442: The senate. To further solidify the prestige and authority of the Senate, Sulla transferred the control of the courts from the equites, who had held control since the Gracchi reforms, to the senators. This, along with the increase in the number of courts, further added to the power that was already held by the senators. Sulla also codified, and thus established definitively, the cursus honorum , which required an individual to reach

6336-474: The siege of Praeneste. He blocked an attempt by Damasippus to reach Marius the Younger. After Damasippus failure Carbo lost heart and fled to Sicily. With their leader gone, the remainder of the Marian forces united for one final stand. The Samnite general Pontius Telesinus and the Lucanian general Marcus Lamponius, commanding a very large army of Samnites and Lucanians, were trying to get to Praeneste to break

6424-471: The slope of Tusculum facing Rome: the vast terrace now houses virtually all the historical centre of Frascati. Much of the territory (including Cicero's villa), but not the town itself, which lies far too high, was supplied with water by the Aqua Crabra . The last archaeological evidence of Roman Tusculum is a bronze tablet of 406 AD commemorating Anicius Probus Consul and his sister Anicia. From

6512-524: The state and confiscating their property). Sulla immediately proscribed eighty persons without communicating with any magistrate. As this caused a general murmur, he let one day pass, and then proscribed two hundred and twenty more, and again on the third day as many. In an harangue to the people, he said, with reference to these measures, that he had proscribed all he could think of, and as to those who now escaped his memory, he would proscribe them at some future time. The proscriptions are widely perceived as

6600-511: The surface; some think that it may erupt again; if so, there is risk to Rome , which is only 25 to 30 km away. There is documentary evidence which may describe an eruption in 114 BC, but the absence of Holocene geological deposits has largely discredited it as a volcanic event and instead the account is considered to be a description of a forest fire . The volcano emits large amounts of carbon dioxide which can potentially reach lethal concentrations if it accumulates in depressions in

6688-539: The town on 17 April 1191 with the consent of Pope Celestine III and the consent of Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor , son of Frederick Barbarossa . Roger of Hoveden wrote "lapis supra lapidem non remansit" (not a stone upon a stone remained), indeed the Roman Commune 's army took away the stones of the walls of Tusculum as spoils of war in Rome. After destruction the land of Tusculum city became woodland and pasture lands. The buildings destroyed in Tusculum became

6776-496: The town. Neapolis fell to the Sullans through treachery; virtually the whole population was massacred. Consequently, Appian remarks that the towns nearest to Rome surrendered without a fight. As Sulla surrounded Rome with his troops, the gates were opened by the people and he took Rome without a fight, the remaining Marians having fled. Most of southern Italy now belonged to Sulla, though some cities, such as Praeneste, remained under siege. Sulla now set out for Etruria to

6864-407: The two Roman armies camped next to each other, and Sulla, not for the first time, encouraged his soldiers to spread dissension among Flaccus’ army. Many deserted to Sulla before Flaccus had arranged to pack up and move on to north, to threaten Mithridates’ northern dominions. In the meantime Sulla moved to intercept the new Pontic army and end the war at Orchomenus . With Mithridates defeated for

6952-525: Was able to ambush reinforcement on their way to Carrinas in Spoletium, killing 2,000 Marian soldiers. Carbo sent another army from Etruria to raise the siege of Praeneste. They were ambushed along the way by Pompey, who forced them back. A Marian attack on Metellus near Faventia went horribly wrong for them. This caused the Lucanians in Norbanus' army to contemplate to defect to Sulla. Their commander,

7040-515: Was an ally of Domitius, was captured and executed and Hiempsal II restored to the throne of Numidia. Sulla sent Gaius Annius Luscus with several legions to take the Spanish provinces from Quintus Sertorius. After a brief resistance Sertorius and his men were expelled from the Iberian peninsula. Unfortunately for the Sullans, Sertorius would be back the following year (see: Sertorian War ). As

7128-407: Was at, or near, Tusculum. It was here that he composed his celebrated Tusculan Disputations and other philosophical works. According to various parts of his works that it was a considerable building. It comprised two gymnasia with covered portions for exercise and philosophical discussion (Tusc. Disp. ii. 3). One of these, which stood on higher ground, was called the "Lyceum," and contained a library;

7216-475: Was confiscated and auctioned off. The proceeds from auctioned property more than made up for the cost of rewarding those who killed the proscribed, making Sulla even wealthier. Possibly to protect himself from future political retribution, Sulla had the sons and grandsons of the proscribed banned from running for political office, a restriction not removed for over 30 years. The young Gaius Julius Caesar , as Cinna's son-in-law, became one of Sulla's targets and fled

7304-417: Was forced to return to Germany. From 1167 the residents of Tusculum moved to the neighbours (Locus) or little villages as Monte Porzio Catone , Grottaferrata and mostly to Frascati : only a little group of defence troops remained in the old city. When in 1183 the Roman army again attacked Tusculum, Barbarossa sent a new contingent of troops to its defence. The Commune of Rome was however able to destroy

7392-722: Was fought between the Roman general Lucius Cornelius Sulla and his opponents, the Cinna-Marius faction (usually called the Marians or the Cinnans after their former leaders Gaius Marius and Lucius Cornelius Cinna ), in the years 83–82 BC. The war ended with a decisive battle just outside Rome itself. After the war the victorious Sulla made himself dictator of the Roman Republic . Sulla had achieved temporary control of Rome and Marius's exile to Africa following his first march on Rome, but departed soon afterwards to lead

7480-604: Was in force and negotiations were under way. Sertorius made a small detour and captured the town of Suessa, which had gone over to the Sullan faction. When Sulla complained about this breach of trust, Scipio sent back the hostages Sulla had given as a sign of good faith. This behaviour by Scipio outraged Scipio's troops, who were already upset having to face Sulla's veterans. A deal was made between Scipio's soldiers and Sulla and they defected en masse , further swelling his ranks. The Consul and his son were found cowering in their tents and brought to Sulla, who released them after extracting

7568-568: Was only 26–28 years old at the time. In the respite from campaigning provided by winter, the Marians set about replenishing their forces. Quintus Sertorius levied men in Etruria , old veterans of Marius came out of retirement to fight under his son, and the Samnites gathered their warriors in support of Carbo, hoping to destroy Sulla, the man who defeated them in the Social War . Meanwhile, Sulla had sent Crassus to recruit troops from among

7656-673: Was soon discovered and arrested by Pompey, who "treated Carbo in his misfortunes with an unnatural insolence", taking Carbo in fetters to a tribunal he presided over, examining him closely "to the distress and vexation of the audience", and finally, sentencing him to death. Domitius Ahenobarbus held the Roman province of Africa (modern day Tunisia) for the Marians. While Pompey was still in Sicily, Sulla sent him orders to capture Africa as well. Pompey sailed to Utica (the province's Capital) and there he defeated Domitius . King Hiarbas of Numidia , who

7744-479: Was to not only deprive the Tribunate of power, but also of prestige. (Sulla himself had been officially deprived of his eastern command through the underhand activities of a tribune.) Over the previous three hundred years, the tribunes had directly challenged the patrician class and attempted to deprive it of power in favor of the plebeian class. Through Sulla's reforms to the Plebeian Council, tribunes lost

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