The Twelve Ornaments ( Chinese : 十二章 ; pinyin : Shí'èr zhāng ) are a group of ancient Chinese symbols and designs that are considered highly auspicious. They were employed in the decoration of textile fabrics in ancient China, which signified authority and power, and were embroidered on vestments of state.
107-591: According to the Book of Documents , the Twelve Ornaments were referred to by Emperor Shun , one of the legendary Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors , as being ancient in his time. Oral tradition holds that he lived sometime between 2294 and 2184 BC. According to the book, the emperor wished for the symbols to be used on official robes of the state. “I wish,” said the Emperor, “to see the emblematic figures of
214-497: A perfect man . For example, the Annals would allow them to relate the moral problems of the present to past political events; the Book of Odes reflects the "mood and concerns" of the commoners and their view on government; while the Book of Changes encompasses the key theory and practice of divination. Although some Chinese people follow Confucianism in a religious manner, many argue that its values are secular and that it
321-465: A "transmitter who invented nothing". He puts the greatest emphasis on the importance of study, and it is the Chinese character for study (學) that opens the text. Far from trying to build a systematic or formalist theory, he wanted his disciples to master and internalize older classics, so that they can capture the ancient wisdoms that promotes "harmony and order", to aid their self-cultivation to become
428-400: A capital G ), and other translations that have been put forth include "authoritativeness" and "selflessness". Confucius's moral system was based upon empathy and understanding others, rather than divinely ordained rules. To develop one's spontaneous responses of rén so that these could guide action intuitively was even better than living by the rules of yì . Confucius asserts that virtue is
535-419: A considerable reputation through his teachings, while the families came to see the value of proper conduct and righteousness, so they could achieve loyalty to a legitimate government. Thus, that year (501 BCE ), Confucius came to be appointed to the minor position of governor of a town. Eventually, he rose to the position of Minister of Crime. The Xunzi says that once assuming the post, Confucius ordered
642-742: A head in 223 BCE when the Qin state conquered all of China. Li Si , Prime Minister of the Qin dynasty , convinced Qin Shi Huang to abandon the Confucians' recommendation of awarding fiefs akin to the Zhou dynasty before them which he saw as being against to the Legalist idea of centralizing the state around the ruler. Under the succeeding Han and Tang dynasties, Confucian ideas gained even more widespread prominence. Under Emperor Wu of Han ,
749-604: A letter to Emperor Ai the establishment of a boshi position for its study. But this did not happen. Most likely, this edition put together by the imperial librarians was lost in the chaos that ended the Western Han dynasty, and the later movement of the capital and imperial library. A list of 100 chapter titles was also in circulation; many are mentioned in the Records of the Grand Historian , but without quoting
856-462: A loyalist official rose up with the people of Hou and forced Hou Fan to flee to the state of Qi . The situation may have been in favor for Confucius as this likely made it possible for Confucius and his disciples to convince the aristocratic families to dismantle the fortifications of their cities. Eventually, after a year and a half, Confucius and his disciples succeeded in convincing the Shu family to raze
963-497: A mean between extremes. For example, the properly generous person gives the right amount – not too much and not too little. Confucius's political thought is based upon his ethical thought. He argued that the best government is one that rules through "rites" ( lǐ ) and morality, and not by using incentives and coercion. He explained that this is one of the most important analects: "If the people be led by laws, and uniformity sought to be given them by punishments, they will try to avoid
1070-549: A more ancient origin. Aphorisms concerning his teachings were compiled in the Analects , but not until many years after his death. The name "Confucius" is a Latinized form of the Mandarin Chinese Kǒng Fūzǐ ( 孔夫子 , "Master Kong"), and was coined in the late 16th century by early Jesuit missionaries to China . Confucius's family name was Kong ( 孔 , OC : * kʰˤoŋʔ ) and his given name
1177-515: A person throughout life?" The Master replied: "How about 'reciprocity'! Never impose on others what you would not choose for yourself." Often overlooked in Confucian ethics are the virtues to the self: sincerity and the cultivation of knowledge. Virtuous action towards others begins with virtuous and sincere thought, which begins with knowledge. A virtuous disposition without knowledge is susceptible to corruption, and virtuous action without sincerity
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#17327838563971284-636: A preface and commentary purportedly written by Kong Anguo. This was presented as Guwen Shangshu 古文尚書, and was widely accepted. It was the basis of the Shàngshū zhèngyì ( 尚書正義 'Correct interpretation of the Documents' ) published in 653 and made the official interpretation of the Documents by imperial decree. The oldest extant copy of the text, included in the Kaicheng Stone Classics (833–837), contains all of these chapters. Since
1391-399: A wall, including a longer version of the Documents . These texts were referred to as "Old Script" because they were written in the pre-Qin seal script . They were transcribed into clerical script and interpreted by Confucius' descendant Kong Anguo . Han dynasty sources give contradictory accounts of the nature of this find. According to the commonly repeated account of the Book of Han ,
1498-426: Is based upon the idea of reciprocity. Yì can be translated as righteousness , though it may mean what is ethically best to do in a certain context. The term contrasts with action done out of self-interest . While pursuing one's own self-interest is not necessarily bad, one would be a better, more righteous person if one's life was based upon following a path designed to enhance the greater good. Thus an outcome of yì
1605-509: Is doing the right thing for the right reason. Just as action according to lǐ should be adapted to conform to the aspiration of adhering to yì , so yì is linked to the core value of rén ( 仁 ). Rén consists of five basic virtues: seriousness, generosity, sincerity, diligence, and kindness. Rén is the virtue of perfectly fulfilling one's responsibilities toward others, most often translated as "benevolence", "humaneness", or "empathy"; translator Arthur Waley calls it "Goodness" (with
1712-571: Is found in this famous anecdote: 廄焚。子退朝,曰:傷人乎?不問馬。 When the stables were burnt down, on returning from court Confucius said, "Was anyone hurt?" He did not ask about the horses. This remark was considered a strong manifestation of Confucius' advocacy in humanism. One of his teachings was a variant of the Golden Rule , sometimes called the " Silver Rule " owing to its negative form: 子貢問曰:有一言而可以終身行之者乎?子曰:其恕乎!己所不欲、勿施於人。 Zi Gong [a disciple] asked: "Is there any one word that could guide
1819-455: Is less a religion than a secular morality. Proponents of religious Confucianism argue that despite the secular nature of Confucianism's teachings, it is based on a worldview that is religious. Confucius was considered more of a humanist than a spiritualist, his discussions on afterlife and views concerning Heaven remained indeterminate, and he is largely unconcerned with spiritual matters often considered essential to religious thought, such as
1926-462: Is not true righteousness. Cultivating knowledge and sincerity is also important for one's own sake; the superior person loves learning for the sake of learning and righteousness for the sake of righteousness. The Confucian theory of ethics as exemplified in lǐ ( 禮 ) is based on three important conceptual aspects of life: (a) ceremonies associated with sacrifice to ancestors and deities of various types, (b) social and political institutions, and (c)
2033-586: Is possible to single out Eight Announcements of the early Zhou, directed to the Shang people. Their titles only partially correspond to the modern chapters marked as gao (apart from the nos. 13, 14, 15, 17, 18 that mention the genre, Su Shi names nos. 16 "Zi cai", 19 "Duo shi" and 22 "Duo fang"). As pointed out by Chen Mengjia (1911–1966), announcements and commands are similar, but differ in that commands usually include granting of valuable objects, land or servants to their recipients. Guo Changbao 过常宝 claims that
2140-464: Is thought to have died as a child and one was named Kong Jiao ( 孔姣 ). Confucius was educated at schools for commoners, where he studied and learned the Six Arts . Confucius was born into the class of shi ( 士 ), between the aristocracy and the common people. He is said to have worked in various government jobs during his early 20s, and as a bookkeeper and a caretaker of sheep and horses, using
2247-531: The Classic of History , is one of the Five Classics of ancient Chinese literature . It is a collection of rhetorical prose attributed to figures of ancient China , and served as the foundation of Chinese political philosophy for over two millennia. The Book of Documents was the subject of one of China's oldest literary controversies, between proponents of different versions of the text. A version
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#17327838563972354-502: The Records of the Grand Historian . Mei identified the sources from which the forger had cut and pasted text, and even suggested Huangfu Mi as a probable culprit. In the 17th century, Yan Ruoqu 's unpublished but widely distributed manuscript entitled Evidential analysis of the Old Script Documents ( 尚書古文疏證 ; Shàngshū gǔwén shūzhèng ) convinced most scholars that the rediscovered Old Script texts were fabricated in
2461-524: The Analects . Confucius's disciples and his only grandson, Zisi , continued his philosophical school after his death. These efforts spread Confucian ideals to students who then became officials in many of the royal courts in China, thereby giving Confucianism the first wide-scale test of its dogma . Two of Confucius's most famous later followers emphasized radically different aspects of his teachings. In
2568-566: The Documents . Most Han dynasty scholars ignored the Old Script version, and it disappeared by the end of the dynasty. A version of the Documents that included the "Old Script" texts was allegedly rediscovered by the scholar Mei Ze during the 4th century, and presented to the imperial court of the Eastern Jin . His version consisted of the 31 modern script texts in 33 chapters, and 18 additional old script texts in 25 chapters, with
2675-507: The Duke of Zhou and Duke of Shao , uncles of King Cheng who were key figures during his reign (late 11th century BC). They provide insight into the politics and ideology of the period, including the doctrine of the Mandate of Heaven , explaining how the once-virtuous Xia had become corrupt and were replaced by the virtuous Shang, who went through a similar cycle ending in their replacement by
2782-535: The Ouyang Shangshu ( 歐陽尚書 ). This was the basis of studies by Ma Rong and Zheng Xuan during the Eastern Han. In 317 AD, Mei Ze presented to the Eastern Jin court a 58-chapter (59 if the preface is counted) Book of Documents as Kong Anguo's version of the text. This version was accepted, despite the doubts of a few scholars, and later was canonized as part of Kong Yingda 's project. It
2889-582: The Song dynasty , starting from Wu Yu ( 吳棫 ), many doubts had been expressed concerning the provenance of the allegedly rediscovered "Old Script" texts in Mei Ze's edition. In the 16th century, Mei Zhuo ( 梅鷟 ) published a detailed argument that these chapters, as well as the preface and commentary, were forged in the 3rd century AD using material from other historical sources such as the Zuo Commentary and
2996-835: The Spring and Autumn period . Six of these chapters concern figures prior to the first evidence of writing, the oracle bones dating from the reign of the Late Shang king Wu Ding . Moreover, the chapters dealing with the earliest periods are the closest in language and focus to classical works of the Warring States period . The five announcements in the Documents of Zhou feature the most archaic language, closely resembling inscriptions found on Western Zhou bronzes in both grammar and vocabulary. They are considered by most scholars to record speeches of King Cheng of Zhou , as well as
3103-462: The Wanli Emperor (1563–1620) in his mianfu features all twelve ornaments: The dragon and phoenix represent the natural world. In yin and yang terminology, a dragon is male yang and the phoenix a female yin . Therefore, the emperor was often identified as the dragon, while the empress was the phoenix. This was also reflected in the robes they wore. In Japan, Emperor Monmu introduced
3210-538: The Warring States period , but experienced setback immediately following the Qin conquest . Under Emperor Wu of Han , Confucius's ideas received official sanction, with affiliated works becoming mandatory readings for career paths leading to officialdom. During the Tang and Song dynasties, Confucianism developed into a system known in the West as Neo-Confucianism , and later as New Confucianism . From ancient dynasties to
3317-635: The Xia and Shang dynasties, he complained of the lack of documentation prior to the Zhou. The Documents were cited increasingly frequently in works through the 4th century BC, including in the Mencius , Mozi and Zuo Zhuan . These authors favoured documents relating to Yao, Shun and the Xia dynasty, chapters now believed to have been written in the Warring States period . The chapters currently believed to be
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3424-523: The works attributed to Confucius were made the official imperial philosophy and required reading for civil service examinations in 140 BCE which was continued nearly unbroken until the end of the 19th century. As Mohism lost support by the time of the Han, the main philosophical contenders were Legalism, which Confucian thought somewhat absorbed, the teachings of Laozi , whose focus on more spiritual ideas kept it from direct conflict with Confucianism, and
3531-495: The "Old Script" texts included the chapters preserved by Fu Sheng, another version of the "Great Speech" chapter and some 16 additional ones. It is unclear what happened to these manuscripts. According to the Book of Han , Liu Xiang collated the Old Script version against the three main "Modern Script" traditions, creating a version of the Documents that included both groups. This was championed by his son Liu Xin , who requested in
3638-707: The 16th century during the late Ming dynasty . The first known effort was by Michele Ruggieri , who returned to Italy in 1588 and carried on his translations while residing in Salerno . Matteo Ricci started to report on the thoughts of Confucius, and a team of Jesuits— Prospero Intorcetta , Philippe Couplet , and two others—published a translation of several Confucian works and an overview of Chinese history in Paris in 1687. François Noël , after failing to persuade Clement XI that Chinese veneration of ancestors and Confucius did not constitute idolatry , completed
3745-465: The 3 councillors, dukes and princes. The 9 ministers and the lower-ranking officials had to use 7 ornaments concerning pheasants. The twelve ornaments featured in the Twelve Symbols national emblem of China, which was the state emblem from 1913 to 1928. The "twelve symbols" were used as insignia for reigning emperors, empress and the immediate members of the imperial family. The portrait of
3852-645: The 3rd or 4th centuries. New light has been shed on the Book of Documents by the recovery between 1993 and 2008 of caches of texts written on bamboo slips from tombs of the state of Chu in Jingmen, Hubei . These texts are believed to date from the late Warring States period, around 300 BC, and thus predate the burning of the books during the Qin dynasty. The Guodian Chu Slips and the Shanghai Museum corpus include quotations of previously unknown passages of
3959-521: The Analects, Confucius described the importance of the poetry in the intellectual and moral development of an individual: The Master said, "My children, why do you not study the Book of Poetry ? " The Odes serve to stimulate the mind. "They may be used for purposes of self-contemplation. "They teach the art of sociability. "They show how to regulate feelings of resentment. "From them you learn
4066-466: The Christian God, and used passages from the Documents in their commentaries on other works. Confucius Confucius ( 孔子 ; pinyin: Kǒngzǐ ; lit. ' Master Kong ' ; c. 551 – c. 479 BCE ), born Kong Qiu ( 孔丘 ), was a Chinese philosopher of the Spring and Autumn period who is traditionally considered the paragon of Chinese sages. Much of
4173-574: The Ji's palace complex and ascended the Wuzi Terrace. Confucius ordered two officers to lead an assault against the rebels. At least one of the two officers was a retainer of the Ji family, but they were unable to refuse the orders while in the presence of the duke, viscounts, and court. The rebels were pursued and defeated at Gu. Immediately after the revolt was defeated, the Ji family razed the Bi city walls to
4280-537: The Masses", who was also the "Prime Minister"; the Meng family held the position "Minister of Works"; and the Shu family held the position "Minister of War". In the winter of 505 BCE , Yang Hu—a retainer of the Ji family—rose up in rebellion and seized power from the Ji family. However, by the summer of 501 BCE , the three hereditary families had succeeded in expelling Yang Hu from Lu. By then, Confucius had built up
4387-464: The Twelve Ornaments via Taihō Code . Gojong of Korea used the Twelve Ornaments on his enthronement costume (i.e. myeonbok , 면복/冕服) when he proclaimed himself Emperor of Korea in 1897 which followed the dress system of ancient China. In the myeonbok of Korean Kings could only use 9 symbols (i.e. gujanbok, nine-emblem myeonbok ) instead of the 12 as only the Chinese Emperor could wear
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4494-508: The Zhou dynasty section concerns the reign of King Cheng of Zhou (r. c. 1040 –1006 BC) and the king's uncles, the Duke of Zhou and Duke of Shao . The last four Modern Script chapters relate to the later Western Zhou and early Spring and Autumn periods. Not all of the Modern Script chapters are believed to be contemporaneous with the events they describe, which range from the legendary emperors Yao and Shun to early in
4601-464: The Zhou. The "Timber of Rottlera", "Numerous Officers", "Against Luxurious Ease" and "Numerous Regions" chapters are believed to have been written somewhat later, in the late Western Zhou period. A minority of scholars, pointing to differences in language between the announcements and Zhou bronzes, argue that all of these chapters are products of a commemorative tradition in the late Western Zhou or early Spring and Autumn periods. Chapters dealing with
4708-419: The ancients: the sun, the moon, the stars, the mountain, the dragon, and the flowery fowl, which are depicted on the upper garment; the temple-cup, the aquatic grass, the flames, the grain of rice, the hatchet, and the symbol of distinction, which are embroidered on the lower garment; I wish to see all these displayed with the five colours, so as to form the official robes; it is yours to adjust them clearly.” Only
4815-473: The basis of their moral merits instead of lineage. These would be rulers devoted to their people, striving for personal and social perfection , and such a ruler would spread his own virtues to the people instead of imposing proper behavior with laws and rules. While Confucius supported the idea of government ruling by a virtuous king, his ideas contained a number of elements to limit the power of rulers. He argued for representing truth in language, and honesty
4922-407: The centuries after his death, Mencius ( 孟子 ) and Xunzi ( 荀子 ) both composed important teachings elaborating in different ways on the fundamental ideas associated with Confucius. Mencius (4th century BCE ) articulated the innate goodness in human beings as a source of the ethical intuitions that guide people towards rén , yì , and lǐ , while Xunzi (3rd century BCE ) underscored
5029-508: The courts of these states, he expounded his political beliefs but did not see them implemented. According to the Zuozhuan , Confucius returned home to his native Lu when he was 68, after he was invited to do so by Ji Kangzi, the chief minister of Lu. The Shiji depicts him spending his last years teaching 3000 pupils, with 72 or 77 accomplished disciples that mastered the Six Arts . Meanwhile, Confucius dedicated himself in transmitting
5136-437: The destruction of the Meng family. Even though Viscount Meng Yi gave his word not to interfere with an attempt, he went back on his earlier promise to dismantle the walls. Later in 498 BCE , Duke Ding of Lu personally went with an army to lay siege to Cheng in an attempt to raze its walls to the ground, but he did not succeed. Thus, Confucius could not achieve the idealistic reforms that he wanted including restoration of
5243-411: The duke and the three viscounts together at the court. Zhong You was one of the disciples of Confucius and Confucius had arranged for him to be given the position of governor by the Ji family. When Confucius heard of the raid, he requested that Viscount Ji Huan allow the duke and his court to retreat to a stronghold on his palace grounds. Thereafter, the heads of the three families and the duke retreated to
5350-464: The duke neglected to send to Confucius a portion of the sacrificial meat that was his due according to custom, and Confucius seized upon this pretext to leave both his post and the Lu state. After Confucius's resignation, he travelled around the principality states of north-east and central China including Wey , Song , Zheng , Cao , Chu , Qi , Chen , and Cai (and a failed attempt to go to Jin ). At
5457-406: The duke of Lu. The duke indulged himself in pleasure and did not attend to official duties for three days. Confucius was disappointed and resolved to leave Lu and seek better opportunities, yet to leave at once would expose the misbehavior of the duke and therefore bring public humiliation to the ruler Confucius was serving. Confucius therefore waited for the duke to make a lesser mistake. Soon after,
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#17327838563975564-404: The earliest material in the Documents , from the 2nd millennium BC, most scholars believe they were written during the Warring States period . The Shang dynasty section contains five chapters, of which the first two – the "Speech of King Tang " and " Pan Geng " – recount the conquest of the Xia by the Shang and their leadership's migration to a new capital (now identified as Anyang ). The bulk of
5671-411: The earliest periods being as recent as the 4th or 3rd centuries BC. The history of the various versions of the Documents is particularly complex, and has been the subject of a long-running literary and philosophical controversy. According to a later tradition, the Book of Documents was compiled by Confucius (551–479 BC) as a selection from a much larger group of documents, with some of
5778-506: The emperor had the right to wear the complete set of twelve emblems painted or embroidered on his robes of ceremony. When the Twelve ornaments were used in different amounts, it could denote different social ranks; for example, in 59 AD during the Eastern Han dynasty, it was specified that the 12 ornaments concerning the sun, the moon and the star had to be used for the emperors while 9 ornaments concerning mountains and dragons should be used by
5885-418: The etiquette of daily behavior. Some believed that lǐ originated from the heavens, but Confucius stressed the development of lǐ through the actions of sage leaders in human history. His discussions of lǐ seem to redefine the term to refer to all actions committed by a person to build the ideal society, rather than those conforming with canonical standards of ceremony. In the early Confucian tradition, lǐ
5992-401: The execution of Shaozheng Mao , another Lu state official and scholar whose lectures attracted the three thousand disciples several times except Yan Hui . Shaozheng Mao was accused of 'five crimes', each worth execution, including 'concealed evilness, stubborn abnormality, eloquent duplicity, erudition in bizarre facts and generosity to evildoers'. Confucius desired to return the authority of
6099-475: The family from Song to Lu. Not all modern scholars accept Confucius's descent from Song nobility. Kong He died when Confucius was three years old, and Confucius was raised by his mother Yan Zhengzai ( 顏徵在 ) in poverty. His mother later died at less than 40 years of age. At age 19, he married Lady Qiguan ( 亓官氏 ), and a year later the couple had their first child, their son Kong Li ( 孔鯉 ). Qiguan and Confucius later had two daughters together, one of whom
6206-640: The graph for announcement ( 誥 ), known since the Oracle bone script , also appears on two bronze vessels ( He zun and Shi Zhi gui 史[臣+舌]簋 ), as well as in the "six genres" 六辞 of the Zhou li In many cases a speech is introduced with the phrase Wáng ruò yuē ( 王若曰 'The king seemingly said'), which also appears on commemorative bronze inscriptions from the Western Zhou period, but not in other received texts. Scholars interpret this as meaning that
6313-457: The ground. The attackers retreated after realizing that they would have to become rebels against the state and their lord. Through Confucius' actions, the Bi officials had inadvertently revolted against their own lord, thus forcing Viscount Ji Huan's hand in having to dismantle the walls of Bi—as it could have harbored such rebels—or confess to instigating the event by going against proper conduct and righteousness as an official. Dubs suggests that
6420-447: The incident brought to light Confucius' foresight, practical political ability, and insight into human character. When it was time to dismantle the city walls of the Meng family, the governor was reluctant to have his city walls torn down and convinced the head of the Meng family not to do so. The Zuo Zhuan recalls that the governor advised against razing the walls to the ground as he said that it made Cheng vulnerable to Qi, and cause
6527-609: The late 2nd century BC. This new material was referred to as " Old Script " ( gǔwén 古文 ), because they were written in the script that predated the standardization of Chinese script during the Qin. Compared to the Modern Script texts, the "Old Script" material had 16 more chapters. However, this seems to have been lost at the end of the Eastern Han dynasty , while the Modern Script text enjoyed circulation, in particular in Ouyang Gao's [ zh ] study, called
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#17327838563976634-471: The late Shang and the transition to Zhou use less archaic language. They are believed to have been modelled on the earlier speeches by writers in the Spring and Autumn period, a time of renewed interest in politics and dynastic decline. The later chapters of the Zhou section are also believed to have been written around this time. The "Gaozong Rongri" chapter comprises only 82 characters, and its interpretation
6741-468: The legitimate rule of the duke. He had made powerful enemies within the state, especially with Viscount Ji Huan, due to his successes so far. According to accounts in the Zuo Zhuan and the Records of the Grand Historian , Confucius departed his homeland in 497 BCE after his support for the failed attempt of dismantling the fortified city walls of the powerful Ji, Meng, and Shu families. He left
6848-454: The modern era, Confucianism has integrated into the Chinese social fabric and way of life. Traditionally, Confucius is credited with having authored or edited many of the ancient texts including all of the Five Classics . However, modern scholars exercise caution in attributing specific assertions to Confucius himself, for at least some of the texts and philosophy associated with him were of
6955-524: The more immediate duty of serving one's father, and the remoter one of serving one's prince. "From them we become largely acquainted with the names of birds, beasts, and plants." Confucius frowned upon globalization encroaching on China, especially with music, and he preached against musical influences from Persians , Greco-Bactrians , and Mongols . Confucius's teachings were later turned into an elaborate set of rules and practices by his numerous disciples and followers, who organized his teachings into
7062-619: The nature of souls . One of the deepest teachings of Confucius may have been the superiority of personal exemplification over explicit rules of behavior. His moral teachings emphasized self-cultivation, emulation of moral exemplars, and the attainment of skilled judgment rather than knowledge of rules. Confucian ethics may, therefore, be considered a type of virtue ethics . His teachings rarely rely on reasoned argument, and ethical ideals and methods are conveyed indirectly, through allusion , innuendo , and even tautology . His teachings require examination and context to be understood. A good example
7169-570: The new Buddhist religion, which gained acceptance during the Southern and Northern Dynasties era. Both Confucian ideas and Confucian-trained officials were relied upon in the Ming dynasty and even the Yuan dynasty , although Kublai Khan distrusted handing over provincial control to them. During the Song dynasty , Confucianism was revitalized in a movement known as Neo-Confucianism. Neo-Confucianism
7276-522: The next. It is the longest speech in the Documents , and is unusual in its extensive use of analogy. Scholars since the Tang dynasty have noted the difficult language of the "Pan Geng" and the Zhou Announcement chapters. Citing the archaic language and worldview, Chinese scholars have argued for a Shang dynasty provenance for the "Pan Geng" chapters, with considerable editing and replacement of
7383-724: The north of Qufu City in Shandong Province. Starting as a humble tomb, the cemetery of Confucius had been expanded by emperors since the Han Dynasty. To date, the Cemetery of Confucius (孔林) covers an area of 183 hectares with more than 100,000 graves of the Kong descendants, it is included in the World Heritage List for its cultural and architectural value. In the Analects , Confucius presents himself as
7490-462: The old wisdom by writing or editing the Five Classics . During his return, Confucius sometimes acted as an advisor to several government officials in Lu, including Ji Kangzi, on matters including governance and crime. Burdened by the loss of both his son and his favorite disciples, he died at the age of 71 or 72 from natural causes. Confucius was buried on the bank of the Sishui River , to
7597-410: The oldest—mostly relating to the early Zhou—were little used by Warring States authors, perhaps due to the difficulty of the archaic language or a less familiar worldview. Fewer than half the passages quoted by these authors are present in the received text. Authors such as Mencius and Xunzi , while quoting the Documents , refused to accept it as genuine in its entirety. Their attitude contrasts with
7704-400: The opportunity to put his principles into practice but he gave up on the idea in the end. Confucius disapproved the use of a violent revolution by principle, even though the Ji family dominated the Lu state by force for generations and had exiled the previous duke. Creel states that, unlike the rebel Yang Hu before him, Gongshan may have sought to destroy the three hereditary families and restore
7811-501: The original documents were prepared scripts of speeches, to be read out by an official on behalf of the king. The chapters are grouped into four sections representing different eras: the semi-mythical reign of Yu the Great , and the three ancient dynasties of the Xia , Shang and Zhou . The first two sections – on Yu the Great and the Xia dynasty – contain two chapters each in the Modern Script version, and though they purport to record
7918-458: The orthodox arrangement, the work consists of 58 chapters, each with a brief preface traditionally attributed to Confucius, and also includes a preface and commentary, both purportedly by Kong Anguo. An alternative organization, first used by Wu Cheng , includes only the Modern Script chapters, with the chapter prefaces collected together, but omitting the Kong preface and commentary. In addition, several chapters are divided into two or three parts in
8025-466: The orthodox form. With the exception of a few chapters of late date, the chapters are represented as records of formal speeches by kings or other important figures. Most of these speeches are of one of five types, indicated by their titles: Classical Chinese tradition lists six types of Shu , beginning with dian 典 , Canons (2 chapters in the Modern corpus). According to Su Shi (1037–1101), it
8132-426: The people. Because his vision of personal and social perfections was framed as a revival of the ordered society of earlier times, Confucius is often considered a great proponent of conservatism, but a closer look at what he proposes often shows that he used (and perhaps twisted) past institutions and rites to push a new political agenda of his own: a revival of a unified royal state, whose rulers would succeed to power on
8239-402: The power of the duke. However, Dubs is of the view that Gongshan was encouraged by Viscount Ji Huan to invade the Lu capital in an attempt to avoid dismantling the Bi fortified walls. Whatever the situation may have been, Gongshan was considered an upright man who continued to defend the state of Lu, even after he was forced to flee. During the revolt by Gongshan, Zhong You had managed to keep
8346-425: The proceeds to give his mother a proper burial. When his mother died, Confucius (aged 23) is said to have mourned for three years , as was the tradition. In Confucius's time, the state of Lu was headed by a ruling ducal house. Under the duke were three aristocratic families , whose heads bore the title of viscount and held hereditary positions in the Lu bureaucracy. The Ji family held the position "Minister over
8453-520: The products of philosophical schools of the late Warring States period. Some chapters, particularly the "Tribute of Yu", may be as late as the Qin dynasty . When Jesuit scholars prepared the first translations of Chinese Classics into Latin, they called the Documents the "Book of Kings", making a parallel with the Books of Kings in the Old Testament . They saw Shang Di as the equivalent of
8560-436: The punishment, but have no sense of shame. If they be led by virtue, and uniformity sought to be given them by the rules of propriety, they will have the sense of the shame, and moreover will become good." ( Analects 2.3, tr. Legge). This "sense of shame" is an internalization of duty. Confucianism prioritizes creating a harmonious society over the ruler's interests, opposes material incentives and harsh punishments, and downplays
8667-611: The realistic and materialistic aspects of Confucian thought, stressing that morality was inculcated in society through tradition and in individuals through training. In time, their writings, together with the Analects and other core texts came to constitute the philosophical corpus of Confucianism . This realignment in Confucian thought was parallel to the development of Legalism , which held that humanity and righteousness were not sufficient in government, and that rulers should instead rely on statecrafts, punishments, and law. A disagreement between these two political philosophies came to
8774-508: The remainder being included in the Yi Zhou Shu . However, the early history of both texts is obscure. Beginning with Confucius, writers increasingly drew on the Documents to illustrate general principles, though it seems that several different versions were in use. Six citations to unnamed chapters of the Documents appear in the Analects . While Confucius invoked the pre-dynastic emperors Yao and Shun , as well as figures from
8881-529: The respect of elders by their children and of husbands by their wives. Confucius recommended a robust family unit as the cornerstone for an ideal government. He championed the Silver Rule , or a negative form of the Golden Rule , advising, "Do not do unto others what you do not want done to yourself." The time of Confucius's life saw a rich diversity of thought , and was a formative period in China's intellectual history. His ideas gained in prominence during
8988-503: The reverence later shown to the text during the Han dynasty, when its compilation was attributed to Confucius. Many copies of the work were destroyed in the Burning of Books during the Qin dynasty . Fu Sheng reconstructed part of the work from hidden copies in the late 3rd to early 2nd century BC, at the start of the succeeding Han dynasty . The texts that he transmitted were known as the "Modern Script" ( 今文 jīn wén ) because it
9095-524: The role of institutions in guiding behavior as in Legalism , emphasizing moral virtues instead. Confucius looked nostalgically upon earlier days, and urged the Chinese, particularly those with political power, to model themselves on earlier examples. In times of division, chaos, and endless wars between feudal states, he wanted to restore the Mandate of Heaven ( 天命 ) that could unify the "world" ( 天下 , "all under Heaven") and bestow peace and prosperity on
9202-604: The shared cultural heritage of the Sinosphere originates in the philosophy and teachings of Confucius. His philosophical teachings, called Confucianism , emphasized personal and governmental morality, harmonious social relationships , righteousness, kindness, sincerity, and a ruler's responsibilities to lead by virtue. Confucius considered himself a transmitter for the values of earlier periods which he claimed had been abandoned in his time. He advocated for filial piety , endorsing strong family loyalty, ancestor veneration ,
9309-410: The starting point for each individual and that these sacred social functions allow each person's human nature to be harmonious with reality. Given this, Confucius believed that "music is the harmonization of heaven and earth; the rites is the order of heaven and earth". Thus the application of music in rites creates the order that makes it possible for society to prosper. The Confucian approach to music
9416-409: The state of Lu without resigning, remaining in self-exile and unable to return as long as Viscount Ji Huan was alive. The Shiji stated that the neighboring Qi state was worried that Lu was becoming too powerful while Confucius was involved in the government of the Lu state. According to this account, Qi decided to sabotage Lu's reforms by sending 100 good horses and 80 beautiful dancing girls to
9523-410: The state to the duke by dismantling the fortifications of the city—strongholds belonging to the three families. This way, he could establish a centralized government. However, Confucius relied solely on diplomacy as he had no military authority himself. In 500 BCE , Hou Fan—the governor of Hou—revolted against his lord of the Shu family. Although the Meng and Shu families unsuccessfully besieged Hou,
9630-413: The subordinates must advise their superiors if the superiors are considered to be taking a course of action that is wrong. Confucius believed in ruling by example, if you lead correctly, orders by force or punishment are not necessary. Confucius heavily promoted the use of music with rituals or the rites order. The scholar Li Zehou argued that Confucianism is based on the idea of rites. Rites serve as
9737-408: The text of the other chapters. The shu were designated one of the Five Classics when Confucian works made official by Emperor Wu of Han , and jīng ('classic') was added to its name. The term Shàngshū 'venerated documents' was also used in the Eastern Han. The Xiping Stone Classics , set up outside the imperial academy in 175–183 but since destroyed, included a Modern Script version of
9844-469: The text. Some of its modern-script chapters are among the earliest examples of Chinese prose, recording speeches from the early years of the Zhou dynasty in the late 11th century BC. Although the other three sections purport to record earlier material, most scholars believe that even the New Script chapters in these sections were composed later than those in the Zhou section, with chapters relating to
9951-890: The twelve ornaments. It is only after Gojong proclaimed the Korean Empire , equal to China, that he was allowed to wear the 12 symbols. The meyonbok, featuring the Twelve Symbols, continue to be used in the Korean imperial household's Jongmyo Daejae ancestor-worship ceremony. Otherwise nowadays, these embroidered Chinese symbols lost most of their significance and are mostly used to decorate clothing. Some of these Chinese symbols were also adopted in Western fashions, such as T-shirts and tattoos. Book of Documents The Book of Documents ( Chinese : 書經 ; pinyin : Shūjīng ; Wade–Giles : Shu King ) or
10058-478: The vocabulary by Zhou dynasty authors accounting for the difference in language from Shang inscriptions. The chapters dealing with the legendary emperors, the Xia dynasty and the transition to Shang are very similar in language to such classics as the Mencius (late 4th century BC). They present idealized rulers, with the earlier political concerns subordinate to moral and cosmological theory, and are believed to be
10165-478: The walls of Hou, the Ji family in razing the walls of Bi, and the Meng family in razing the walls of Cheng. First, the Shu family led an army towards their city Hou and tore down its walls in 498 BCE . Soon thereafter, Gongshan Furao, a retainer of the Ji family, revolted and took control of the forces at Bi. He immediately launched an attack and entered the capital Lu. Earlier, Gongshan had approached Confucius to join him, which Confucius considered as he wanted
10272-472: The work. The Tsinghua Bamboo Slips includes a version of the transmitted text "Golden Coffer", with minor textual differences, as well as several documents in the same style that are not included in the received text. The collection also includes two documents that the editors considered to be versions of the Old Script texts "Common Possession of Pure Virtue" and "Command to Fu Yue ". Other authors have challenged these straightforward identifications. In
10379-514: Was Qiu ( 丘 , OC : * [k]ʷʰə ). His courtesy name , a capping ( guan : 冠 ) given at his coming of age ceremony , and by which he would have been known to all but his older family members, was Zhongni ( 仲尼 , OC : * N-truŋ-s nr[əj] ), the "Zhòng" indicating that he was the second son in his family. It is thought that Confucius was born on 28 September 551 BCE, in Zou ( 鄒 , in modern Shandong ). The area
10486-539: Was a revival of Confucianism that expanded on classical theories by incorporating metaphysics and new approaches to self-cultivation and enlightenment, influenced by Buddhism and Daoism. The most renowned scholar of this period was Zhu Xi (1130-1200CE). There are clear Buddhist and Daoist influences in the Neo-Confucian advocacy of "quiet sitting" (meditation) as a technique of self-cultivation that leads to transformative experiences of insight." In his life, Zhu Xi
10593-474: Was already disputed in Western Han commentaries. Pointing to the similarity of its title to formulas found in the Anyang oracle bone inscriptions , David Nivison proposed that the chapter was written or recorded by a collateral descendant of Wu Ding in the late Shang period some time after 1140 BC. The "Pan Geng" chapter (later divided into three parts) seems to be intermediate in style between this group and
10700-428: Was doing the proper thing at the proper time; balancing between maintaining existing norms to perpetuate an ethical social fabric, and violating them in order to accomplish ethical good. Training in the lǐ of past sages, cultivates virtues in people that include ethical judgment about when lǐ must be adapted in light of situational contexts. In Confucianism, the concept of li is closely related to yì ( 義 ), which
10807-530: Was heavily inspired by the Classic of Poetry and the Classic of Music , which was said to be the sixth Confucian classic until it was lost during the Han dynasty . The Classic of Poetry serves as one of the current Confucian classics and is a book on poetry that contains a diversified variety of poems as well as folk songs. Confucius is traditionally ascribed with compiling these classics within his school. In
10914-444: Was largely ignored, but not long after his death, his ideas became the new orthodox view of what Confucian texts actually meant. Modern historians view Zhu Xi as having created something rather different and call his way of thinking Neo-Confucianism . Neo-Confucianism held sway in China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam until the 19th century. The works of Confucius were first translated into European languages by Jesuit missionaries in
11021-490: Was notionally controlled by the kings of Zhou but effectively independent under the local lords of Lu , who ruled from the nearby city of Qufu. His father Kong He (or Shuliang He) was an elderly commandant of the local Lu garrison. His ancestry traced back through the dukes of Song to the Shang dynasty which had preceded the Zhou. Traditional accounts of Confucius's life relate that Kong He's grandfather had migrated
11128-420: Was of paramount importance. Even in facial expression , truth must always be represented. Confucius believed that if a ruler is to lead correctly, by action, that orders would be unnecessary in that others will follow the proper actions of their ruler. In discussing the relationship between a king and his subject (or a father and his son), he underlined the need to give due respect to superiors. This demanded that
11235-403: Was only in the 17th century that Qing dynasty scholar Yan Ruoqu demonstrated that the "old script" were actually fabrications "reconstructed" in the 3rd or 4th centuries AD. In the transmitted edition, texts are grouped into four sections representing different eras: the legendary reign of Yu the Great , and the Xia , Shang and Zhou dynasties. The Zhou section accounts for over half
11342-529: Was preserved from Qin Shi Huang 's burning of books and burying of scholars by scholar Fu Sheng , in 29 chapters ( piān 篇 ). This group of texts were referred to as "Modern Script" (or "Current Script"; jīnwén 今文 ), because they were written with the script in use at the beginning of the Western Han dynasty. A longer version of the Documents was said to be discovered in the wall of Confucius 's family estate in Qufu by his descendant Kong Anguo in
11449-429: Was written in the clerical script . It originally consisted of 29 chapters, but the "Great Speech" 太誓 chapter was lost shortly afterwards and replaced by a new version. The remaining 28 chapters were later expanded into 30 when Ouyang Gao divided the "Pangeng" chapter into three sections. During the reign of Emperor Wu , renovations of the home of Confucius are said to have uncovered several manuscripts hidden within
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