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41-518: CX-OS was the original name given to what is now UNICOS. This was a prototype system which ran on a Cray X-MP in 1984 before the Cray-2 port. It was used to demonstrate the feasibility of using Unix on a supercomputer system, before Cray-2 hardware was available. The operating system revamp was part of a larger movement inside Cray Research to modernize their corporate software: including rewriting their most important Fortran compiler (cft to cft77) in

82-461: A completely new design, was introduced in 1985. A very different compact four-processor design with from 64 MW (megaword) to 512 MW (512 MB to 4 GB) of main memory, it was specified to 500 MFLOPS but was slower than the X-MP on certain calculations due to its high memory latency. The Cray Y-MP upgrade of the X-MP series was announced in 1988; it also had a new design, replacing

123-795: A guest operating system facility. UNICOS became the main OS from 1986 onwards. The DOE ran the Cray Time Sharing System OS instead. See the Software section for the Cray-1 for a more detailed elaboration of software (language compiler, assembler, operating systems, and applications) as X-MPs and Cray-1s were mostly compatible. Cray Research announced the X-MP Extended Architecture series in 1986. The EA series CPU had an 8.5 ns clock cycle (117 MHz), and

164-457: A guest facility within UNICOS, allowing the stand-alone version of the OS to host itself. Cray released several different OSs under the name UNICOS, including: Cray X-MP The Cray X-MP was a supercomputer designed, built and sold by Cray Research . It was announced in 1982 as the "cleaned up" successor to the 1975 Cray-1 , and was the world's fastest computer from 1983 to 1985 with

205-408: A higher-level language ( Pascal ) with more modern optimizations and vectorizations. As a migration path for existing COS customers wishing to transition to UNICOS, a Guest Operating System (GOS) capability was introduced into COS. The only guest OS that was ever supported was UNICOS. A COS batch job would be submitted to start up UNICOS, which would then run as a subsystem under COS, using a subset of

246-511: A quad-processor system performance of 800 MFLOPS . The principal designer was Steve Chen . The X-MP's main improvement over the Cray-1 was that it was a shared-memory parallel vector processor , the first such computer from Cray Research. It housed up to four CPUs in a mainframe that was nearly identical in outside appearance to the Cray-1. The X-MP CPU had a faster 9.5  nanosecond clock cycle (105 MHz), compared to 12.5 ns for

287-514: Is focused on a particular energy challenge. Two of the eight hubs are included in the EERE budget and will focus on integrating smart materials, designs, and systems into buildings to better conserve energy and on designing and discovering new concepts and materials needed to convert solar energy into electricity. Another two hubs, included in the DOE Office of Science budget, were created to tackle

328-575: The Code of Federal Regulations , in Title 10: Energy : The official seal of the Department of Energy "includes a green shield bisected by a gold-colored lightning bolt, on which is emblazoned a gold-colored symbolic sun , atom , oil derrick , windmill , and dynamo . It is crested by the white head of an eagle , atop a white rope. Both appear on a blue field surrounded by concentric circles in which

369-704: The Department of Energy Organization Act , which established the Department of Energy. The new agency, which began operations on October 1, 1977, consolidated the Federal Energy Administration , the Energy Research and Development Administration , the Federal Power Commission , and programs of various other agencies. Former Secretary of Defense James Schlesinger , who served under Presidents Nixon and Ford during

410-813: The Human Genome Project originating from a DOE initiative. The department is headed by the secretary of energy , who reports directly to the president of the United States and is a member of the Cabinet . The current secretary of energy is Jennifer Granholm , who has served in the position since February 2021. The department's headquarters are in southwestern Washington, D.C. , in the James V. Forrestal Building , with additional offices in Germantown, Maryland . In 1942, during World War II ,

451-483: The Vietnam War , was appointed as the first secretary. President Carter proposed the Department of Energy with the goal of promoting energy conservation and energy independence, and developing alternative sources of energy to reduce the use of fossil fuels . With international energy's future uncertain for America, Carter acted quickly to have the department come into action the first year of his presidency. This

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492-572: The earth itself, and gold represents the creation of energy in the release of natural forces. By invoking this symbolism , the color scheme represents the Nation's commitment to meet its energy needs in a manner consistent with the preservation of the natural environment ." The Department of Energy operates a system of national laboratories and technical facilities for research and development, as follows: Other major DOE facilities include: Airstrip: The DOE/ NNSA has federal responsibility for

533-445: The 16-gate ECL gate arrays with a more compact VLSI gate array with larger circuit boards. It was a major improvement of the X-MP supporting up to eight processors. United States Department of Energy The United States Department of Energy ( DOE ) is an executive department of the U.S. federal government that oversees U.S. national energy policy and energy production , the research and development of nuclear power ,

574-648: The Cray-1A. It was built from bipolar gate-array integrated circuits containing 16 emitter-coupled logic gates each. The CPU was very similar to the Cray-1 CPU in architecture, but had better memory bandwidth (with two read ports and one write port to the main memory instead of only one read/write port) and improved chaining support. Each CPU had a theoretical peak performance of 200 MFLOPS. The X-MP initially supported 2 million 64-bit words (16 MB) of main memory in 16 banks, respectively. The main memory

615-475: The DOE to issue loan guarantees to eligible projects that "avoid, reduce, or sequester air pollutants or anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases " and "employ new or significantly improved technologies as compared to technologies in service in the United States at the time the guarantee is issued". In loan guarantees, a conditional commitment requires to meet an equity commitment, as well as other conditions, before

656-459: The Department of Energy's handling of his case. Republican senators thought that an independent agency should be in charge of nuclear weapons and security issues, rather than the DOE. All but one of the 59 charges against Lee were eventually dropped because the investigation proved the plans the Chinese obtained could not have come from Lee. Lee filed suit and won a $ 1.6 million settlement against

697-462: The Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy would be lowered to $ 696 million under the plan, down from $ 1.3 billion in fiscal year 2017. Overall, the department's energy and related programs would be cut by $ 1.9 billion. Energy Savings Performance Contracts (ESPCs) are contracts under which a contractor designs, constructs, and obtains the necessary financing for an energy savings project, and

738-794: The United States started the Manhattan Project to develop the atomic bomb under the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers . After the war, in 1946, the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) was created to control the future of the project. The Atomic Energy Act of 1946 also created the framework for the first National Laboratories . Among other nuclear projects, the AEC produced fabricated uranium fuel cores at locations such as Fernald Feed Materials Production Center in Cincinnati, Ohio . The Energy Reorganization Act of 1974 split

779-567: The challenges of devising advanced methods of energy storage and creating fuels directly from sunlight without the use of plants or microbes. Yet another hub was made to develop "smart" materials to allow the electrical grid to adapt and respond to changing conditions. In 2012, the DOE awarded $ 120 million to the Ames Laboratory to start a new EIH, the Critical Materials Institute, which will focus on improving

820-533: The department. In December 1999, the FBI was investigating how China obtained plans for a specific nuclear device. Wen Ho Lee was accused of stealing nuclear secrets from Los Alamos National Laboratory for the People's Republic of China . Federal officials, including then-Energy Secretary Bill Richardson , publicly named Lee as a suspect before he was charged with a crime. The U.S. Congress held hearings to investigate

861-476: The design, testing and production of all nuclear weapons. NNSA in turn uses contractors to carry out its responsibilities at the following government owned sites: On May 7, 2009 President Barack Obama unveiled a $ 26.4 billion budget request for DOE for fiscal year (FY) 2010, including $ 2.3 billion for the DOE Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (EERE). That budget aimed to substantially expand

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902-429: The development of the technologies and their link to our future capabilities. The lightning bolt represents the power of the natural forces from which energy is derived and the Nation's challenge in harnessing the forces." "The color scheme is derived from nature, symbolizing both the source of energy and the support of man's existence. The blue field represents air and water , green represents mineral resources and

943-433: The federal agency makes payments over time to the contractor from the savings in the agency's utility bills. The contractor guarantees the energy improvements will generate savings, and after the contract ends, all continuing cost savings accrue to the federal agency. Energy Innovation Hubs are multi-disciplinary , meant to advance highly promising areas of energy science and technology from their early stages of research to

984-602: The federal government and news agencies. The episode eventually led to the creation of the National Nuclear Security Administration , a semi-autonomous agency within the department. In 2001, American Solar Challenge was sponsored by the DOE and the National Renewable Energy Laboratory . After the 2005 race, the DOE discontinued its sponsorship. Title XVII of Energy Policy Act of 2005 authorizes

1025-699: The loan guarantee is completed. In September 2008, the DOE, the Nuclear Threat Initiative (NTI), the Institute of Nuclear Materials Management (INMM), and the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) partnered to develop and launch the World Institute for Nuclear Security (WINS), an international non-governmental organization designed to provide a forum to share best practices in strengthening

1066-506: The military's nuclear weapons program , nuclear reactor production for the United States Navy , energy-related research, and energy conservation . The DOE was created in 1977 in the aftermath of the 1973 oil crisis . It sponsors more physical science research than any other U.S. federal agency, the majority of which is conducted through its system of National Laboratories . The DOE also directs research in genomics , with

1107-406: The name of the agency, in gold, appears on a green background." "The eagle represents the care in planning and the purposefulness of efforts required to respond to the Nation's increasing demands for energy . The sun , atom , oil derrick , windmill , and dynamo serve as representative technologies whose enhanced development can help meet these demands. The rope represents the cohesiveness in

1148-497: The point that the risk level will be low enough for industry to commercialize the technologies. The Consortium for Advanced Simulation of Light Water Reactors (CASL) was the first DOE Energy Innovation Hub established in July 2010, for the purpose of providing advanced modeling and simulation (M&S) solutions for commercial nuclear reactors. The 2009 DOE budget includes $ 280 million to fund eight Energy Innovation Hubs, each of which

1189-474: The president, who assumes the duties of the secretary in the secretary's absence. The department also has three under secretaries, each appointed by the president, who oversee the major areas of the department's work. The president also appoints seven officials with the rank of Assistant Secretary of Energy who have line management responsibility for major organizational elements of the department. The Energy Secretary assigns their functions and duties. Excerpt from

1230-418: The product line. The amount of main memory supported was increased to a maximum of 16 million words, depending on the model. The main memory was built from bipolar or MOS SRAM ICs, depending on the model. The system initially ran the proprietary Cray Operating System (COS) and was object-code compatible with the Cray-1. A UNIX System V derivative initially named CX-OS and finally renamed UNICOS ran through

1271-431: The responsibilities of the AEC into the new Nuclear Regulatory Commission , which was charged with regulating the nuclear power industry, and the Energy Research and Development Administration , which was assigned to manage the nuclear weapon, naval reactor, and energy development programs. The 1973 oil crisis called attention to the need to consolidate energy policy. In 1977, President Jimmy Carter signed into law

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1312-513: The security and safety of nuclear and radioactive materials and facilities. The department announced a reorganization with new names of under secretaries in 2022. The department is under the control and supervision of a United States Secretary of Energy , a political appointee of the President of the United States . The Energy Secretary is assisted in managing the department by a United States Deputy Secretary of Energy , also appointed by

1353-517: The stimulus spending was in the form of grants and contracts. For fiscal year 2013, each of the operating units of the Department of Energy operated with the following budgets: In March 2018, Energy Secretary Rick Perry testified to a Senate panel about the Trump administration's DOE budget request for fiscal year 2019. The budget request prioritized nuclear security while making large cuts to energy efficiency and renewable energy programs. The proposal

1394-579: The systems CPUs, memory, and peripheral devices. The UNICOS that ran under GOS was exactly the same as when it ran stand-alone: the difference was that the kernel would make certain low-level hardware requests through the COS GOS hook, rather than directly to the hardware. One of the sites that ran very early versions of UNICOS was Bell Labs , where Unix pioneers including Dennis Ritchie ported parts of their Eighth Edition Unix (including STREAMS input/output (I/O)) to UNICOS. They also experimented with

1435-565: The use of renewable energy sources while improving energy transmission infrastructure. It also proposed significant investments in hybrids and plug-in hybrids , smart grid technologies, and scientific research and innovation. As part of the $ 789 billion economic stimulus package in the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009, Congress provided Energy with an additional $ 38.3 billion for fiscal years 2009 and 2010, adding about 75 percent to Energy's annual budgets. Most of

1476-510: Was a $ 500 million increase in funds over fiscal year 2017. It "promotes innovations like a new Office of Cybersecurity, Energy Security, and Emergency Response (CESER) and gains for the Office of Fossil Energy. Investments would be made to strengthen the National Nuclear Security Administration and modernize the nuclear force, as well as in weapons activities and advanced computing." However, the budget for

1517-674: Was also supported. Each EA series CPU's peak performance was 234 MFLOPS. For a four-processor system, the peak performance was 942 MFLOPS. The Input/Output (I/O) subsystem could have two to four I/O processors with a total of 2 to 32 disk storage units. The DD-39 and DD-49 hard drives made by Ibis with a raw transfer rate of 13.3 MB/s each stored 1200 megabyte (blocked and formatted) with 5.9 MB/s and 9.8 MB/s transfer rates (unstriped), respectively. Optional solid-state drives were available with 256, 512 or 1024 MB capacities with transfer rates of 100 to 1,000 MB/s per channel. Up to 38 gigabytes of data storage

1558-550: Was an extremely important issue of the time as the oil crisis was causing shortages and inflation . With the Three Mile Island accident , Carter was able to intervene with the help of the department. Through the DOE, Carter was able to make changes within the Nuclear Regulatory Commission , including improving management and procedures, since nuclear energy and weapons are responsibilities of

1599-426: Was built from macrocell array and gate array ICs. The EA series extended the width of the A and B registers to 32 bits and performed 32-bit address arithmetic, increasing the amount of memory theoretically addressable to 2 billion words. The largest configuration produced was 64 million words of MOS SRAM in 64 banks. For compatibility with existing software written for the Cray-1 and older X-MP models, 24-bit addressing

1640-685: Was built from 4 Kbit bipolar SRAM ICs. CMOS memory versions of the Cray-1M were renamed Cray X-MP/1s. This configuration was first used for Cray Research's UNIX port. In 1984, improved models of the X-MP were announced, consisting of one, two, and four-processor systems with 4 and 8 million word configurations. The top-end system was the X-MP/48, which contained four CPUs with a theoretical peak system performance of over 800 MFLOPS and 8 million words of memory. The CPUs in these models introduced vector gather/scatter memory reference instructions to

1681-441: Was possible. For magnetic tape I/O, the system could interface with IBM 3420 and 3480 tape units directly without a lot of CPU processing. A 1984 X-MP/48 cost about US$ 15 million plus the cost of disks . In 1985 Bell Labs purchased a Cray X-MP/24 for $ 10.5 million along with eight DD-49 1.2 GB drives for an additional $ 1 million. They received $ 1.5 million of trade-in credit for their Cray-1. The Cray-2 ,

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