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85-731: It was the capital of a Luwian -speaking Neo-Hittite kingdom in the 1st millennium BC. The name of the city was Tūwanuwa ( 𒌷𒌅𒌋𒉿𒉡𒉿 ) during the Hittite Empire, and Tuwana ( 𔑢𔗬𔐤𔔂 ‎ ) in the Luwian language during the Syro-Hittite period. From the Luwian name Tuwana were derived: The location of the Hittite Tūwanuwa/Neo-Hittite Tuwana/Classical Tyana corresponds to

170-517: A d in word final position can be dropped, and an s may be added between two dental consonants and so *ad-tuwari becomes aztuwari ('you all eat') ( ds and z are phonetically identical). There were two grammatical genders : animate and inanimate/neuter. There are two grammatical numbers : singular and plural. Some animate nouns could also take a collective plural in addition to the regular numerical plural. Luwian had six cases : The vocative case occurs rarely in surviving texts and only in

255-420: A Neo-Assyrian vassal during the rules of Warpalawas II and his son and successor, Muwaḫḫaranis II. Some cities in these new territories from Bīt-Burutaš which Sargon II had assigned to Warpalawas II were later attacked and occupied by Atuna and Ištuanda in c.  710 BC . The last known king of Tuwana was Muwaḫḫaranis II, the son of Warpalawas II. As in the latter part of his father's reign, Tuwana during

340-480: A campaign against Marduk-bēl-ušate, younger brother of the king, Marduk-zakir-shumi I , who was an ally of Shalmaneser. In the second year of the campaign, Marduk-bēl-ušate was forced to retreat and was killed. A record of these events was made on the Black Obelisk : In the eighth year of my reign, Marduk-bêl-usâte, the younger brother, revolted against Marduk-zâkir-šumi, king of Karduniaš , and they divided

425-474: A change of theme. The following example sentence demonstrates several common features of Luwian: a final verb, the particle chain headed by the conjunction a- , the quotative clitic -wa , and the preverb sarra adding directionality to the main verb awiha . a=wa and= QUOT api-n DEM - ABL wattaniy-ati land- ABL . PL pihammi-s glorified- NOM Shalmaneser III Shalmaneser III ( Šulmānu-ašarēdu , "the god Shulmanu

510-575: A hill or a mountain at this time. The prince Suppiluliuma fought a battle against the Arzawan forces near Tūwanuwa and recaptured Tūwanuwa, which then became a base from which the Hittite forces reconquered the Lower Land from Arzawa. Several Hittite texts associated Tūwanuwa with the cities of Nenašša and Ḫupišna , attesting that they were located close to each other. The city of Purušḫattum

595-494: A logogram, a determinative or a syllabogram , or a combination thereof. The signs are numbered according to Laroche's sign list, with a prefix of 'L.' or '*'. Logograms are transcribed in Latin in capital letters. For example, *90, an image of a foot, is transcribed as PES when used logographically, and with its phonemic value ti when used as a syllabogram. In the rare cases where the logogram cannot be transliterated into Latin, it

680-441: A set symbolic value) are rare. Instead, most writing is done with the syllabic characters, where a single symbol stands for a vowel, or a consonant-vowel pair (either VC or CV). A striking feature is the consistent use of 'full-writing' to indicate long vowels, even at the beginning of words. In this system a long vowel is indicated by writing it twice. For example, īdi "he goes" is written i-i-ti rather than i-ti , and ānda "in"

765-711: A venerated figure in Cappadocia up to the tenth century at least. In the fifth century, Cooper and Decker estimate that the city had possibly a population of no more than 10,000. Being located around 30 km to the north of the Cilician Gates, Tyana lied on the main road between Constantinople and the Levant. Following the Muslim conquests and the establishment of the frontier between the Byzantine Empire and

850-445: Is subject-object-verb , but words can be moved to the front of the sentence for stress or to start a clause. Relative clauses are normally before the antecedent , but they sometimes follow the antecedent. Dependent words and adjectives are normally before their head word. Enclitic particles are often attached to the first word or conjunction. Various conjunctions with temporal or conditional meaning are used to link clauses. There

935-499: Is "closely related" to Cuneiform Luwian. Similarly, Alice Mouton and Ilya Yakubovich separate Luwian into two distinct varieties: cuneiform and hieroglyphic – the latter of a more prestigious and elite use. Cuneiform Luwian (or Kizzuwatna Luwian) is the corpus of Luwian texts attested in the tablet archives of Hattusa ; it is essentially the same cuneiform writing system used in Hittite . In Laroche's Catalog of Hittite Texts,

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1020-435: Is a significant artifact from his reign. It is a black limestone , bas-relief sculpture from Nimrud (ancient Kalhu), in northern Iraq . It is the most complete Assyrian obelisk yet discovered, and is historically significant because it displays the earliest ancient depiction of an Israelite . On the top and the bottom of the reliefs there is a long cuneiform inscription recording the annals of Shalmaneser III. It lists

1105-485: Is commonly assumed to have been a ruler of Tunna), or whether he ruled in Tuwana after Muwaḫḫaranis II. Masauraḫissas's name might possibly have been a Luwianisation of a Phrygian name Masa Urgitos . By c.  675 BC , Neo-Assyrian sources no longer referred to the local Tabalian kings, suggesting that they, including Tuwana, might have been annexed by the king Iškallû of Tabal proper, after which it became part of

1190-664: Is in the annals of Shalmaneser III from the 850s BC that the Arabs and Chaldeans first appear in recorded history . Shalmaneser began a campaign against Urartu and reported that in 858 BCE, he destroyed the city of Sugunia , and then in 853 BCE Araškun. Both cities are assumed to have been capitals of Urartu before Tushpa became a center for the Urartians. In 853 BC, a coalition was formed by eleven states, mainly by Hadadezer , King of Aram-Damascus ; Irhuleni , king of Hamath ; Ahab , king of Northern Israel ; Gindibu , king of

1275-411: Is no coordinating conjunction, but main clauses can be coordinated with the enclitic -ha , which is attached to the first word of the following clause. In narratives, clauses are linked by using the prosecutive conjunctions: a- before the first word of the following clause means 'and then', and pā , can be an independent conjunction at the start of a clause and the enclitic -pa indicates contrast or

1360-409: Is now obsolete. The dialect of Luwian hieroglyphic inscriptions appears to be either Empire Luwian or its descendant, Iron Age Luwian. The earliest hieroglyphs appear on official and royal seals, dating from the early 2nd millennium BC, but only from the 14th century BC is the unequivocal evidence for a full-fledged writing system. Dutch Hittitologist Willemijn Waal has argued that Luwian Hieroglyphic

1445-705: Is pre-eminent") was king of the Neo-Assyrian Empire from 859 BC to 824 BC. His long reign was a constant series of campaigns against the eastern tribes, the Babylonians , the nations of Mesopotamia , Syria , as well as Kizzuwadna and Urartu . His armies penetrated to Lake Van and the Taurus Mountains ; the Neo-Hittites of Carchemish were compelled to pay tribute, and the kingdoms of Hamath and Aram Damascus were subdued. It

1530-458: Is rendered through its approximate Hittite equivalent, recorded in Italic capitals, e.g. *216 ARHA . The most up-to-date sign list is that of Marazzi (1998). Hawkins, Morpurgo-Davies and Neumann corrected some previous errors about sign values, in particular emending the reading of symbols *376 and *377 from i, ī to zi, za . Some signs are used as reading aid, marking the beginning of a word,

1615-425: Is written a-an-ta rather than an-ta . Hieroglyphic Luwian ( luwili ) is the corpus of Luwian texts written in a native script, known as Anatolian hieroglyphs . It is recorded in official and royal seals and a small number of monumental inscriptions. Once thought to be a variety of the Hittite language , "Hieroglyphic Hittite" was formerly used to refer to the language of the same inscriptions, but this term

1700-529: The Aegean Sea , the possessive suffix was sometimes considered evidence of a shared non-Indo-European language or an Aegean Sprachbund preceding the arrivals of Luwians and Greeks . It is, however, possible to account for the Luwian possessive construction as a result of case attraction in the Indo-European noun phrase. Adjectives agree with nouns in number and gender. Forms for the nominative and

1785-691: The Arabs ; and some other rulers who fought the Assyrian king at the Battle of Qarqar . The result of the battle was not decisive, and Shalmaneser III had to fight his enemies several times again in the coming years, which eventually resulted in the occupation of the Levant , Jordan , and the Syrian Desert by the Assyrian Empire. In 851 BC, following a rebellion in Babylon, Shalmaneser led

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1870-453: The Bolkar and Taurus Mountains, where are presently located the silver mines of Bulgarmaden and the gypsum mine at Porsuk - Zeyve Höyük . Tuwana was a state whose population was descended from the largely Luwian inhabitants of the former Hittite region of Tūwanuwa. Tuwana might have been ruled by a single dynasty consisting of the kings Warpalawas I, followed by his son Sarruwannis, who

1955-558: The Bronze Age Aegean. These archaisms are often regarded as supporting the view that the Proto-Indo-European language ( PIE ) had three distinct sets of velar consonants : plain velars , palatovelars , and labiovelars . For Melchert, PIE *ḱ → Luwian z (probably [ts] ); *k → k ; and *kʷ → ku (probably [kʷ] ). Luwian has also been enlisted for its verb kalut(t)i(ya)- , which means "make

2040-656: The Caliphate along the Taurus Mountains , this made Tyana a recurrent target of raids by the Umayyad and then Abbasid Caliphates in 708, 806 and 831: The city was again taken and razed by the Abbasids under Al-Abbas ibn al-Ma'mun in 831. Abbas rebuilt the site three years later as an Abbasid military colony in preparation for Caliph al-Ma'mun 's planned conquest of Byzantium, but after Ma'mun's sudden death in August 833

2125-499: The Hebrew Bible . The Black Obelisk names Jehu son of Omri (although Jehu was misidentified as a son of Omri). The Kurkh Monolith names king Ahab , in reference to the Battle of Qarqar . He had built a palace at Kalhu (Biblical Calah , modern Nimrud ), and left several editions of the royal annals recording his military campaigns, the last of which is engraved on the Black Obelisk from Calah. The Black Obelisk

2210-610: The Hittite Code the geographical term Luwiya is replaced with Arzawa a western Anatolian kingdom corresponding roughly with Mira and the Seha River Land. Therefore, several scholars shared the view that Luwian was spoken—to varying degrees—across a large portion of western Anatolia, including Troy ( Wilusa ), the Seha River Land ( Sēḫa ~ Sēḫariya , i.e., the Greek Hermos river and Kaikos valley), and

2295-466: The Hittite language , Luwian continued to be spoken in the Neo-Hittite states of Syria , such as Milid and Carchemish , as well as in the central Anatolian kingdom of Tabal that flourished in the 8th century BC. A number of scholars in the past attempted to argue for the Luwian homeland in western Anatolia. According to James Mellaart , the earliest Indo-Europeans in northwest Anatolia were

2380-780: The Konya Plain and the Obruk Plateau across Lake Tuz and the Melendiz Mountains until the Hasandağ volcano to the north, where the Erdaş and Hodul mountains formed its northern boundary by separating it from the kingdom of Tabal , while to the south it extended to the south until the Cilician Gates so that Tuwana was the first area travellers would reach after leaving Ḫiyawa to the north by passing through

2465-597: The Kurgan hypothesis as applicable to Anatolian). However, kaluti need not imply a wheel and so need not have been derived from a PIE word with that meaning. The IE words for a wheel may well have arisen in those other IE languages after the Anatolian split. Luwian was among the languages spoken during the 2nd and 1st millennia BC by groups in central and western Anatolia and northern Syria . The earliest Luwian texts in cuneiform transmission are attested in connection with

2550-721: The Mira-Kuwaliya kingdom with its core being the Maeander valley. In a number of recent publications, however, the geographic identity between Luwiya and Arzawa was rejected or doubted. In the post-Hittite era, the region of Arzawa came to be known as Lydia (Assyrian Luddu , Greek Λυδία), where the Lydian language was in use. The name Lydia has been derived from the name Luwiya (Lydian * lūda - < * luw(i)da - < luwiya -, with regular Lydian sound change y > d ). The Lydian language , however, cannot be regarded as

2635-496: The Sassanid ruler Shapur in 260 and then Queen Zenobia of Palmyra , it was captured by emperor Aurelian in 272, who would not allow his soldiers to sack it, allegedly because Apollonius appeared to him. It is more likely though that the city was its strategic importance in a fertile plain and as a major stop linking Anatolia with Cilicia. In 372, Emperor Valens split the province of Cappadocia in two, and Tyana became

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2720-485: The present , which is used to express future events as well, and the preterite . The following active voice endings have been attested: The conjugation is very similar to the Hittite ḫḫi conjugation . For the mediopassive , the following endings are attested: A single participle can be formed with the suffix -a(i)mma . It has a passive sense for transitive verbs and a stative sense for intransitive verbs. The infinitive ends in -una . The usual word order

2805-405: The 1930s. Corrections to the readings of certain signs as well as other clarifications were given by David Hawkins, Anna Morpurgo Davies and Günther Neumann in 1973, generally referred to as "the new readings". A more elaborate monumental style is distinguished from more abstract linear or cursive forms of the script. In general, relief inscriptions prefer monumental forms, and incised ones prefer

2890-443: The Anatolian branch. This suggests that these languages formed a sub-branch within Anatolian. Some linguists follow Craig Melchert in referring to this broader group as Luwic, whereas others refer to the "Luwian group" (and, in that sense, "Luwian" may mean several distinct languages). Likewise, Proto-Luwian may mean the common ancestor of the whole group, or just the ancestor of Luwian (normally, under tree-naming conventions , were

2975-684: The Babylonian king had been put to death. In 836 BC, Shalmaneser sent an expedition against the Tibareni ( Tabal ) which was followed by one against Cappadocia , and in 832 BC came another campaign against Urartu . In the following year, age required the king to hand over the command of his armies to the Tartan ( turtānu commander-in-chief) Dayyan-Assur , and six years later, Nineveh and other cities revolted against him under his rebel son Assur-danin-pal . Civil war continued for two years; but

3060-467: The Byzantine city are still visible at the site of Tyana in the present. As noted, in 372 Emperor Valens created the province of Cappadocia Secunda , of which Tyana became the metropolis. This aroused a violent controversy between Anthimus , Bishop of Tyana, and St. Basil of Caesarea , each of whom wished to have as many suffragan sees as possible. About 640 Tyana had three, and it was the same in

3145-633: The Cilician Gates to cross the Taurus Mountains. Tuwana thus corresponded to the region which later in Classical Antiquity was called Tyanitis. Tuwana was therefore located in the southern Tabalian region, of which it was the largest and most prominent kingdom, with its territory consisting of several settlements surrounding the royal capital at the city of Tuwana, although the city of Naḫitiya (modern Niğde ; possibly Hittite period Naḫita) might have temporarily acted as capital under

3230-520: The Kingdom of Kizzuwatna in southeastern Anatolia, as well as a number of locations in central Anatolia. Beginning in the 14th century BC, Luwian-speakers came to constitute the majority in the Hittite capital Hattusa . It appears that by the time of the collapse of the Hittite Empire ca . 1180 BC, the Hittite king and royal family were fully bilingual in Luwian. Long after the extinction of

3315-617: The Luwian hieroglyphic script, by then aged more than 700 years, falls into oblivion. The first report of a monumental inscription dates to 1850, when an inhabitant of Nevşehir reported the relief at Fraktin . In 1870, antiquarian travellers in Aleppo found another inscription built into the south wall of the Al-Qaiqan Mosque . In 1884, Polish scholar Marian Sokołowski  [ pl ] discovered an inscription near Köylütolu , in western Turkey . The largest known inscription

3400-484: The Luwian sounds are unlikely to have been pharyngeal. In transcriptions of Luwian cuneiform, š is traditionally distinguished from s , since they were originally distinct signs for two different sounds, but in Luwian, both signs probably represented the same s sound. A noteworthy phonological development in Luwian is rhotacism ; in some cases, d , l , and n become r . For example, * īdi ('he gets') becomes īri and wala- ('die') becomes wara- . Additionally,

3485-558: The Phrygian robe depicted as worn by Warpalawas II in his İvriz monument , suggest that aspects of Phrygian culture were arriving into Tuwana during the late 8th century BC in the time of Warpalawas II. Warpalawas II nevertheless appears to have carried out a policy of cooperation with the Neo-Assyrian Empire, thanks to which he was able to keep his throne until the c.  700s BC . And, after Sargon II had annexed

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3570-586: The Tabalian region in 837 BCE. The name Mulî ( 𒈬𒇷𒄿 ) was the Akkadian form of a Luwian original name Mudi ( 𔑿𔑣 ‎ ) which had experienced the Luwian sound shift from / d / to / l / . Based on the close association of the "silver mountain," Mount Tunni, with Mount Mulî in the Neo-Assyrian records, both of these mountains were located close to each other, in the northeastern end of

3655-463: The accusative differ only in the animate gender and even then, only in the singular. For the sake of clarity, the table includes only the endings beginning with -a , but endings can also begin with an -i . The forms are largely derived from the forms of the nominal declension, with an -as- before the case ending that would be expected for nouns. In addition to personal pronouns typical of Anatolian languages, Luwian also has demonstrative pronouns ,

3740-523: The archaeologists discovered an octagonal church and coins dated to the 4th century. Luwian language Luwian ( / ˈ l uː w i ə n / ), sometimes known as Luvian or Luish , is an ancient language, or group of languages, within the Anatolian branch of the Indo-European language family . The ethnonym Luwian comes from Luwiya (also spelled Luwia or Luvia ) – the name of

3825-427: The branch to be called Luwic, its ancestor should be known as Proto-Luwic or Common Luwic; in practice, such names are seldom used). Luwic or Luwian (in the broad sense of the term), is one of three major sub-branches of Anatolian, alongside Hittite and Palaic . As Luwian has numerous archaisms, it is regarded as important to the study of Indo-European languages ( IE ) in general, the other Anatolian languages, and

3910-488: The campaign was abandoned by his successor al-Mu'tasim and the half-rebuilt city was razed again. Tyana finally entered into a permanent phase of decline after 933 and was replaced by a number of nearby settlements. In the Middle and Late Byzantine periods the city recovered somewhat as a place of relative agricultural and commercial importance, but it never hosted more than a few thousand inhabitants. Insignificant ruins of

3995-617: The capital and metropolis of Cappadocia Secunda , and the city was sometimes referred to as Christoupolis ( Medieval Greek : Χριστούπολις , lit.   'city of Christ') in Late Antiquity . Due to its location, the city was on one of the major Christian pilgrim routes in the empire and also had its own local saints such as Orestes, who according to tradition was martyred in Late Antiquity in Tyana and remained

4080-453: The city was renamed as "Eusebeia at the Taurus", likely due to its refoundation by Ariarathes V Eusebes . In the first century B.C., the city had a gymnasium . Xenophon mentions it in his book Anabasis , under the name of Dana , as a large and prosperous city. The surrounding plain was known after it as Tyanitis . In the first century of Roman rule of Cappadocia, the city was one of

4165-494: The corpus of Hittite cuneiform texts with Luwian insertions runs from CTH 757–773, mostly comprising rituals. Cuneiform Luwian texts are written in several dialects, of which the most easily identifiable are Kizzuwatna Luwian, Ištanuwa Luwian, and Empire Luwian. The last dialect represents the vernacular of Hattusan scribes of the 14th–13th centuries BC and is mainly attested through Glossenkeil words in Hittite texts. Compared to cuneiform Hittite, logograms (signs with

4250-468: The country around it as Tyanitis ( Ancient Greek : Τυανιτις , romanized :  Tuanitis ; Latin : Tyanitis ). In Greek legend, the city was first called Thoana because Thoas, a Thracian king, was its founder ( Arrian , Periplus Ponti Euxini , vi); it was in Cappadocia , at the foot of the Taurus Mountains and near the Cilician Gates ( Strabo , XII, 537; XIII, 587). According to Strabo

4335-530: The course of 743 to 740 BC caused the states of the Tabalian region to submit to him, or possibly as a result of a campaign of Tiglath-pileser III in Tabal. Consequently, the longest reigning king of Tuwana, Warpalawas II , was mentioned in the records of the Neo-Assyrian Empire as one of five kings who offered tribute to Tiglath-Pileser III in 738 and 737 BC. Tuwana was a powerful state under Warpalawas II, under whose reign it contained one sub-kingdom whose capital

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4420-618: The direct descendant of Luwian and probably does not even belong to the Luwic group (see Anatolian languages ). Therefore, none of the arguments in favour of the Luwian linguistic dominance in Western Asia Minor can be regarded as compelling, although the issue continues to be debated. Luwian was split into many dialects, which were written in two different writing systems. One of these was the Cuneiform Luwian which used

4505-473: The end of a word, or identifying a sign as a logogram. These are not mandatory and are used inconsistently. The reconstruction of the Luwian phoneme inventory is based mainly on the written texts and comparisons with the known development of other Indo-European languages. Two series of stops can be identified, one transliterated as geminate in the cuneiform script. These fortis and lenis stops may have been distinguished by either voicing or gemination. The contrast

4590-641: The extensive Luwian presence in western Anatolia in the late second millennium BC. In the Old Hittite version of the Hittite Code , some, if not all, of the Luwian-speaking areas were called Luwiya . Widmer (2007) has argued that the Mycenaean term ru-wa-ni-jo , attested in Linear B , refers to the same area. but the stem * Luwan- was recently shown to be non-existent. In a corrupt late copy of

4675-556: The form of Old Babylonian cuneiform that had been adapted for the Hittite language . The other was Hieroglyphic Luwian , which was written in a unique native hieroglyphic script. The differences between the dialects are minor, but they affect vocabulary, style, and grammar. The different orthographies of the two writing systems may also hide some differences. According to Hittitologist Alwin Kloekhorst , Hieroglyphic Luwian may also be known as Empire Luwian or Iron Age Luwian, and

4760-748: The forms given in the table, Luwian also had a demonstrative pronoun formed from the stem za-/zi- , but not all cases are known, and also a relative pronoun , which was declined regularly: kwis (nominative singular animate), kwin (accusative singular animate), kwinzi (nominative/accusative plural animate), kwati (ablative/instrumental singular), kwanza (dative/locative plural), kwaya (nominative/accusative plural inanimate). Some indefinite pronouns whose meanings are not entirely clear are also transmitted. Like many other Indo-European languages, Luwian distinguishes two numbers (singular and plural) and three persons . There are two moods : indicative and imperative but no subjunctive . There are two tenses :

4845-408: The genitive plural. In hieroglyphic Luwian, as in Hittite, the classical Indo-European suffixes -as for the genitive singular and -an for the plural are used. The special form of possessive adjectives with a plural possessor is restricted to Kizzuwatna Luwian and probably represents a calque from Hurrian . Because of the prevalence of -assa place names and words scattered around all sides of

4930-778: The horse-riders who came to this region from the north and founded Demircihöyük ( Eskişehir Province ) in Phrygia c. 3000 BC. They were allegedly ancestors of the Luwians who inhabited Troy II, and spread widely in the Anatolian peninsula. He cited the distribution of a new type of wheel-made pottery, Red Slip Wares, as some of the best evidence for his theory. According to Mellaart, the proto-Luwian migrations to Anatolia came in several distinct waves over many centuries. The recent detailed review of Mellaart's claims suggests that his ethnolinguistic conclusions cannot be substantiated on archaeological grounds. Other arguments were advanced for

5015-527: The kingdom of Bīt-Burutaš, and the deportation of its king Ambaris in 713 BC, after which Sargon II appointed one Aššur-šarru-uṣur as governor of Que based in Ḫiyawa who also held authority on Ḫilakku and the Tabalian region, including both Bīt-Burutaš and Tuwana. Thus Tuwana and other nearby Anatolian kingdoms were placed the authority of Aššur-šarru-uṣur. Following the appointment of Aššur-šarru-uṣur, Warpalawas II of Tuwana and Awarikus of Ḫiyawa became largely symbolic rulers although they might have still held

5100-430: The kingdom of Tabal, then reorganised as the kingdom of Bīt-Burutaš, and deported its king Ambaris in 713 BC, he increased Tuwana's territory in the broader Tabalian region by giving Warpalawas II part of the territory of Bīt-Burutaš. Tuwana however appears to have come under direct Assyrian rule during the later years of Warpalawas II's reign, especially following the annexation of the kingdom of Tabal, then reorganised as

5185-541: The land in its entirety. In order to avenge Marduk-zâkir-šumi, I marched out and captured Mê-Turnat. In the ninth year of my reign, I marched against Akkad a second time. I besieged Ganannate. As for Marduk-bêl-usâte, the terrifying splendor of Assur and Marduk overcame him and he went up into the mountains to save his life. I pursued him. I cut down with the sword Marduk-bêl-usâte and the rebel army officers who were with him. In 841 BC, Shalmaneser campaigned against Hadadezer's successor Hazael , forcing him to take refuge within

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5270-468: The linear form, but the styles are in principle interchangeable. Texts of several lines are usually written in boustrophedon style. Within a line, signs are usually written in vertical columns, but as in Egyptian hieroglyphs , aesthetic considerations take precedence over correct reading order. The script consists of the order of 500 unique signs, some with multiple values; a given sign may function as

5355-615: The military campaigns which the king and his commander-in-chief headed every year, until the thirty-first year of reign. Some features might suggest that the work had been commissioned by the commander-in-chief, Dayyan-Ashur . The second register from the top includes the earliest surviving picture of an Israelite: the Biblical Jehu , king of Israel . Jehu severed Israel's alliances with Phoenicia and Judah , and became subject to Assyria . It describes how Jehu brought or sent his tribute in or around 841 BC. The caption above

5440-571: The modern-day town of Kemerhisar in Niğde Province , Turkey . The region around Tyana, which corresponded to roughly the same area as the former Iron Age kingdom of Tuwana, was known in Classical Antiquity as Tyanitis. According to later Hittite sources, Tūwanuwa was an important cult centre, and its local pantheon was headed by the Storm-god Tarḫunzas of Tūwanuwa and his consort, the goddess Šaḫḫaššara of Tūwanuwa. The city of Tūwanuwa

5525-460: The only four major "cities" in the region and among those the most hellenised and therefore the closest to a Roman city. Tyana is the reputed birthplace of the celebrated philosopher (and reputed saint or magician) Apollonius of Tyana in the first century AD. Ovid ( Metamorphoses VIII) places the tale of Baucis and Philemon in the vicinity. Under Roman Emperor Caracalla , the city became Antoniana colonia Tyana . After having sided first with

5610-474: The power to manage their kingdoms locally. The reason for these changes was due to the fact that, although Warpalawas II and Awarikus had been loyal Neo-Assyrian vassals, Sargon II considered them as being too elderly to be able to efficiently uphold Neo-Assyrian authority in southeastern Anatolia, where the situation had become volatile because of encroachment by the then growing power of Phrygian kingdom . Tuwana nevertheless appears to have continued to thrive as

5695-556: The rebellion was at last crushed by Shamshi-Adad V , another son of Shalmaneser. Shalmaneser died soon afterwards. Despite the rebellion later in his reign, Shalmanesar had proven capable of expanding the frontiers of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, stabilising its hold over the Khabur and mountainous frontier region of the Zagros, contested with Urartu . His reign is significant to Biblical studies because two of his monuments name rulers from

5780-645: The region in which the Luwians lived. Luwiya is attested, for example, in the Hittite laws . The two varieties of Proto-Luwian or Luwian (in the narrow sense of these names) are known after the scripts in which they were written: Cuneiform Luwian ( CLuwian ) and Hieroglyphic Luwian ( HLuwian ). There is no consensus as to whether these were a single language or two closely related languages. Several other Anatolian languages – particularly Carian , Lycian , and Milyan (also known as Lycian B or Lycian II) – are now usually identified as related to Luwian – and as mutually connected more closely than other constituents of

5865-489: The reign of the Hittite Middle Empire's king Tudhaliya III , the cities of Tūwanuwa and Uda had become border towns of the forces of Arzawa after it had invaded the Lower Land. Tūwanuwa itself was attacked by Arzawa, and Hittite records of this development associated Tūwanuwa with the town of Tupazziya and Mount Ammuna. Hittite descriptions of the city suggest that Tūwanuwa itself might have been located on

5950-482: The reign of the king Sarruwannis. Another important settlement in Tuwana was the location known in Classical Antiquity as Tynna and presently as Porsuk-Zeyve Höyük. By the 8th century BC, Tuwana's territory included the Mount Mudi, which was likely identical with the "alabaster mountain," Mount Mulî, which the Neo-Assyrian king Shalmaneser III climbed and from where he extracted alabaster during his campaign in

6035-414: The rounds of" and is probably derived from *kalutta/i- "circle". It has been argued that this derives from a proto-Anatolian word for " wheel ", which in turn would have derived from the common word for "wheel" found in all other Indo-European families. The wheel was invented in the 5th millennium BC and, if kaluti does derive from it, then the Anatolian branch left PIE after its invention (so validating

6120-425: The rule of Muwaḫḫaranis II was under direct rule of the Neo-Assyrian governor Aššur-šarru-uṣur. Muwaḫḫaranis II might have continued to rule in Tabal into the 7th century BC, by which time Neo-Assyrian control of the Tabalian region had ended. A late 8th century BC king named Masauraḫissas is also attested from an inscription at Porsuk-Zeyve Höyük, although it is uncertain whether he was the king of another state (he

6205-404: The singular. In the animate gender, an -i- is inserted between the stem and the case ending. In hieroglyphic Luwian, the particle -sa/-za is added to the nominative/accusative inanimate case ending. In the genitive case, cuneiform and hieroglyphic Luwian differ sharply from each other. In cuneiform Luwian the possessive suffix -assa is used for the genitive singular and -assanz- is used for

6290-663: The stress and word position. For example, annan occurs alone as an adverb as ānnan ('underneath') but as a preposition , it becomes annān pātanza ('under the feet'). The characters that are transliterated as -h- and -hh- have often been interpreted as pharyngeal fricatives [ħ] and [ʕ] . However, they may have instead been uvular [χ] and [ʁ] or velar fricatives [x] and [ɣ] . In loans to Ugaritic, these sounds are transcribed with <ḫ> and <ġ>, while in Egyptian they are transcribed with 𓐍 ḫ and 𓎼 g. As both of these languages had pharyngeal consonants,

6375-433: The tenth century ( Heinrich Gelzer , "Ungedruckte ... Texte der Notitiae episcopatum", 538, 554). Le Quien mentions 28 bishops of Tyana, among whom were: In May 1359, Tyana still had a metropolitan (Mikelosich and Müller, "Acta patriarchatus Constantinopolitani", I, 505); in 1360 the metropolitan of Caesarea secured the administration of it (op. cit., 537). Thenceforth the see was titular. In 2020, during excavations

6460-607: The united kingdom of Tabal and Melid of the king Mugallu. The situation of Tuwana following the loss of Neo-Assyrian control over the Tabalian region after 705 BC is unknown, although the survival of the city's name until the Classical period suggests that there was no significant cultural break there after the end of the 8th century BC. By the Graeco-Roman period, the city became known as Tyana ( Ancient Greek : Τυανα , romanized :  Tuana ; Latin : Tyana ), and

6545-552: The walls of his capital. While Shalmaneser was unable to capture Damascus, he devastated its territory, and Jehu of Israel (whose ambassadors are represented on the Black Obelisk now in the British Museum ), together with the Phoenician cities, prudently sent tribute to him in perhaps 841 BC. Babylonia had already been conquered, including the areas occupied by migrant Chaldaean , Sutean and Aramean tribes, and

6630-487: The which are formed from apa- and za-/zi- . The case endings are similar those of Hittite, but not all cases are attested for personal pronouns. In the third person, the demonstrative pronoun apa- occurs instead of the personal pronoun. Possessive pronouns and demonstrative pronouns in apa- are declined as adjectives. All known forms of the personal pronouns are given, but it is not clear how their meanings differed or how they changed for different cases. In addition to

6715-540: Was already used for writing on wooden writing boards from the early second millennium BC onwards , but the argument has not been widely accepted. The first monumental inscriptions confirmed as Luwian date to the Late Bronze Age , c. 14th to 13th centuries BC. After some two centuries of sparse material, the hieroglyphs resume in the Early Iron Age , c. 10th to 8th centuries BC. In the early 7th century BC,

6800-453: Was also located close to Tūwanuwa. After the collapse of the Hittite Empire, Tūwanuwa became the centre of the Luwian -speaking Syro-Hittite state of Tuwana in the region of Tabal , in whose southernmost regions it was located. The kingdom of Tuwana was located in southern Cappadocia and covered the territory located in the present-day province of Niğde in Turkey, lying to the east of

6885-542: Was at the site corresponding to present-day Porsuk , and whose ruler Tarḫunazzas declared himself to be the "servant" of Warpalawas. By the time of the Neo-Assyrian king Sargon II ( r.  722 – 705 BC ), Tuwana was one of the last still independent Tabalian kingdoms, although it was coming under the pressure of both the Neo-Assyrian Empire and the kingdom of Phrygia because of its location between these two powers, and some Old Phrygian inscriptions on basalt, possibly dated from Warpalawas II's reign, as well as

6970-478: Was excavated in 1970 in Yalburt, northwest of Konya . Luwian hieroglyphic texts contain a limited number of lexical borrowings from Hittite , Akkadian , and Northwest Semitic ; the lexical borrowings from Greek are limited to proper nouns, although common nouns borrowed in the opposite direction do exist. A decipherment was presented by Emmanuel Laroche in 1960, building on partial decipherments proposed since

7055-605: Was first mentioned in the texts of the Hittite Empire , as a city located in southeastern Anatolia, in the northern regions of the Lower Land . According to the Telipinu Proclamation , Tūwanuwa was part of the territories that the 17th century BC founder-king of the Hittite Old Empire, Labarna I , had conquered and which his sons divided among each other and established their rule there. During

7140-411: Was lost initially and finally, suggesting that any voicing only appeared intervocalically. The following table provides a minimal consonant inventory, as can be reconstructed from the script. The existence of other consonants, which were not differentiated in writing, is possible. There are only three vowels , a , i , and u , which could be short or long. Vowel length is not stable but changes with

7225-502: Was succeeded by his own son Muwaḫḫaranis I, himself succeeded by his son Warpalawas II , whose son and successor was Muwaḫḫaranis II. Tuwana was spared by the Neo-Assyrian king Shalmaneser III's invasion of the Tabalian region which he conducted in 837 BC. By c.  738 BC , the Tabalian region, including Tuwana, had become a tributary of the Neo-Assyrian Empire , either after the Neo-Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser III 's ( r.  745 – 727 BCE ) conquest of Arpad over

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