58-457: Neottia is a genus of orchids . The genus now includes the former genus Listera , commonly known as twayblades referring to the single pair of opposite leaves at the base of the flowering stem. The genus is native to temperate , subarctic and arctic regions across most of Europe , northern Asia ( Siberia , China , the Himalayas , Central Asia , etc), and North America , with
116-464: A carbohydrate energy source. The carbohydrate source can be combinations of discrete sugars or can be derived from other sources such as banana , pineapple , peach , or even tomato puree or coconut water . After the preparation of the agar medium, it is poured into test tubes or jars which are then autoclaved (or cooked in a pressure cooker) to sterilize the medium. After cooking, the medium begins to gel as it cools. The taxonomy of this family
174-434: A phylogenetic study showed strong statistical support for the following topology of the orchid tree , using 9 kb of plastid and nuclear DNA from 7 genes , a topology that was confirmed by a phylogenomic study in the same year. Apostasioideae Vanilloideae Vanilla planifolia Vanilla planifolia is a species of vanilla orchid native to Mexico, Central America, Colombia, and Brazil. It
232-401: A seta , knocking the pollinator off the flower. After pollination, the sepals and petals fade and wilt, but they usually remain attached to the ovary. In 2011, Bulbophyllum nocturnum was discovered to flower nocturnally. Some species, such as in the genera Phalaenopsis , Dendrobium , and Vanda , produce offshoots or plantlets formed from one of the nodes along the stem , through
290-480: A spur of the labellum ( 8 in the illustration above), or on the point of the sepals, or in the septa of the ovary, the most typical position amongst the Asparagales . In orchids that produce pollinia, pollination happens as some variant of the following sequence: when the pollinator enters into the flower, it touches a viscidium, which promptly sticks to its body, generally on the head or abdomen. While leaving
348-551: A velamen , has the function of absorbing humidity. It is made of dead cells and can have a silvery-grey, white or brown appearance. In some orchids, the velamen includes spongy and fibrous bodies near the passage cells, called tilosomes. The cells of the root epidermis grow at a right angle to the axis of the root to allow them to get a firm grasp on their support. Nutrients for epiphytic orchids mainly come from mineral dust, organic detritus, animal droppings and other substances collecting among on their supporting surfaces. The base of
406-469: A diameter of 5 cm (2 in) and only have a slight scent. The flowers require pollination to set fruit, but open in the morning and usually fade in rising temperatures of the same afternoon. Though each flower lasts only one day, the flowering of Vanilla planifolia takes place over a period of two months once a year. In the native lowland forest habitat flowering takes place in April and May towards
464-478: A different species of bee, so as to enforce proper cross-pollination. A rare achlorophyllous saprophytic orchid growing entirely underground in Australia, Rhizanthella slateri , is never exposed to light, and depends on ants and other terrestrial insects to pollinate it. Catasetum , a genus discussed briefly by Darwin , actually launches its viscid pollinia with explosive force when an insect touches
522-823: A diverse and widespread group of flowering plants with blooms that are often colourful and fragrant. Orchids are cosmopolitan plants that are found in almost every habitat on Earth except glaciers . The world's richest diversity of orchid genera and species is found in the tropics . Orchidaceae is one of the two largest families of flowering plants, along with the Asteraceae . It contains about 28,000 currently accepted species distributed across 763 genera . The Orchidaceae family encompasses about 6–11% of all species of seed plants . The largest genera are Bulbophyllum (2,000 species), Epidendrum (1,500 species), Dendrobium (1,400 species) and Pleurothallis (1,000 species). It also includes Vanilla (the genus of
580-481: A few species extending into subtropical regions in the Mediterranean , Indochina , the southeastern United States , etc. Neottia produces a racemose inflorescences with flowers in shades of green or dull pink through to maroon and purple. The lip of each flower is prominently forked or two-lobed. Some species (those which were previously the only members of the genus Neottia in the strict sense, such as
638-455: A number of greenish or brownish bracts at the base. In the photosynthetic members of the genus there are also two more-or-less opposite green leaves (very rarely more than two in Neottia ovata ). The flowers are individually small, in shades of green, yellow, brown or red to purple. The lip is usually much larger than the other five tepals , and is almost always deeply divided into two lobes at
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#1732797355661696-455: A semiterrestrial or rock-hugging (" lithophyte ") orchid, show a sparkling silver and gold veining on a light green background. The cordate leaves of Psychopsiella limminghei are light brownish-green with maroon-puce markings, created by flower pigments. The attractive mottle of the leaves of lady's slippers from tropical and subtropical Asia ( Paphiopedilum ), is caused by uneven distribution of chlorophyll. Also, Phalaenopsis schilleriana
754-538: A single mass. Each time pollination succeeds, thousands of ovules can be fertilized. Pollinators are often visually attracted by the shape and colours of the labellum. However, some Bulbophyllum species attract male fruit flies ( Bactrocera and Zeugodacus spp.) solely via a floral chemical which simultaneously acts as a floral reward (e.g. methyl eugenol , raspberry ketone , or zingerone ) to perform pollination. The flowers may produce attractive odours. Although absent in most species, nectar may be produced in
812-405: A soil with plenty of available calcium and potassium. It also prefers well-draining soils and a pH between 6.0 and 7.0. The natural altitude range is from 150 to 900 meters. To trigger flowering it requires a dry period in the spring. Due to human land uses for crops and timber the required habitat for Vanilla planifolia has become very reduced and fragmented. The number of mature individuals in
870-635: A sticky disc near the top of the column. Just below the pollinia is a second, larger sticky plate called the stigma . The complex mechanisms that orchids have evolved to achieve cross-pollination were investigated by Charles Darwin and described in Fertilisation of Orchids (1862). Orchids have developed highly specialized pollination systems, thus the chances of being pollinated are often scarce, so orchid flowers usually remain receptive for very long periods, rendering unpollinated flowers long-lasting in cultivation. Most orchids deliver pollen in
928-418: Is a pastel pink orchid with leaves spotted dark green and light green. The jewel orchid ( Ludisia discolor ) is grown more for its colorful leaves than its white flowers. Some orchids, such as Dendrophylax lindenii (ghost orchid), Aphyllorchis and Taeniophyllum depend on their green roots for photosynthesis and lack normally developed leaves, as do all of the heterotrophic species. Orchids of
986-417: Is achieved by removing the pollinia with a small instrument such as a toothpick from the pollen parent and transferring them to the seed parent. Some orchids mainly or totally rely on self-pollination , especially in colder regions where pollinators are particularly rare. The caudicles may dry up if the flower has not been visited by any pollinator, and the pollinia then fall directly on the stigma. Otherwise,
1044-450: Is crucial in the release of vanillin during the curing process, which is essential for producing high-quality vanilla flavor. The sap of most species of Vanilla orchid which exudes from cut stems or where pods are harvested can cause moderate to severe dermatitis if it comes in contact with bare skin, though it is water-soluble and can be removed by washing. The sap of vanilla orchids contains calcium oxalate crystals, which appear to be
1102-550: Is in constant flux, as new studies continue to clarify the relationships between species and groups of species, allowing more taxa at several ranks to be recognized. The Orchidaceae is currently placed in the order Asparagales by the APG III system of 2009. Five subfamilies are recognised. The cladogram below was made according to the APG system of 1998. It represents the view that most botanists had held up to that time. It
1160-592: Is often called a backbulb. Backbulbs still hold nutrition for the plant, but then a pseudobulb usually takes over, exploiting the last reserves accumulated in the backbulb, which eventually dies off, too. A pseudobulb typically lives for about five years. Orchids without noticeable pseudobulbs are also said to have growths, an individual component of a sympodial plant. Like most monocots , orchids generally have simple leaves with parallel veins , although some Vanilloideae have reticulate venation . Leaves may be ovate, lanceolate, or orbiculate, and very variable in size on
1218-455: Is one of the primary sources for vanilla flavouring , due to its high vanillin content. Common names include flat-leaved vanilla , and West Indian vanilla (also used for the Pompona vanilla, V. pompona ). Often, it is simply referred to as vanilla . It was first scientifically named in 1808. With the species' population in decline and its habitats being converted to other purposes,
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#17327973556611276-602: Is recorded and the size of M. beecheii in particular make it unlikely to be a pollinator of this species of orchid, though unpublished observations suggest that Euglossa (reported as E. viridissima , but this species has historically been confused with other Euglossa species ) might be capable of completing pollination. Attempts to document the visitation of V. planifolia in the Yucatan peninsula of Mexico failed to record any visitation by any stingless bees or orchid bees (including Melipona, Eulaema , and Euglossa ), leaving
1334-581: Is the older name, sources such as the World Checklist of Selected Plant Families and the Flora of China now use Neottia for all species formerly in Listera . Other sources continue to divide the genus into two. Species accepted as of June 2014: Orchidaceae Orchids are plants that belong to the family Orchidaceae ( / ˌ ɔːr k ɪ ˈ d eɪ s i . iː , - s i . aɪ / ),
1392-419: Is used as a food reserve for wintry periods, and provides for the development of the other one, from which visible growth develops. In warm and constantly humid climates, many terrestrial orchids do not need pseudobulbs. Epiphytic orchids, those that grow upon a support, have modified aerial roots that can sometimes be a few meters long. In the older parts of the roots, a modified spongy epidermis , called
1450-512: The IUCN has assessed Vanilla planifolia as Endangered. Vanilla planifolia grows as an evergreen vine , either on the ground or on trees. It will sometimes grow as an epiphyte without rooting in the soil. When rooted in the soil its terrestrial roots are branched and develop fine root hairs associated with mycorrhizal fungus . In the wild it easily grows to 15 meters in length, and may grow to as much as 30 meters. When growing in full shade
1508-454: The vanilla plant ), the type genus Orchis , and many commonly cultivated plants such as Phalaenopsis and Cattleya . Moreover, since the introduction of tropical species into cultivation in the 19th century, horticulturists have produced many hybrids and cultivars . Orchids are easily distinguished from other plants, as they share some very evident derived characteristics or synapomorphies . Among these are: bilateral symmetry of
1566-503: The 1822 introduction was successful. It is likely that almost all the vanilla grown in the areas surrounding the Indian Ocean are descended from this one introduction and this is supported by modern genetic research. Vanilla as a crop could be threatened by this genetic bottleneck and the subsequent buildup of negative mutations. Because of the low rate of pollination, even in areas with pollinators, and rare to nonexistent elsewhere,
1624-743: The Congo, Madagascar, Comoros, Bangladesh, the Malay Peninsula, the island of Java, the Chagos Archipelago, Cook Island, the Island of New Guinea, and New Caledonia. Vanilla planifolia requires a humid, warm tropical climate and grows best between 20 and 30 °C (68 and 86 °F) in humid conditions. It can only accept a minimum of 10 °C (50 °F) and a maximum of 33 °C (91 °F). Minimum rainfall requirements are about 2000 mm per year. For good growth it also needs
1682-428: The accumulation of growth hormones at that point. These shoots are known as keiki . Epipogium aphyllum exhibits a dual reproductive strategy, engaging in both sexual and asexual seed production. The likelihood of apomixis playing a substantial role in successful reproduction appears minimal. Within certain petite orchid species groups, there is a noteworthy preparation of female gametes for fertilization preceding
1740-499: The act of pollination. The ovary typically develops into a capsule that is dehiscent by three or six longitudinal slits, while remaining closed at both ends. The seeds are generally almost microscopic and very numerous, in some species over a million per capsule. After ripening, they blow off like dust particles or spores. Most orchid species lack endosperm in their seed and must enter symbiotic relationships with various mycorrhizal basidiomyceteous fungi that provide them
1798-554: The anther may rotate and then enter the stigma cavity of the flower (as in Holcoglossum amesianum ). The slipper orchid Paphiopedilum parishii reproduces by self-fertilization . This occurs when the anther changes from a solid to a liquid state and directly contacts the stigma surface without the aid of any pollinating agent or floral assembly. The labellum of the Cypripedioideae is poke bonnet-shaped , and has
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1856-463: The bird's-nest orchid, Neottia nidus-avis ) are completely without chlorophyll and have leaves which are reduced to scales. Neottia is a genus of relatively small terrestrial orchids. Some (the former genus Listera ) have chlorophyll and are hence gaining their energy from photosynthesis . Others (the formerly narrowly defined genus Neottia ) lack chlorophyll and are dependent on fungi for their nutrition ( mycotrophic ). The flowering stem has
1914-685: The end of the dry season. The plants are self-fertile , and pollination simply requires a transfer of the pollen from the anther to the stigma, but have a structure to prevent this from happening without intervention. In the wild, there is only around a 1% chance that the flowers will be pollinated. Fruit is produced only on mature plants. This takes 2-3 years for meter long cuttings and 3-4 years for 12 in cuttings or tissue cultures. The fruits are 15–23 cm (6–9 in) long pods (often incorrectly called beans). Outwardly they resemble small bananas. They mature after about eight to nine months. The first scientific description of Vanilla planifolia
1972-426: The end. The other five tepals may form a loose hood. The pollinia are not stalked. At one time the genus was divided between Neottia and Listera . Molecular phylogenetic studies in this century have shown that species lacking chlorophyll, such as Neottia nidus-avis , evolved within a larger clade of photosynthetic plants containing Neottia and Listera , so that the two genera should be combined. As Neottia
2030-537: The flower ( zygomorphism ), many resupinate flowers, a nearly always highly modified petal (labellum), fused stamens and carpels , and extremely small seeds . All orchids are perennial herbs that lack any permanent woody structure. They can grow according to two patterns: Terrestrial orchids may be rhizomatous or form corms or tubers . The root caps of terrestrial orchids are smooth and white. Some sympodial terrestrial orchids, such as Orchis and Ophrys , have two subterranean tuberous roots . One
2088-536: The flower develops, it undergoes a twisting through 180°, called resupination , so that the labellum lies below the column . The labellum functions to attract insects, and in resupinate flowers, also acts as a landing stage, or sometimes a trap. The reproductive parts of an orchid flower are unique in that the stamens and style are joined to form a single structure, the column . Instead of being released singly, thousands of pollen grains are contained in one or two bundles called pollinia that are attached to
2146-436: The flower, it pulls the pollinium out of the anther, as it is connected to the viscidium by the caudicle or stipe. The caudicle then bends and the pollinium is moved forwards and downwards. When the pollinator enters another flower of the same species, the pollinium has taken such position that it will stick to the stigma of the second flower, just below the rostellum, pollinating it. In horticulture, artificial orchid pollination
2204-588: The flowers must be hand-pollinated when grown on farms. Once beans in a cluster turn yellow and ripe, the whole cluster is generally harvested and cured . Curing involves fermentation and drying of the pod to develop the characteristic vanilla flavor while minimizing the loss of essential oils . Vanilla extract is obtained from this portion of the plant. It is cultivated and harvested primarily in Veracruz , Mexico, Tahiti , Indonesia , and Madagascar . V. planifolia can be grown and harvested indoors as
2262-409: The flowers to gather volatile chemicals they require to synthesize pheromonal attractants. Males of such species as Euglossa imperialis or Eulaema meriana have been observed to leave their territories periodically to forage for aromatic compounds, such as cineole, to synthesize pheromone for attracting and mating with females. Each type of orchid places the pollinia on a different body part of
2320-515: The forest floor. The specific species observed eating the pods include Tome's spiny rat ( Proechimys semispinosus ) and the common opossum ( Didelphis marsupialis ). Further experiments by the team led by Dr Adam Karremans showed that seeds were viable after being passed through the gut, but it did not increase or decrease germination significantly. The major chemical components from the pods are vanillin , vanillic acid , 4-hydroxybenzaldehyde and 4-hydroxybenzoic acid . Vanillin makes up 80% of
2378-515: The function of trapping visiting insects. The only exit leads to the anthers that deposit pollen on the visitor. In some extremely specialized orchids, such as the Eurasian genus Ophrys , the labellum is adapted to have a colour, shape, and odour which attracts male insects via mimicry of a receptive female. Pollination happens as the insect attempts to mate with flowers. Many neotropical orchids are pollinated by male orchid bees , which visit
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2436-430: The genus Corallorhiza (coralroot orchids) lack leaves altogether and instead have symbiotic or parasitic associations with fungal mycelium, though which they absorb sugars. Orchid flowers have three sepals , three petals and a three-chambered ovary . The three sepals and two of the petals are often similar to each other but one petal is usually highly modified, forming a "lip" or labellum . In most orchid genera, as
2494-623: The identity of natural pollinators as yet unresolved. Though the seeds of Vanilla planifolia are very small, they are relatively large for an orchid and are not dispersed by the wind. Instead they spread through the rain forest habitat by many different animals. Male orchid bees in the tribe Euglossini in the genera Euglossa and Eulaema exhibit fragrance collecting behavior with the fruits. Specific species observed removing seeds as part of this behavior include Euglossa bursigera , Euglossa ignita , Euglossa tridentata , and Eulaema cingulata . Conversely female stingless bees remove
2552-461: The individual plant. Their characteristics are often diagnostic. They are normally alternate on the stem, often folded lengthwise along the centre ("plicate"), and have no stipules . Orchid leaves often have siliceous bodies called stegmata in the vascular bundle sheaths (not present in the Orchidoideae ) and are fibrous. The structure of the leaves corresponds to the specific habitat of
2610-401: The largest orchid in the world, Grammatophyllum speciosum (giant orchid), it can reach three meters. Some Dendrobium species have long, canelike pseudobulbs with short, rounded leaves over the whole length; some other orchids have hidden or extremely small pseudobulbs, completely included inside the leaves. With ageing the pseudobulb sheds its leaves and becomes dormant. At this stage it
2668-545: The main causative agent of contact dermatitis in vanilla plantation workers. Vanilla planifolia has been propagated clonally through cuttings rather than from seeds and selective breeding. As of 2023 there is only one patented cultivar, "Handa", and very few other named cultivars. The most important of these cultivars for commercial growing are the "Mansa" types. There are also two variegated cultivars sold for ornamental gardening. Though there are five known attempted introductions to Reunion Island between 1793 and 1875, only
2726-418: The necessary nutrients to germinate, so almost all orchid species are mycoheterotrophic during germination and reliant upon fungi to complete their lifecycles. Only a handful of orchid species have seed that can germinate without mycorrhiza , namely the species within the genus Disa with hydrochorous seeds. As the chance for a seed to meet a suitable fungus is very small, only a minute fraction of all
2784-707: The northern portions of Brazil . Previously it had been thought to be native to just southern Mexico and Belize. Because of cultivation it has additionally spread to a number of tropical areas including south Florida, the Cayman Islands, the Dominican Republic, Jamaica, Puerto Rico, tropical portions of Peru, Ecuador, Venezuela, French Guiana, Suriname, and Guyana in the Americas. It is also recorded as growing in Democratic Republic of
2842-663: The plant. Species that typically bask in sunlight, or grow on sites which can be occasionally very dry, have thick, leathery leaves and the laminae are covered by a waxy cuticle to retain their necessary water supply. Shade-loving species, on the other hand, have long, thin leaves. The leaves of most orchids are perennial, that is, they live for several years, while others, especially those with plicate leaves as in Catasetum , shed them annually and develop new leaves together with new pseudobulbs. The leaves of some orchids are considered ornamental. The leaves of Macodes sanderiana ,
2900-513: The pulp of fruit in a behavior consistent with nest building activities. The two species observed distributing V. planifolia seeds this way are Eulaema polychroma and Scaptotrigona subobscuripennis . Seeds being distributed by bees is a rare behavior and has only been documented in three species of tropical trees previously, the cadaghi Corymbia torelliana , Coussapoa asperifolia subsp. magnifolia , and Zygia racemosa . Both rodents and marsupials are confirmed to consume fallen pods on
2958-417: The seeds released grow into adult plants. In cultivation, germination typically takes weeks. Horticultural techniques have been devised for germinating orchid seeds on an artificial nutrient medium, eliminating the requirement of the fungus for germination and greatly aiding the propagation of ornamental orchids. The usual medium for the sowing of orchids in artificial conditions is agar gel combined with
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#17327973556613016-419: The stem of sympodial epiphytes, or in some species essentially the entire stem, may be thickened to form a pseudobulb that contains nutrients and water for drier periods. The pseudobulb typically has a smooth surface with lengthwise grooves, and can have different shapes, often conical or oblong. Its size is very variable; in some small species of Bulbophyllum , it is no longer than two millimeters, while in
3074-418: The total aromatic compounds found in the pods, in contrast to the 50% content of Vanilla × tahitensis pods. Some of the other chemicals found in lesser amounts in the pods of Vanilla planifolia such as guaiacol, 4-methylguaiacol, acetovanilone, and vanillic alcohol also contribute to the perception of a vanilla flavor. Vanilla planifolia is notable for its role in vanilla production. The enzyme β-glucosidase
3132-494: The vine while the older parts of the vine will hang down through the canopy to the forest floor. On the nodes opposite the root nodes it has a single flat bladed succulent leaf. When full grown the glossy, bright green leaves are 8–25 cm in length and 2–8 cm wide, lanceolate to oval in shape with a pointed tip. Leaves last for three to four years if not damaged. The flowers come from an axillary cluster that will have 12–20 buds. The flowers are greenish-yellow, with
3190-409: The vine will very seldom branch, but when in sunlight it will develop multiple branches. Younger parts of the vine, well attached to their support, will have a zig-zag structure with an angle of about 120° at each node. To cling to trees or other surfaces it has thick, fleshy aerial roots that develop from the nodes. These aerial support roots almost never branch and are only present on younger parts of
3248-468: The wild is declining and the amount of suitable habitat also continues to decline. The IUCN assessed it as endangered in 2017, publishing it in 2020. In its native habitat Vanilla planifolia depends on one or more pollinators. Several species of bee have been proposed including Euglossa species, Eulaema cingulata , Eulaema polychroma , Eulaema meriana , and Melipona beecheii for pollination. However, no definitive observation of pollination
3306-474: Was published by Henry Charles Andrews in the eighth volume of his The Botanist's Repository . In his description he credits Charles Plumier as having published a description of it in 1703 as the third species of the genus Vanilla . He created the drawing in his book from a specimen that bloomed in a hothouse belonging to Charles Greville . Vanilla planifolia is a native of the neotropical realm , from southern Mexico through Central America, Colombia, and
3364-594: Was supported by morphological studies , but never received strong support in molecular phylogenetic studies. Apostasioideae : 2 genera and 16 species, south-eastern Asia Cypripedioideae : 5 genera and 130 species, from the temperate regions of the world, as well as tropical America and tropical Asia Vanilloideae : 15 genera and 180 species, humid tropical and subtropical regions, eastern North America Epidendroideae : more than 500 genera and more or less 20,000 species, cosmopolitan Orchidoideae : 208 genera and 3,630 species, cosmopolitan In 2015,
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