Pan-Indianism is a philosophical and political approach promoting unity and, to some extent, cultural homogenization, among different Indigenous groups in the Americas regardless of tribal distinctions and cultural differences.
145-466: Two-spirit (also known as two spirit or occasionally twospirited ) is a contemporary pan-Indian umbrella term used by some Indigenous North Americans to describe Native people who fulfill a traditional third-gender (or other gender-variant ) social role in their communities. Coined in 1990 as a primarily ceremonial term promoting community recognition, in recent years more individuals have taken to self-identifying as two-spirit. Two-spirit, as
290-528: A "Declaration of Independence" to the state of New York . It was ignored, and natives who broke state law were arrested. In other cases, American Indian tribes struggled to maintain their sovereignty over tribal land that had been granted to them by treaties with the federal government. Unrelated Native American groups, and Americans in general, began to notice and sympathize with their aims. For one week in June 1961, 420 American Indians from 67 tribes convened for
435-477: A "Declaration of Independence" to the state of New York . It was ignored, and natives who broke state law were arrested. In other cases, American Indian tribes struggled to maintain their sovereignty over tribal land that had been granted to them by treaties with the federal government. Unrelated Native American groups, and Americans in general, began to notice and sympathize with their aims. For one week in June 1961, 420 American Indians from 67 tribes convened for
580-667: A "civilized condition" long before European Americans came over to America. They appealed to public morality by claiming to have pride in their past. The All Pueblo Council needed public support to help preserve lands, customs, and traditions and to turn their interest to the Pueblo tribes so they could gain assistance in court. The American Indian Movement was created in 1968 in Minneapolis by Dennis Banks , George Mitchell, and Clyde Bellecourt (all Ojibwe ), and Russell Means ( Lakota ). AIM became well known for its involvement in
725-555: A "civilized condition" long before European Americans came over to America. They appealed to public morality by claiming to have pride in their past. The All Pueblo Council needed public support to help preserve lands, customs, and traditions and to turn their interest to the Pueblo tribes so they could gain assistance in court. The American Indian Movement was created in 1968 in Minneapolis by Dennis Banks , George Mitchell, and Clyde Bellecourt (all Ojibwe ), and Russell Means ( Lakota ). AIM became well known for its involvement in
870-416: A "twospirit" critique as part of the general field of queer studies . However, much of this academic analysis and publishing is not based in traditional Indigenous knowledge , but in the more mainstream, non-Native perspectives of the broader LGBTQ communities, so most of the same cultural misunderstandings tend to be found as in the outdated writing of the non-Native anthropologists and "explorers". Among
1015-403: A Western concept. While some have found two-spirit a useful tool for intertribal organizing, "the concept and word two-spirit has no traditional cultural significance". Not all tribes have ceremonial roles for these people, and the tribes that do usually use names in their own languages. With over 500 surviving Native American cultures, attitudes about sex and gender can be diverse. Even with
1160-464: A Working Group of over 200 attorneys and academics from around the nation specializing in Indian law and other areas of law that impact Indian cases, including property law, trust law, and Supreme Court practice. In addition, an advisory board of tribal leaders assists the project by providing the necessary political and tribal perspective to the legal and academic expertise. The Tribal Supreme Court does
1305-411: A Working Group of over 200 attorneys and academics from around the nation specializing in Indian law and other areas of law that impact Indian cases, including property law, trust law, and Supreme Court practice. In addition, an advisory board of tribal leaders assists the project by providing the necessary political and tribal perspective to the legal and academic expertise. The Tribal Supreme Court does
1450-668: A confederation founded on the premise of indigenous unity against American expansionism, it united many of the tribes of the Great Lakes region. At the meeting between Tecumseh and then governor of the Indiana Territory, William Henry Harrison at Vincennes, Tecumseh called for collective ownership of land, arguing that the land belonged to everyone. In 1912, members of the Creek , Choctaw , Cherokee , and Chickasaw tribes, united by their opposition to Allotment , formed
1595-582: A full-time staff of twenty-two who organize and provide services to the individual ITEC member tribes. In addition, they assist individual tribes with other environmentally related issues and concerns as they arise. The LPDC is a national and international support group working to free Leonard Peltier ( Anishinabe and Dakota / Lakota ), a man who is serving two life sentences at the Leavenworth Federal Penitentiary in Kansas. He
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#17327874802161740-442: A full-time staff of twenty-two who organize and provide services to the individual ITEC member tribes. In addition, they assist individual tribes with other environmentally related issues and concerns as they arise. The LPDC is a national and international support group working to free Leonard Peltier ( Anishinabe and Dakota / Lakota ), a man who is serving two life sentences at the Leavenworth Federal Penitentiary in Kansas. He
1885-524: A high purpose: to ensure that the salmon resource was served first—even worshipped—so that it would flourish and always exist." The Congress of Aboriginal Peoples] (CAP) founded in 1971 as the Native Council of Canada, is a Canadian aboriginal organization, that represents Aboriginal Peoples ( First Nations and Métis ) who live off Indian reserves , either in urban and rural areas across Canada . Each CAP affiliate has its own constitution and
2030-460: A high purpose: to ensure that the salmon resource was served first—even worshipped—so that it would flourish and always exist." The Congress of Aboriginal Peoples] (CAP) founded in 1971 as the Native Council of Canada, is a Canadian aboriginal organization, that represents Aboriginal Peoples ( First Nations and Métis ) who live off Indian reserves , either in urban and rural areas across Canada . Each CAP affiliate has its own constitution and
2175-476: A lack of cultural understanding, specifically around an Indigenous community's worldview, and their particular customs concerning clothing and gender. According to non-Natives including author Brian Gilley and anthropologist Will Roscoe , the historical presence of male-bodied two-spirits "was a fundamental institution among most tribal peoples", with both male- and female-bodied two-spirits having been documented "in over 130 North American tribes, in every region of
2320-467: A leader known as the National Chief. The Association on American Indian Affairs (AAIA) aims to improve Native American health, education, and economic and community development while maintaining tradition, culture, and language. Protecting Native American sovereignty, natural resources, and constitutional, legal, and human rights is also included in their mission. The Black Hills Treaty Council
2465-403: A leader known as the National Chief. The Association on American Indian Affairs (AAIA) aims to improve Native American health, education, and economic and community development while maintaining tradition, culture, and language. Protecting Native American sovereignty, natural resources, and constitutional, legal, and human rights is also included in their mission. The Black Hills Treaty Council
2610-597: A newspaper called ABC: Americans Before Columbus . To achieve their goals, the NIYC participated in activist actions such as holding "fish-ins" along the rivers in Washington to protest the treaty-given fishing rights being taken away from them due to a nullified Supreme Court decision. These actions were similar to sit-ins held by young African Americans during the civil rights movement to protest equal rights not being granted to them. This Society of American Indians (SAI)
2755-487: A newspaper called ABC: Americans Before Columbus . To achieve their goals, the NIYC participated in activist actions such as holding "fish-ins" along the rivers in Washington to protest the treaty-given fishing rights being taken away from them due to a nullified Supreme Court decision. These actions were similar to sit-ins held by young African Americans during the civil rights movement to protest equal rights not being granted to them. This Society of American Indians (SAI)
2900-547: A non-Native Professor Emeritus at Marquette University who attended the Annual Inter-tribal Native American, First Nations, Gay and Lesbian American Conferences, recounts her observations of the discussions that resulted in the term two-spirit at the 1990 conference: "At the conferences that produced the book, Two-Spirited People , I heard several First Nations people describe themselves as very much unitary, neither 'male' nor 'female', much less
3045-521: A pair in one body. Nor did they report an assumption of duality within one body as a common concept within reservation communities; rather, people confided dismay at the Western proclivity for dichotomies. Outside Indo-European-speaking societies, 'gender' would not be relevant to the social personae glosses 'men' and 'women', and 'third gender' likely would be meaningless. The unsavory word 'berdache' certainly ought to be ditched (Jacobs et al. 1997:3-5), but
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#17327874802163190-705: A rebellion (also known as the Crazy Snake Uprising) against Allotment in Indian Territory. He and his followers harassed non-natives as well as natives in favor of Allotment. Although this rebellion ended in the arrest of Harjo and his anti-allotment followers (including some Cherokee), the Four Mothers Society for Collective Political Action was formed in 1912. This committee took a more formal approach by sending delegates to Congress to argue their cause against Allotment. The OEO
3335-494: A rebellion (also known as the Crazy Snake Uprising) against Allotment in Indian Territory. He and his followers harassed non-natives as well as natives in favor of Allotment. Although this rebellion ended in the arrest of Harjo and his anti-allotment followers (including some Cherokee), the Four Mothers Society for Collective Political Action was formed in 1912. This committee took a more formal approach by sending delegates to Congress to argue their cause against Allotment. The OEO
3480-509: A similar variant. Early adopters stated that a two-spirit identity does not make sense outside of a Native American or First Nations cultural framework and its use by non-Natives is seen as a form of cultural appropriation . The gender-nonconforming or third-gender ceremonial roles traditionally embodied by some Native American and Indigenous peoples in Canada that may be encompassed by modern two-spirit people vary widely, even among
3625-486: A specifically Native American and First Nations cultural identity, not one to be taken up by non-Natives. These sort of simplified black-and-white depictions of Native culture and history perpetuate indiscriminate appropriation of Native peoples. Although the current new meme or legend surrounding the term two spirit is certainly laudable for helping LGBTQ people create their own more empowering terminology to describe themselves, it carries some questionable baggage. My concern
3770-514: A term and concept, is neither used nor accepted universally in Native American cultures. Indigenous cultures that have traditional roles for gender-nonconforming people have names in their own Indigenous languages for these people and the roles they fill in their communities. The initial intent in coining the term was to differentiate Indigenous concepts of gender and sexuality from those of non-Native lesbians and gays and to replace
3915-445: A traditional third-gender ceremonial or social role is a given title that cannot be self-selected. For these communities, two-spirit differs from the mainstream Western use of sexual and gender identity labels because it is a sacred, spiritual and ceremonial role that is recognized and confirmed only by tribal elders of that two-spirit person's Indigenous ceremonial community. In these tribes, two-spirit people have specific duties, and
4060-526: A two-spirit, which requires participation in tribal ceremony. The increasing visibility of the two-spirit concept in mainstream culture has been seen as both empowering and as having some undesirable consequences, such as the spread of misinformation about the cultures of Indigenous peoples, pan-Indianism replacing culturally-specific teachings and traditions, and cultural appropriation of Indigenous identities and ceremonial ways by non-Natives who do not understand that Indigenous communities see two-spirit as
4205-595: Is Indigiqueer . Originally spelled Indigequeer , the term was coined by TJ Cuthand , and popularized by author Joshua Whitehead . Cuthand first used Indigiqueer for the title of the 2004 Vancouver Queer Film Festival's Indigenous/two-spirit Program, and has written that he came up with this alternative term, "because some LGBTQ Indigenous people don't feel as comfortable with the two-spirit title because it implies some dual gender stuff, which some people just don't feel describes their identity." Though "two-spirit" has gained far more mainstream recognition and popularity than
4350-410: Is a reclaimed term designed by Aboriginals to define our unique cultural context, histories, and legacy. When people do not see the harm in "sharing" the term, they are missing the point and refusing to recognize that by appropriating the term they will inevitably alter its cultural context. In academia, there has since 2010 or earlier been a move to "queer the analytics of settler colonialism" and create
4495-577: Is an organization of communities, nations, towns, neighborhoods, and indigenous tribes of Mexico. In its own words, the CNI is "... a space of unity, reflection and organization of the indigenous peoples of Mexico, promoting the integral reconstitution of the original peoples and the construction of a society in which all cultures, all the colors, all the towns that we are Mexico". Since its foundation, five national congresses have been held, among several activities. The Native American Journalists Association (NAJA)
Two-spirit - Misplaced Pages Continue
4640-528: Is an organization of communities, nations, towns, neighborhoods, and indigenous tribes of Mexico. In its own words, the CNI is "... a space of unity, reflection and organization of the indigenous peoples of Mexico, promoting the integral reconstitution of the original peoples and the construction of a society in which all cultures, all the colors, all the towns that we are Mexico". Since its foundation, five national congresses have been held, among several activities. The Native American Journalists Association (NAJA)
4785-487: Is committed to educating its members about culture and tradition. It works to ensure free press, speech and religion and promote Native culture. The Native American Rights Fund (NARF) is a non-profit organization that uses existing laws and treaties to ensure that state governments and the national government live up to their legal obligations. NARF also "provides legal representation and technical assistance to Indian tribes, organizations and individuals nationwide." "NARF
4930-487: Is committed to educating its members about culture and tradition. It works to ensure free press, speech and religion and promote Native culture. The Native American Rights Fund (NARF) is a non-profit organization that uses existing laws and treaties to ensure that state governments and the national government live up to their legal obligations. NARF also "provides legal representation and technical assistance to Indian tribes, organizations and individuals nationwide." "NARF
5075-540: Is governed by a volunteer board of directors composed of thirteen Native Americans from different tribes throughout the country with a variety of expertise in Indian matters. A staff of fifteen attorneys handles about fifty major cases at any given time, with most of the cases taking several years to resolve. Cases are accepted on the basis of their breadth and potential importance in setting precedents and establishing important principles of Indian law". In September 2001, tribal leaders met in Washington, D.C., and established
5220-540: Is governed by a volunteer board of directors composed of thirteen Native Americans from different tribes throughout the country with a variety of expertise in Indian matters. A staff of fifteen attorneys handles about fifty major cases at any given time, with most of the cases taking several years to resolve. Cases are accepted on the basis of their breadth and potential importance in setting precedents and establishing important principles of Indian law". In September 2001, tribal leaders met in Washington, D.C., and established
5365-518: Is not so much over the use of the words but over the social meme they have generated that has morphed into a cocktail of historical revisionism, wishful thinking, good intentions, and a soupçon of white, entitled appropriation. Two-spirit does not acknowledge either the traditional acceptance or the nonacceptance of individuals in various nations and tribes. The idea of gender and sexuality variance being universally accepted among Native American/First Nations peoples has become romanticized. Accordingly,
5510-634: Is primarily associated with Native Americans organizing for social justice and cultural revitalization in the Continental United States but has spread to some other Indigenous communities as well, especially in Canada . Inuit and Métis people may consider themselves part of the broader, pan-Aboriginal community or some variation thereof. Some academics have also used the term pan-Amerindianism to distinguish from other peoples known as "Indians." Some pan-Indian organizations seek to pool
5655-503: Is separately funded under the federal Aboriginal Representative Organization Program (AROP). CAP's bylaws require affiliation to be limited to one organization per province or territory. In effect, these affiliates are the corporate members of CAP, which does not, itself, have individual memberships. The Indian Defense League of America was founded in 1926 by Chief Clinton Rickard of the Tuscarora "to promote unrestricted travel across
5800-447: Is separately funded under the federal Aboriginal Representative Organization Program (AROP). CAP's bylaws require affiliation to be limited to one organization per province or territory. In effect, these affiliates are the corporate members of CAP, which does not, itself, have individual memberships. The Indian Defense League of America was founded in 1926 by Chief Clinton Rickard of the Tuscarora "to promote unrestricted travel across
5945-851: The American Indian Chicago Conference held at the University of Chicago. After exchanging opinions that covered many aspects of Indian affairs, the Declaration of Indian Purpose was drafted. In 1989, the Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, also known as the International Labour Organization 's (ILO) Convention No. 169, occurred. To date, this has been the only formally binding international convention that specifically applies to indigenous peoples. The conference recognized
Two-spirit - Misplaced Pages Continue
6090-496: The American Indian Chicago Conference held at the University of Chicago. After exchanging opinions that covered many aspects of Indian affairs, the Declaration of Indian Purpose was drafted. In 1989, the Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, also known as the International Labour Organization 's (ILO) Convention No. 169, occurred. To date, this has been the only formally binding international convention that specifically applies to indigenous peoples. The conference recognized
6235-918: The Apache , the Lipan , Chiricahua , Mescalero , and southern Dilzhe'e have alternative gender identities. One tribe in particular, the Eyak , has a single report from 1938 that they did not have an alternative gender and they held such individuals in low esteem, although whether this sentiment is the result of acculturation or not is unknown. Among the Iroquois , there is a single report from Bacqueville de la Potherie in his book published in 1722, Histoire de l'Amérique septentrionale , that indicates that an alternative gender identity exists among them. Many, if not all, Indigenous cultures have been affected by European homophobia and misogyny . Some sources have reported that
6380-681: The Aztecs and Incas had laws against such individuals, though there are some authors who feel that this was exaggerated or the result of acculturation, because all of the documents indicating this are post-conquest and any that existed before had been destroyed by the Spanish . The belief that these laws existed, at least for the Aztecs, comes from the Florentine Codex , and that evidence exists that Indigenous peoples authored many codices, but
6525-792: The Ho-Chunk Nation , Native people such as anthropologist Wesley Thomas of the Dine or Navajo tribe also contributed to its creation." Thomas was a professor in the School of Diné and Law Studies . Criticism of "two-spirit" centers on the term's Western origins, interpretations and influence, the lack of emphasis on Indigenous cultural traditions as maintained by tribal elders, and the potential to render tribal traditions indistinct or vanish them completely. The terms used by tribes who have roles for gender-variant persons, both currently and historically, do not translate into any form of 'two spirit', and
6670-632: The Wounded Knee incident in 1973 and the seizure of the Bureau of Indian Affairs in 1972. Inspired by groups like The Black Panthers , AIM took a new, more radical approach than had previous Native groups, using direct action at protests and arguing for liberation instead of assimilation. They advocated for the abolition of the Office of Indian Affairs (which was promoting assimilation). They mobilized many people to become activists and quickly became
6815-467: The Wounded Knee incident in 1973 and the seizure of the Bureau of Indian Affairs in 1972. Inspired by groups like The Black Panthers , AIM took a new, more radical approach than had previous Native groups, using direct action at protests and arguing for liberation instead of assimilation. They advocated for the abolition of the Office of Indian Affairs (which was promoting assimilation). They mobilized many people to become activists and quickly became
6960-711: The residential schools , and other Indigenous communities who have experienced severe cultural damage from colonization, the specific traditions in their communities that might now be seen as two-spirit may have been severely damaged, fragmented, or even lost. While not all communities had these ways, in those that did, for some there may be challenges in reviving older traditions, and to overcoming learned homophobia or other prejudices that may have been introduced with colonization. Traditional Native American cultures that have ceremonial roles for gender-variant members of their communities may require that these people be recognized and assigned this role by tribal elders. In these cultures,
7105-419: The "Indo-European tag 'third gender.'" In academia "one catchword obfuscates the diversity created in human societies and the fluidity conceptualized in many American Indian cultures." She concludes that the best course of action for anthropological professionals when generating language around historical Native artifacts, remains, or societies is to consult with Native professionals "or look into dictionaries, for
7250-696: The 1940s and '50s, Native activism was less developed and for the most part non-violent. Many leaders made a genuine effort to work with the American government. In 1923, as a symbolic gesture, Deskaheh , a Cayuga chief, traveled to the League of Nations in Geneva in hopes of obtaining recognition of his tribe's sovereignty, but his request was denied. In 1939, the Tonawanda Band of the Seneca tribe issued
7395-420: The 1940s and '50s, Native activism was less developed and for the most part non-violent. Many leaders made a genuine effort to work with the American government. In 1923, as a symbolic gesture, Deskaheh , a Cayuga chief, traveled to the League of Nations in Geneva in hopes of obtaining recognition of his tribe's sovereignty, but his request was denied. In 1939, the Tonawanda Band of the Seneca tribe issued
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#17327874802167540-542: The 1990 conference where the term was adopted. Traditional Native Americans asked about the concept rejected the "Western" gender binary implications of the term "Two Spirit", such as implying that Natives believe these individuals are "both male and female". Writing on possible misinterpretations from English speakers who hold binary gender views, Kylan Mattias de Vries says in Encyclopedia of Gender and Society: Volume 2 (2009), an academic textbook: It implies that
7685-676: The Black Hills and to insist that the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868 be honored and recognized by the United States of America. Pan-Indianism Pan-Indianism is a philosophical and political approach promoting unity and, to some extent, cultural homogenization, among different Indigenous groups in the Americas regardless of tribal distinctions and cultural differences. This approach to political organizing
7830-1319: The East Coast Two Spirit Society and the NorthEast Two-Spirit Society in New York City ; Idaho Two-Spirit Society; the Indiana Two-Spirit Society in Bloomington ; Minnesota Two Spirits; the Montana Two-Spirit Society in Browning ; the Northwest Two-Spirit Society in Seattle, Washington ; the Ohio Valley Two Spirit Society of Ohio , Indiana , Kentucky , and Southern Illinois ; the Portland Two Spirit Society (est. May 2012) in Portland, Oregon ;
7975-589: The Four Mothers Society for collective political action. Also, in 1912, the Alaskan Native Brotherhood and Sisterhood came together, centering on their shared interest in protecting Native resources. In 1934, Congress passed the Indian Reorganization Act , which reversed assimilation and allotment policies. This act granted "legal sanction to tribal landholdings; returned unsold allotted lands to tribes; made provisions for
8120-482: The Indigenous community, as a pan-Indian , English-language umbrella term, for some it has come to have similar use as the terms queer (modern, reclaimed usage) or LGBTQ in encompassing lesbian , gay , bisexual , and transgender Native peoples in North America. Primary attribution of the term two spirit , since 1990, has been ascribed to Albert McLeod ( Nisichawayasihk Cree ), who also acknowledges
8265-697: The Native individuals or cultures that use the term. Not all of these cultures have historically had roles for gender-variant people, and among those that do, no one Indigenous culture's gender or sexuality categories apply to all Native people. The neologism two-spirit was developed over a series of five conferences, concluding in 1990 at the Third Annual Inter-tribal Native American, First Nations, Gay and Lesbian American Conference, held in Winnipeg . Credit for developing
8410-776: The OEO programs, become the managers of the OEO programs, decide where the money made by the tribe would go, what programs to make, and get Native land back. Some OEO programs that benefit Native Americans are the Job Corps, Neighborhood Youth Corps, Operation Headstart, VISTA, Legal Services, and the Community Action Programs. The Community Action Programs give tribes "the opportunity to develop and administer their own economic and social programs." The OEO also "channel[ed] federal funding directly to tribal governments". Tribal governments submit plans for local projects to
8555-591: The OEO programs, become the managers of the OEO programs, decide where the money made by the tribe would go, what programs to make, and get Native land back. Some OEO programs that benefit Native Americans are the Job Corps, Neighborhood Youth Corps, Operation Headstart, VISTA, Legal Services, and the Community Action Programs. The Community Action Programs give tribes "the opportunity to develop and administer their own economic and social programs." The OEO also "channel[ed] federal funding directly to tribal governments". Tribal governments submit plans for local projects to
8700-767: The Office of Economic Opportunity. Once tribe members approved the plan, "the OEO contracted with the tribal government to operate the project" and provided the necessary budgeted funds. The Red Power movement is the activist movement that came to prominence in the 1960s. It was the Civil Rights Movement of the American Indian. One of the key events in the Red Power movement was the Occupation of Alcatraz . The occupation started on 20 November 1969 with 79 Indians disembarking on Alcatraz Island in
8845-514: The Office of Economic Opportunity. Once tribe members approved the plan, "the OEO contracted with the tribal government to operate the project" and provided the necessary budgeted funds. The Red Power movement is the activist movement that came to prominence in the 1960s. It was the Civil Rights Movement of the American Indian. One of the key events in the Red Power movement was the Occupation of Alcatraz . The occupation started on 20 November 1969 with 79 Indians disembarking on Alcatraz Island in
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#17327874802168990-669: The Ojibwe form niizh manidoowag is also modern – a new translation from English that was chosen in 1990, after the term was coined in English. With 574 federally recognized tribes in the United States alone, some critics say use of the term two-spirit risks erasing traditional terms specific to different, unique communities, that already have their own terminology for these individuals in their Indigenous languages (if they have them — not all cultures do). Since historically, those recorded as gender-variant individuals are often mentioned in
9135-654: The Petition Stage in cases where they won in the court below ❖ Coordinates an Amicus Brief writing network and helps to develop litigation strategies at both the Petition Stage and the Merits Stage to ensure that the briefs receive the maximum attention of the Justices ❖ When appropriate, prepares and submits Amicus Briefs on behalf of Indian tribes and Tribal Organizations ❖ Provides other brief writing assistance, including reviewing and editing
9280-473: The Petition Stage in cases where they won in the court below ❖ Coordinates an Amicus Brief writing network and helps to develop litigation strategies at both the Petition Stage and the Merits Stage to ensure that the briefs receive the maximum attention of the Justices ❖ When appropriate, prepares and submits Amicus Briefs on behalf of Indian tribes and Tribal Organizations ❖ Provides other brief writing assistance, including reviewing and editing
9425-559: The Puyallup River. Over the course of the fish-in efforts, over 45 tribes came together to support and help. For this reason, Clyde Warrior, a leader of the NIYC, considered the fish-in protests to be "the beginning of a new era in the history of American Indians" and other members of the NIYC considered the protesting to be "the greatest Indian victory of modern day." In August 1970 and in June 1971, two separate occupations of Mount Rushmore occurred. These were efforts to reclaim
9570-495: The Puyallup River. Over the course of the fish-in efforts, over 45 tribes came together to support and help. For this reason, Clyde Warrior, a leader of the NIYC, considered the fish-in protests to be "the beginning of a new era in the history of American Indians" and other members of the NIYC considered the protesting to be "the greatest Indian victory of modern day." In August 1970 and in June 1971, two separate occupations of Mount Rushmore occurred. These were efforts to reclaim
9715-1201: The Regina Two-Spirited Society in Regina, Saskatchewan ; the Texas Two Spirit Society in Dallas ; the Tulsa Two-Spirit Society in Tulsa, Oklahoma ; the Two-Spirit Society of Denver in Denver, Colorado ; and the Wichita Two-Spirit Society in Wichita, Kansas . Writing in March 1998 to advise colleagues and peers in the anthropology profession on the accurate and respectful use of language for Native American subjects in anthropological research and archeological projects, Alice Beck Kehoe ,
9860-468: The San Francisco Bay and ended 19 months and 9 days later on 11 June 1971. The group placed demands, which consisted of the deed to Alcatraz and funding to establish a university and a cultural center. These demands were rejected, but the event received considerable media attention. Throughout the 1960s, the battle to regain fishing rights that had been previously guaranteed in treaties during
10005-400: The San Francisco Bay and ended 19 months and 9 days later on 11 June 1971. The group placed demands, which consisted of the deed to Alcatraz and funding to establish a university and a cultural center. These demands were rejected, but the event received considerable media attention. Throughout the 1960s, the battle to regain fishing rights that had been previously guaranteed in treaties during
10150-528: The Spaniards destroyed most of them in their attempt to eradicate ancient beliefs. Some contemporary Zapotec peoples in Mexico embody the traditional third gender role known as muxe . They consider themselves to be " muxe in men's bodies", who do the work that their culture usually associates with women. When asked by transgender researchers in 2004 if they ever considered surgical transition, "none of
10295-726: The Tribal Supreme Court Project in an effort to "strengthen tribal advocacy before the U.S. Supreme Court by developing new litigation strategies and coordinating tribal legal resources." The ultimate goal is to improve the win-loss record of Indian tribes in Supreme Court cases. The Project is staffed by attorneys from the Native American Rights Fund (NARF) and the National Congress of American Indians (NCAI). It consists of
10440-431: The Tribal Supreme Court Project in an effort to "strengthen tribal advocacy before the U.S. Supreme Court by developing new litigation strategies and coordinating tribal legal resources." The ultimate goal is to improve the win-loss record of Indian tribes in Supreme Court cases. The Project is staffed by attorneys from the Native American Rights Fund (NARF) and the National Congress of American Indians (NCAI). It consists of
10585-519: The U.S. Supreme Court, cases being monitored, and the current work being performed by the Project ❖ Offers assistance to tribal leaders and their attorneys to determine whether to file a Petition for a Writ of Certiorari to the U.S. Supreme Court in cases where they lost in the court below ❖ Offers assistance to attorneys representing Indian tribes to prepare their Brief in Opposition at
10730-405: The U.S. Supreme Court, cases being monitored, and the current work being performed by the Project ❖ Offers assistance to tribal leaders and their attorneys to determine whether to file a Petition for a Writ of Certiorari to the U.S. Supreme Court in cases where they lost in the court below ❖ Offers assistance to attorneys representing Indian tribes to prepare their Brief in Opposition at
10875-532: The U.S., it aims to move Indian Country towards educational equity. NIEA is governed by a Board of Directors made up of twelve representatives, and it has committees that "work to ensure native educators and students are represented in various educational institutions and forums throughout Indian Country and Washington, D.C." The National Indian Youth Council (NIYC) was founded by Clyde Warrior (Ponca) and Melvin Thom (Paiute). Their work resulted in an action program and
11020-481: The U.S., it aims to move Indian Country towards educational equity. NIEA is governed by a Board of Directors made up of twelve representatives, and it has committees that "work to ensure native educators and students are represented in various educational institutions and forums throughout Indian Country and Washington, D.C." The National Indian Youth Council (NIYC) was founded by Clyde Warrior (Ponca) and Melvin Thom (Paiute). Their work resulted in an action program and
11165-598: The United Nations (UN) and its specialized agencies, as well as other international forums. The Inter-Tribal Environmental Council (ITEC) was set up in 1992 to protect the health of Native Americans, their natural resources and their environment. To accomplish this, ITEC provides technical support, training, and environmental services in a variety of disciplines. Currently, there are over forty ITEC member tribes in Oklahoma, New Mexico, and Texas. The ITEC office has
11310-478: The United Nations (UN) and its specialized agencies, as well as other international forums. The Inter-Tribal Environmental Council (ITEC) was set up in 1992 to protect the health of Native Americans, their natural resources and their environment. To accomplish this, ITEC provides technical support, training, and environmental services in a variety of disciplines. Currently, there are over forty ITEC member tribes in Oklahoma, New Mexico, and Texas. The ITEC office has
11455-453: The Western constructs of gays, lesbians, bisexuals, intersex individuals , cross-dressers , transgenders, gender-variant individuals, or 'changing ones', third genders (men who live as women), and fourth genders (women who live as men). Even these categories are limiting, because they are based on Western language and ideas rooted in a dichotomous relationship between gender, sex, and sexuality. This language barrier limits our understanding of
11600-416: The broader, pan-Aboriginal community or some variation thereof. Some academics have also used the term pan-Amerindianism to distinguish from other peoples known as "Indians." Some pan-Indian organizations seek to pool the resources of Native groups in order to protect the interests of indigenous peoples across the world. Tecumseh's Confederacy is considered to be an early example of Pan-Indianism. As
11745-594: The change from berdache to two-spirit is most accurately understood as a non-Native idealization of the social acceptance of gender variance, idealizing a romanticized acceptance of gender variance. When Indigenous people from communities that are less-accepting of two-spirits have sought community among non-Native LGBTQ communities, however, the tendency for non-Natives to tokenize and appropriate has at times led to rifts rather than unity, with two-spirits feeling like they are just another tacked on initial rather than fully included. Cameron writes: The term two-spirited
11890-533: The community, and neither marginalized for their status, nor seen as exceptional. Other writings, usually historical accounts by anthropologists, hold the winkte as sacred, occupying a liminal , third gender role and fulfilling ceremonial roles that can not be filled by either men or women. In contemporary Lakota communities, attitudes towards the winkte vary from accepting to homophobic. Another contemporary term in use, as an alternative to two-spirit , and which does not rely on binary conceptions of gender,
12035-431: The context of having held spiritual, ceremonial roles, the term two spirit – which may have nothing to do with those beliefs and ceremonies – can create a disconnection from, and forgetting of, the actual cultural beliefs and ceremonies. At the series of conferences where the term was gradually adopted (1990 being the third of five), some Native attendees expressed concern that reservation communities would scorn
12180-635: The context of post-settlement politics. The Grand General Indian Council of Ontario was organized with missionary assistance in the 1870s and persisted until 1938. Likewise, the Allied Tribes of British Columbia were created in 1916. In 1911, the first national Indian political organization in the US was created, the Society of American Indians . This organization pursued such things as better Indian educational programs and improved living conditions. This
12325-471: The context of post-settlement politics. The Grand General Indian Council of Ontario was organized with missionary assistance in the 1870s and persisted until 1938. Likewise, the Allied Tribes of British Columbia were created in 1916. In 1911, the first national Indian political organization in the US was created, the Society of American Indians . This organization pursued such things as better Indian educational programs and improved living conditions. This
12470-415: The continent". However, Ojibwe journalist Mary Annette Pember argues that this depiction threatens to homogenize diverse Indigenous cultures, painting over them with an overly broad brush, potentially causing the disappearance of "distinct cultural and language differences that Native peoples hold crucial to their identity". Don Pedro Fages was third in command of the 1769–70 Spanish Portolá expedition ,
12615-408: The desire to coin a new term that could take the place of the outdated and offensive anthropological term. Two-spirited woman Michelle Cameron ( Carrier First Nations ) writes, "The term two-spirit is thus an Aboriginal-specific term of resistance to colonization and non-transferable to other cultures. There are several underlying reasons for two-spirited Aboriginals' desire to distance themselves from
12760-535: The dress, clothing and character of women – there being two or three such in each village – pass as sodomites by profession. ... They are called joyas , and are held in great esteem. Although gender-variant people have been both respected and feared in a number of tribes, they are not beyond being reproached or, by traditional law, even killed for bad deeds. In the Mojave tribe, for instance, they frequently become medicine persons and, like all who deal with
12905-633: The federal government "through the exercise of the inherent sovereign powers of the tribes.". "For generations, traditional fishing authorities governed tribal communities on the Columbia River. One such authority was the old " Celilo Fish Committee ." The authority exercised by the Celilo Fish Committee was derived from the sovereign powers of the people living and fishing in nearby tribal territories. The committee ordained fishing practices that were disciplined and designed to serve
13050-497: The federal government "through the exercise of the inherent sovereign powers of the tribes.". "For generations, traditional fishing authorities governed tribal communities on the Columbia River. One such authority was the old " Celilo Fish Committee ." The authority exercised by the Celilo Fish Committee was derived from the sovereign powers of the people living and fishing in nearby tribal territories. The committee ordained fishing practices that were disciplined and designed to serve
13195-489: The first European land exploration of what is now the U.S. state of California. At least three diaries were kept during the expedition, but Fages wrote his account later, in 1775. Fages gave more descriptive details about the native Californians than any of the others, and he alone reported the presence of homosexuality in the native culture. The English translation reads: I have submitted substantial evidence that those Indian men who, both here and farther inland, are observed in
13340-632: The following: ❖ In conjunction with the National Indian Law Library, monitors Indian law cases in the state and federal appellate courts that have the potential to reach the Supreme Court (NILL Indian Law Bulletins) ❖ Maintains an online depository of briefs and opinions in all Indian law cases filed with the U.S. Supreme Court and cases being monitored in the U.S. Court of Appeal and State Supreme Courts (Court Documents) ❖ Prepares an Update Memorandum of Cases which provides an overview of Indian law cases pending before
13485-551: The following: ❖ In conjunction with the National Indian Law Library, monitors Indian law cases in the state and federal appellate courts that have the potential to reach the Supreme Court (NILL Indian Law Bulletins) ❖ Maintains an online depository of briefs and opinions in all Indian law cases filed with the U.S. Supreme Court and cases being monitored in the U.S. Court of Appeal and State Supreme Courts (Court Documents) ❖ Prepares an Update Memorandum of Cases which provides an overview of Indian law cases pending before
13630-523: The goal of native groups to maintain their position as entities independent of national governments. The Alaska Native Brotherhood and Sisterhood was founded in 1912 with a goal of protecting Native resources. The All Indian Pueblo Council , founded in 1922, successfully opposed the proposed Bursum Bill, which legislated rights for squatters on Native grounds along the Rio Grande. The All Indian Pueblo Council declared that Pueblo Indians had lived in
13775-464: The goal of native groups to maintain their position as entities independent of national governments. The Alaska Native Brotherhood and Sisterhood was founded in 1912 with a goal of protecting Native resources. The All Indian Pueblo Council , founded in 1922, successfully opposed the proposed Bursum Bill, which legislated rights for squatters on Native grounds along the Rio Grande. The All Indian Pueblo Council declared that Pueblo Indians had lived in
13920-950: The goals of two-spirit societies are group support ; outreach , education, and activism ; revival of their Indigenous cultural traditions, including preserving the old languages, skills and dances; and otherwise working toward social change . Some two-spirit societies (past and present) include: 2Spirits of Toronto in Toronto, Ontario ; the Wabanaki Two Spirit Alliance in Nova Scotia; the Bay Area American Indian Two-Spirits (est. 1998) in San Francisco, California ; Central Oklahoma Two Spirit Natives in Oklahoma City ;
14065-538: The historical record. Two-spirit , in English or translated into any other language, is a general term for wider audiences, and is not intended to replace the traditional terms or concepts already in use in Indigenous cultures. For early adopters, the term two spirit was a deliberate act to differentiate and distance themselves from non-Native gays and lesbians, as well as from non-Native terminology such as gay , lesbian , and transgender . Particularly offensive
14210-435: The idea of two-spirit and never adopt the term. Additional issues with two-spirit that others have voiced is that they see it as a capitulation to urbanization and loss of culture that, while initially intended to help people reconnect with the spiritual dimension of these roles, was not working out the way it had been intended. In 2009, writing for the Encyclopedia of Gender and Society , Kylan Mattias de Vries wrote: With
14355-495: The individual is both male and female and that these aspects are intertwined within them. The term moves away from traditional Native American/First Nations cultural identities and meanings of sexuality and gender variance. It does not take into account the terms and meanings from individual nations and tribes. ... Although two-spirit implies to some a spiritual nature, that one holds the spirit of two, both male and female, traditional Native Americans/First Nations peoples view this as
14500-417: The input of those who participated in the series of five conferences that culminated in the discussions at the Third Annual Inter-tribal Native American, First Nations, Gay and Lesbian American Conference in 1990. In 2021, Myra Laramee ( Fisher River Cree ) reported that she proposed the term at the 1990 gathering after the phrase came to her in a dream. Journalist Mary Annette Pember ( Red Cliff Ojibwe ) notes
14645-683: The international border between the United States and Canada." Indigenous people consider unrestricted travel across the continental United States and across the border between the United States and Canada an inherent right given by the Jay Treaty of 1794 and reconfirmed by the Treaty of Ghent of 1814. The Annual Border Crossing sponsored by the League begins at Niagara Falls. The International Indian Treaty Council (IITC) has an objective to seek, promote, and build participation of Indigenous Peoples in
14790-520: The international border between the United States and Canada." Indigenous people consider unrestricted travel across the continental United States and across the border between the United States and Canada an inherent right given by the Jay Treaty of 1794 and reconfirmed by the Treaty of Ghent of 1814. The Annual Border Crossing sponsored by the League begins at Niagara Falls. The International Indian Treaty Council (IITC) has an objective to seek, promote, and build participation of Indigenous Peoples in
14935-504: The involvement of non-Native Will Roscoe who, like his also non-Native mentor Harry Hay , was involved in the hippie/counterculture gay men's group, the Radical Faeries , a "non-Native community that emulates Native spirituality" and engages in other forms of cultural appropriation : "Non-Native anthropologist Will Roscoe gets much of the public credit for coining the term two spirit. However, according to Kristopher Kohl Miner of
15080-595: The land belonged to everyone. In 1912, members of the Creek , Choctaw , Cherokee , and Chickasaw tribes, united by their opposition to Allotment , formed the Four Mothers Society for collective political action. Also, in 1912, the Alaskan Native Brotherhood and Sisterhood came together, centering on their shared interest in protecting Native resources. In 1934, Congress passed the Indian Reorganization Act , which reversed assimilation and allotment policies. This act granted "legal sanction to tribal landholdings; returned unsold allotted lands to tribes; made provisions for
15225-417: The mainstream queer community." German anthropologist Sabine Lang writes that for Aboriginal people, sexual orientation or gender identity is secondary to their ethnic identity. "At the core of contemporary two-spirit identities is ethnicity, an awareness of being Native American as opposed to being white or being a member of any other ethnic group". While initially focused on ceremonial and social roles within
15370-460: The mid-nineteenth century but later restricted after WWII for conservation purposes, continued in the northwestern United States. A series of fish-ins and protests occurred in Olympia, Washington. The National Indian Youth Council spearheaded the campaign. Marlon Brando joined the fish-in effort and was arrested along with Episcopal minister John Yaryan on 2 March 1964, during a NIYC fish-in on
15515-405: The mid-nineteenth century but later restricted after WWII for conservation purposes, continued in the northwestern United States. A series of fish-ins and protests occurred in Olympia, Washington. The National Indian Youth Council spearheaded the campaign. Marlon Brando joined the fish-in effort and was arrested along with Episcopal minister John Yaryan on 2 March 1964, during a NIYC fish-in on
15660-744: The modern adoption of pan-Indian terms like two-spirit, and the creation of a modern pan-Indian community around this naming, not all cultures will perceive gender-nonconforming members of their communities the same way, or welcome a pan-Indian term to replace the terms already in use by their cultures. Additionally, not all contemporary Indigenous communities are supportive of their gender-variant and non-heterosexual people now. In these communities, those looking for two-spirit community have sometimes faced oppression and rejection. While existing terminology in many nations shows historical acknowledgement of differing sexual orientations and gender expressions, members of some of these nations have also said that while variance
15805-676: The most visible of the pan-Indian organizations of the era. Founded in 1967, the Assembly of First Nations (AFN), formerly known as the National Indian Brotherhood, is a representative body of First Nations leaders in Canada . The aims of the organization are to protect the rights, treaty obligations, ceremonies, and claims of citizens of the First Nations in Canada. It represents the majority of all First Nations governments or "band councils" in Canada and has
15950-476: The most visible of the pan-Indian organizations of the era. Founded in 1967, the Assembly of First Nations (AFN), formerly known as the National Indian Brotherhood, is a representative body of First Nations leaders in Canada . The aims of the organization are to protect the rights, treaty obligations, ceremonies, and claims of citizens of the First Nations in Canada. It represents the majority of all First Nations governments or "band councils" in Canada and has
16095-403: The pejorative anthropological terms that were still in wide use. Although the term "two-spirit" has been controversial since its adoption, it has experienced more academic and social acceptance than the term berdache , which it was coined to replace. The government of Canada officially uses 2SLGBTQI+ as an alternative to the established acronym of LGBTQI+ , sometimes shortened to 2SLGBT or
16240-433: The people's own words for the social personae 'man,' 'woman,' and whatever additional personae may be recognized." Unfortunately, depending on an oral tradition to impart our ways to future generations opened the floodgates for early non-Native explorers, missionaries, and anthropologists to write books describing Native peoples and therefore bolstering their own role as experts. These writings were and still are entrenched in
16385-517: The perspective of the authors who were and are mostly white men. ~ Mary Annette Pember ( Red Cliff Ojibwe ) According to German anthropologist Sabine Lang, cross-dressing of two-spirit people was not always an indicator of gender identity. Lang believes "the mere fact that a male wears women's clothing does not say something about his role behavior, his gender status, or even his choice of partner". Other anthropologists may have mistakenly labelled some Native individuals two-spirit or berdache because of
16530-483: The principal briefs and the performance of additional legal research ❖ Coordinates and conducts Moot Court and Roundtable opportunities for attorneys who are presenting Oral Arguments before the Court ❖ Conducts conference calls and fosters panel discussions among attorneys nationwide about pending Indian law cases and, when necessary, forms small working groups to formulate strategy on specific issues The NCAI
16675-431: The principal briefs and the performance of additional legal research ❖ Coordinates and conducts Moot Court and Roundtable opportunities for attorneys who are presenting Oral Arguments before the Court ❖ Conducts conference calls and fosters panel discussions among attorneys nationwide about pending Indian law cases and, when necessary, forms small working groups to formulate strategy on specific issues The NCAI
16820-554: The purchase of new lands; encouraged tribal constitutions, systems of justice, and business corporations; expanded educational opportunities through new facilities and loans ...; advocated the hiring of Indians by the Office of Indian Affairs ...; extended the Indian Trust Status; and granted Indians Religious Freedom." Before there were successful national and continental organizations, there were several regional bodies that united multiple nations (tribes or bands) within
16965-483: The purchase of new lands; encouraged tribal constitutions, systems of justice, and business corporations; expanded educational opportunities through new facilities and loans ...; advocated the hiring of Indians by the Office of Indian Affairs ...; extended the Indian Trust Status; and granted Indians Religious Freedom." Before there were successful national and continental organizations, there were several regional bodies that united multiple nations (tribes or bands) within
17110-517: The resources of Native groups in order to protect the interests of indigenous peoples across the world. Tecumseh's Confederacy is considered to be an early example of Pan-Indianism. As a confederation founded on the premise of indigenous unity against American expansionism, it united many of the tribes of the Great Lakes region. At the meeting between Tecumseh and then governor of the Indiana Territory, William Henry Harrison at Vincennes, Tecumseh called for collective ownership of land, arguing that
17255-482: The respondents found the idea interesting, but rather strange" as their essence as muxe is not dependent on what type of body they are in. Pan-Indian This approach to political organizing is primarily associated with Native Americans organizing for social justice and cultural revitalization in the Continental United States but has spread to some other Indigenous communities as well, especially in Canada . Inuit and Métis people may consider themselves part of
17400-464: The supernatural, are at risk of suspicion of witchcraft , notably in cases of failed harvest or of death. There have been instances of murder in these cases (such as in the case of the gender-nonconforming female named Sahaykwisā). Another instance in the late 1840s was of a Crow badé who was caught, possibly raiding horses, by the Lakota and was killed. Lang and Jacobs write that historically among
17545-445: The term two spirit creates a disconnection from the past. The terms used by other tribes currently and historically do not translate directly into the English form of two spirit or the Ojibwe form of niizh manidoowag . The binary nature of two-spirit, or the idea of having two spirits in one body, is not a theme found in the traditional gender roles for Native people, and concerns about this misrepresentation have been voiced since
17690-452: The term is usually given to several participants in the gatherings. The term was first developed and proposed in English, and later the Ojibwe translation niizh manidoowag was constructed and proposed to honor the language of the Indigenous peoples in whose territory the conference was being held. Both the English and Ojibwe terms were coined at the 1990 conference, and are not found in
17835-597: The traditional roles within Native American/First Nations cultures." Male-bodied two-spirit people, regardless of gender identification, can go to war and have access to male activities such as male-only sweat lodge ceremonies. However, they may also take on "feminine" activities such as cooking and other domestic responsibilities. According to Lang, female-bodied two-spirit people usually have sexual relations or marriages with only females. For First Nations people whose lives have been impacted by
17980-605: The traditional terms in Indigenous languages, acceptance of the term is not universal. While use of "two-spirit" to replace the offensive berdache proceeded, particularly in academic practice, the word has sometimes replaced culturally-specific terms and their attendant Indigenous knowledge , leading to criticism about its potential to dilute or erase culture. Writing for Encyclopedia of Gender and Society: Volume 2 (2009), an academic textbook, Kylan Mattias de Vries says: "Nations and tribes used various words to describe various genders, sexes and sexualities. Many had separate words for
18125-443: The two-spirit title is not granted unless the person is fulfilling these ceremonial roles. Talking to The New York Times in 2006, Joey Criddle, who self-identifies as Jicarilla Apache , says that two-spirit titles are not interchangeable with "LGBT Native American" or "gay Indian": "The elders will tell you the difference between a gay Indian and a Two-Spirit." He underscores that simply being gay and Native does not make someone
18270-410: The urban American neologism 'two-spirit' can be misleading." She cautions that modern identity umbrella terms such as two-spirit can't be relied upon for accurate and respectful historical scholarship because they are too general and are produced out of modern contexts that their subjects do not come from. Additionally, she recommends against folding Native and two-spirit gender and sexual identities under
18415-441: The urbanization and assimilation of Native peoples, individuals began utilizing Western terms, concepts, and identities, such as gay, lesbian, transgender, and intersex. These terms separated Native cultural identity from sexuality and gender identity, furthering a disconnect felt by many Native American/First Nations peoples in negotiating the boundaries of life between two worlds (Native and non-Native/Western). The term two-spirited
18560-429: Was accepted, they never had separate or defined roles for these members of the community. Among the Indigenous communities that traditionally have roles for two-spirit people, specific terms in their own languages are used for the social and spiritual roles these individuals fulfill. The following list is not comprehensive . Most historical accounts, notably those by other Lakota, see the winkte as regular members of
18705-513: Was chosen to emphasize our difference in our experiences of multiple, interlocking oppressions as queer Aboriginal people. When non-Aboriginal people decide to "take up" the term two-spirit, it detracts from its original meaning and diffuses its power as a label of resistance for Aboriginal people. Already there is so much of First Nations culture that has been exploited and appropriated in this country; must our terms of resistance also be targeted for mainstream appropriation and consumption? Two-spirited
18850-523: Was convicted to prison for the deaths of two FBI agents in 1975. There is much controversy surrounding the circumstances of the deaths and of Peltier's conviction. Leonard's status is more well-known overseas, and is considered by some to be a "political prisoner" who was targeted by the FBI during the U.S. government's efforts to curb the activities of AIM and other organizations during the 1970s. The National Indigenous Congress (Congreso Nacional Indígena, CNI)
18995-474: Was convicted to prison for the deaths of two FBI agents in 1975. There is much controversy surrounding the circumstances of the deaths and of Peltier's conviction. Leonard's status is more well-known overseas, and is considered by some to be a "political prisoner" who was targeted by the FBI during the U.S. government's efforts to curb the activities of AIM and other organizations during the 1970s. The National Indigenous Congress (Congreso Nacional Indígena, CNI)
19140-422: Was created to reconnect one's gender or sexual identity with her or his Native identity and culture. ... Some Native Americans/First Nations people that hold to more traditional religious and cultural values view two-spirit as a cultural and social term, rather than one with any religious or spiritual meaning. ... Since historically, many "berdache/two-spirit" individuals held religious or spiritual roles,
19285-618: Was established in South Dakota in 1911 on the Cheyenne River Sioux reservation to prepare a suit in the U.S. Court of Claims. The Columbia River Inter-Tribal Fish Commission (CRITFC) was created in 1977 by four tribes--the Nez Perce , Umatilla , Warm Springs , and Yakama --to "renew their authority in fisheries management." Their mission also includes protecting treaty rights for fishing guaranteed by treaties with
19430-429: Was established in South Dakota in 1911 on the Cheyenne River Sioux reservation to prepare a suit in the U.S. Court of Claims. The Columbia River Inter-Tribal Fish Commission (CRITFC) was created in 1977 by four tribes--the Nez Perce , Umatilla , Warm Springs , and Yakama --to "renew their authority in fisheries management." Their mission also includes protecting treaty rights for fishing guaranteed by treaties with
19575-537: Was focused on Native American affairs. The NCAI decided to dedicate themselves to lobbying for or against specific legislation and also to focus on civil and voting rights. The National Indian Education Association (NIEA) is a membership-based organization "committed to increasing educational opportunities and resources for American Indian, Alaska Native, and Native Hawaiian students while protecting our cultural and linguistic traditions." NIEA came into being in 1970. The largest and oldest Indian education organization in
19720-537: Was focused on Native American affairs. The NCAI decided to dedicate themselves to lobbying for or against specific legislation and also to focus on civil and voting rights. The National Indian Education Association (NIEA) is a membership-based organization "committed to increasing educational opportunities and resources for American Indian, Alaska Native, and Native Hawaiian students while protecting our cultural and linguistic traditions." NIEA came into being in 1970. The largest and oldest Indian education organization in
19865-620: Was founded by the Yavapi Indian Carlos Montezuma . The SAI was at the forefront of the fight for Indian citizenship, which was eventually granted in 1924. Their efforts resulted in a number of fish-ins along rivers supporting aboriginal fishing rights, which were nullified by a state supreme court decision, actions modeled on the sit-ins held by black civil rights protestors during the civil rights movement. The first major recorded action of American Indian activism happened in 1901. A Muskogee creek named Chitto Harjo led
20010-535: Was founded by the Yavapi Indian Carlos Montezuma . The SAI was at the forefront of the fight for Indian citizenship, which was eventually granted in 1924. Their efforts resulted in a number of fish-ins along rivers supporting aboriginal fishing rights, which were nullified by a state supreme court decision, actions modeled on the sit-ins held by black civil rights protestors during the civil rights movement. The first major recorded action of American Indian activism happened in 1901. A Muskogee creek named Chitto Harjo led
20155-662: Was founded in 1944 at a gathering of over 100 Native Americans in Denver, Colorado (many of the participants were elected leaders of the tribes that were involved in the Indian Reorganization Acts of 1934). The formation of the NCAI was encouraged by John Collier (reformer) , who realized that the United States Congress and the people were becoming more focused on World War II and less attention
20300-403: Was founded in 1944 at a gathering of over 100 Native Americans in Denver, Colorado (many of the participants were elected leaders of the tribes that were involved in the Indian Reorganization Acts of 1934). The formation of the NCAI was encouraged by John Collier (reformer) , who realized that the United States Congress and the people were becoming more focused on World War II and less attention
20445-466: Was founded in 1964 as a result of Indian support of Point Four Program , similar to President Truman 's Point IV program but adapted to LBJ 's War on Poverty. OEO created a "symbiotic relationship" with NCAI and the Indian Division, making an anti-BIA. One goal of the OEO was to help Native Americans gain skills and experience that would enable them to move up the bureaucratic ladder, control
20590-401: Was founded in 1964 as a result of Indian support of Point Four Program , similar to President Truman 's Point IV program but adapted to LBJ 's War on Poverty. OEO created a "symbiotic relationship" with NCAI and the Indian Division, making an anti-BIA. One goal of the OEO was to help Native Americans gain skills and experience that would enable them to move up the bureaucratic ladder, control
20735-489: Was paralleled by the establishment of the League of Indians of Canada in 1919, Canada's first Aboriginal organization that was national in scope. The Society of American Indians was the most influential of the early pan-Indian organizations. It played a critical role in advocating Indian citizenship, which was finally granted by the Indian Citizenship Act of 1924 . Before World War II and throughout
20880-415: Was paralleled by the establishment of the League of Indians of Canada in 1919, Canada's first Aboriginal organization that was national in scope. The Society of American Indians was the most influential of the early pan-Indian organizations. It played a critical role in advocating Indian citizenship, which was finally granted by the Indian Citizenship Act of 1924 . Before World War II and throughout
21025-443: Was the term berdache , which had previously been the preferred term among non-Native anthropologists to refer to Indigenous people who did not conform to standard European-American gender roles . Berdache , which means "passive partner in sodomy, boy prostitute", has always been offensive to Indigenous peoples. Journalist Mary Annette Pember ( Red Cliff Ojibwe ) and others have written that conference participants were motivated by
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