USS Billings (LCS-15) is a Freedom -class littoral combat ship of the United States Navy . She is the first ship in naval service named after Billings , Montana .
149-484: In 2002, the U.S. Navy initiated a program to develop the first of a fleet of littoral combat ships . The Navy initially ordered two monohull ships from Lockheed Martin , which became known as the Freedom -class littoral combat ships after the first ship of the class, USS Freedom . Odd-numbered U.S. Navy littoral combat ships are built using the Freedom -class monohull design, while even-numbered ships are based on
298-547: A 7.2-magnitute earthquake that struck Haiti on 14 August. This article about a specific ship or boat of the United States Armed Forces is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Littoral combat ship A littoral combat ship ( LCS ) is either of two classes of relatively small surface vessels designed for near-shore operations by the United States Navy . It
447-558: A Senate Armed Services Committee meeting that the Oliver Hazard Perry -class frigates and Avenger -class minesweepers were too worn out to cover the gap if the LCS suffered further delays. Retired Admiral James Lyons , USN called for a $ 220 million common design with the U.S. Coast Guard's National Security Cutter (NSC) program to save costs and meet "limited warfare requirements". A Huntington-Ingalls study found that
596-420: A roll-on/roll-off port facility. Standard armaments include Mk 110 57 mm guns and RIM-116 Rolling Airframe Missiles . They are also equipped with autonomous air , surface , and underwater vehicles. Possessing lower air defense and surface warfare capabilities than destroyers , the LCS emphasizes speed, flexible mission modules, and a shallow draft . The first LCS, USS Freedom (LCS-1) ,
745-486: A 3:2:1 manning concept. That is three ship crews, and two hulls for each ship that is on station at any time. The other ship and other two crews who are not on deployment will either be preparing for deployment or in rotation in or out of theater. The result is a 50% reduction in ships and a 25% reduction in crews (and smaller crew sizes) than traditional deployment practices. The ships were predicted to fall short in manning. The Navy has deployed ships with berthing modules in
894-587: A Franco-Spanish force invaded the British-held island of Minorca . In 1798 Minorca experienced yet another of its many changes of sovereignty when captured by a British landing . As the British Empire expanded worldwide, four colonies ( Halifax , in Nova Scotia ; Bermuda ; Gibraltar ; and Malta ) were designated Imperial fortresses , from which Britain's domination of the oceans and
1043-547: A cable towed behind the boat. Each LCS will carry two, and they will be used for both MCM and ASW. It will mimic the acoustic and magnetic signature of a ship to fool magnetic and influence mines into detonating; introduction is expected in 2017. The final increment will be the Knifefish unmanned underwater vehicle ( UUV ) to find and detect buried mines in 2019. In February 2016, the Navy announced they were halting procurement of
1192-556: A common strategic object." All armed forces that employ troops with special training and equipment for conducting landings from naval vessels to shore agree to this definition. Since the 20th century an amphibious landing of troops on a beachhead is acknowledged as the most complex of all military maneuvers. The undertaking requires an intricate coordination of numerous military specialties, including air power , naval gunfire , naval transport , logistical planning , specialized equipment, land warfare , tactics , and extensive training in
1341-401: A competing design, the trimaran hull Independence -class littoral combat ship from General Dynamics . The initial order of littoral combat ships involved a total of four ships, including two of the Freedom -class design. Billings is the eighth Freedom -class littoral combat ship to be built. Billings includes additional stability improvements over the original Freedom design;
1490-645: A contractual price of $ 437 million, Austal USA's contractual price for LCS-6 was $ 432 million. On 29 December 2010, Department of Navy Undersecretary Sean Stackley noted that the program was well within the Congressional cost cap of $ 480 million per ship. The average per-ship target price for Lockheed ships is $ 362 million, Stackley said, with a goal of $ 352 million for each Austal USA ships. Government-furnished equipment (GFE), such as weapons, add about $ 25 million per ship; another $ 20 million for change orders, and "management reserve"
1639-412: A cost of $ 591 million for each ship. Navy acquisition chief Sean Stackley testified to a Senate panel that the actual price range was $ 440 to $ 460 million. A day before the offer's expiration, both Lockheed Martin and Austal USA received Navy contracts for an additional ten ships of their designs; two ships of each design being built each year between 2011 and 2015. Lockheed Martin's LCS-5 had
SECTION 10
#17328023767941788-467: A distance from the ship is less risky. Placing sensors on remote vehicles allows the LCS to exploit concepts such as bistatic sonar . DARPA 's Tactically Exploited Reconnaissance Node (TERN) program aims to build a medium-altitude long-endurance unmanned aerial vehicle (MALE UAV) that can operate from LCS-2 and can carry a payload of 600 pounds (270 kg) out to an operational radius of 600–900 nautical miles (1,100–1,700 km). A 2010 report by
1937-534: A fixed price contract in 2010 for up to ten ships, followed by an offer to build five additional ships of the same design as the first contract to the secondary builder. The Congress agreed with the Navy on this plan. On 23 August 2010, the U.S. Navy announced a delay in awarding the contract for 10 ships until the year's end. FY 2010 budget documents revealed that the total costs of the two lead ships had risen to $ 637 million for Freedom and $ 704 million for Independence . On 16 January 2010, Independence
2086-578: A hostile or potentially hostile shore at a designated landing beach . Through history the operations were conducted using ship's boats as the primary method of delivering troops to shore. Since the Gallipoli Campaign , specialised watercraft were increasingly designed for landing troops, material and vehicles, including by landing craft and for insertion of commandos , by fast patrol boats , zodiacs (rigid inflatable boats) and from mini-submersibles . The term amphibious first emerged in
2235-588: A larger allied offensive effort elsewhere. Such an operation requiring weeks to months of preparation and planning, would use multiple task forces, or even a naval fleet to land corps -size forces, including on large islands, for example Operation Chromite . A strategic landing operation requires a major commitment of forces to invade a national territory in the archipelagic , such as the Battle of Leyte , or continental, such as Operation Neptune . Such an operation may require multiple naval and air fleets to support
2384-538: A larger land strategy such as the Kerch–Eltigen Operation , and a strategic opening of a new Theatre of Operations, for example the Operation Avalanche . The purpose of amphibious operations is usually offensive, except in cases of amphibious withdrawals, but is limited by the plan and terrain. Landings on islands less than 5,000 km (1,900 sq mi) in size are tactical, usually with
2533-677: A menacers, calling it the "American Dunkirk " due to its use as a base for privateers . There was regular, intermittent warfare between the French and the Wabanaki Confederacy on one side and the northern New England colonies on the other ( See the Northeast Coast Campaigns of 1688 , 1703 , 1723 , 1724 ). For the French, the Fortress of Louisbourg also protected the chief entrance to Canada , as well as
2682-470: A newly proposed frigate more capable of high-intensity combat. In late 2014, the Navy proceeded with a procurement plan for enhanced versions of the LCS and upgraded older ships to meet the program's 52-ship requirement; the modified LCS will be redesignated as FF, or frigate. In December 2015, Secretary of Defense Ashton Carter ordered the Navy to reduce planned LCS and FF procurement from 52 to 40 and downselect to one variant by FY 2019. In July 2017,
2831-439: A small Marine ground unit can be carried within an embarked mission module. In 2014, Marine Corps General John M. Paxton, Jr. claimed several deficiencies in using an LCS for amphibious operations as a substitute platform for an amphibious assault ship, including the ability to operate in difficult sea states, survivability in contested waters, limited flight deck and berthing space, and command and control limitations. In 2014,
2980-583: A speed of approximately 5 knots. The sides of the ships were bullet proof, and was designed with a ramp on the bow for disembarkation. A plan was devised to land British heavy tanks from pontoons in support of the Third Battle of Ypres , but this was abandoned. The lessons of the Gallipoli campaign had a significant impact upon the development of amphibious operational planning, and have since been studied by military planners prior to operations such as
3129-679: Is able to defend itself effectively against anti-ship cruise missiles, which are commonly employed in the littorals, although they can disperse in shallow waters better than larger warships. The LCS is reconfigured for various roles by changing mission packages, each of which includes mission module equipment (weapon systems, sensors, etc.), carried craft and mission crews. Modules include anti-submarine warfare (ASW), mine countermeasures (MCM), surface warfare (SUW), and special warfare missions. The MCM and SUW modules are planned to reach initial operating capability in Fiscal Year (FY) 2014, and
SECTION 20
#17328023767943278-406: Is also changed into a more simplified two-crew "blue/gold" model, like that used on submarines and minesweepers, where ships cycle to forward deployed locations with the two crews swapping roles every 4–5 months; aviation detachments will also deploy with the same LCS crew, creating an arrangement of a core 70-sailor crew to conduct the warfare mission and a 23-person air detachment. In addition to
3427-527: Is also included. Stackley declared the average cost to buy an LCS should be between $ 430 million and $ 440 million. In the fiscal year 2011, the unit cost was $ 1.8 billion and the program cost $ 3.7 billion. In May 2012, Robert Work said that the two designs may each be best suited to different theaters, the LCS-1 design being better suited for the enclosed waters of the Middle East, while
3576-522: Is further reinforced by Britain's poor showing during the war in the battles upon the Great Lakes and Lake Champlain. Without great naval fortresses or forward reinforced ports the Royal Navy was unable to hold and command the lakes, or stop amphibious raiding into Canada, such as the many raids on York (now Toronto ) during the conflict. Even though each side held their own territorial coastlines,
3725-479: Is increased by the combination of a destroyer's towed array and hull-mounted sonar and an LCS's VDS. In July 2015, the Navy awarded three contracts to reduce the weight of the package elements down to or below 105 metric tons total to meet mission package weight requirements. Since both elements are mature and fielded (the VDS on Royal Navy Type 23 frigates and MFTA on Arleigh Burke and Zumwalt -class destroyers ),
3874-621: Is jeopardized to perform missions like minesweeping while under the cover of a destroyer. The LCS's main purpose is to take up operations such as patrolling, port visits, anti-piracy, and partnership-building exercises to free up high-end surface combatants for increased combat availability. Navy Secretary Ray Mabus clarified that the ship could operate in combat areas while under the protection of other warships. The LCS's utility against high-tech enemies would be when working with and being covered by destroyers, like they do with aircraft carriers. With destroyers providing extended air and missile defense,
4023-449: Is part of a risk reduction effort to contribute to a layered laser defense effort and the LCS's lethality to counter fast-attack craft and UAS. The anti-submarine module had its focus changed from stationary to en-stride systems (while the ship is moving) that are useful in the open ocean as well as in coastal areas. One of the items to be added is a torpedo detection capability. Thales has sold one CAPTAS-4 low-frequency active sonar to
4172-505: Is preceded by post-detection mission analysis. The first increment of the MCM included three systems: the helicopter-deployed airborne laser mine detection system (ALMDS); the airborne mine neutralization system (AMNS); and the remote minehunting system (RMS) composed of the remote multi-mission vehicle (RMMV) paired with the AQS-20A sonar. The ALMDS detects mines near the top of the water, and
4321-523: Is refracted through the temperature, salinity, and pressure profile; a VDS can pierce layers better than hull-mounted sonars found on destroyers and cruisers. LCSs will also be fitted with a torpedo decoy system under development. To destroy submarines, an MH-60S helicopter will deploy the Mark 54 Lightweight Torpedo . A wargame held by the Naval War College demonstrated the possibility of using
4470-423: Is slightly smaller than the U.S. Navy's earlier Oliver Hazard Perry -class frigate but larger than Cyclone -class patrol ships . Each has the capabilities of a small assault transport , including a flight deck and hangar for housing two SH-60 or MH-60 Seahawk helicopters, a stern ramp for operating small boats, and the cargo volume and payload to deliver a small assault force with fighting vehicles to
4619-838: The AN/AQS-20A underwater towed sonar, the remote minehunting system, the Coastal Battlefield Reconnaissance and Analysis system, and the Knifefish , a Surface mine countermeasure unmanned undersea vehicle. Canceled module features include the Organic Airborne and Surface Influence Sweep System, and the Rapid Airborne Mine Clearance System. The final increment IV MCM will not have an EOD team or an in-stride capability to neutralize discovered mines; neutralization
USS Billings - Misplaced Pages Continue
4768-865: The American Civil War , the Mississippi Marine Brigade was established to act swiftly against Confederate forces operating near the Mississippi River and its tributaries. The unit consisted of artillery, cavalry and infantry with the United States Ram Fleet used as transportation. Amphibious warfare during the War of the Pacific of 1879 to 1883 saw coordination of army, navy and specialized units. The first amphibious assault of this war took place during
4917-419: The Battle of Pisagua when 2,100 Chilean troops successfully took Pisagua from 1,200 Peruvian and Bolivian defenders on 2 November 1879. Chilean Navy ships bombarded beach defenses for several hours at dawn, followed by open, oared boats landing army infantry and sapper units into waist-deep water, under enemy fire. An outnumbered first landing-wave fought at the beach; the second and third waves in
5066-506: The Black Sea , conducting many raids and bombardments on Ottoman positions. On 11 October 1917, German land and naval forces launched an amphibious assault, code named Operation Albion , on the islands of Saaremaa (Ösel), Hiiumaa (Dagö) and Muhu (Moon); they controlled the entrance to the Gulf of Riga . By the end of the month German forces had successfully overrun the islands forcing
5215-645: The Egyptians from the reign of Akhenaten as captured on the reliefs at Medinet Habu and Karnak . The Hellenic city states routinely resorted to amphibious assaults upon each other's shores, which they reflected upon in their plays and other art. The landing at Marathon by the Persians on 9 September 490 BC was the largest amphibious operation until the landings at the Battle of Gallipoli . In 1537 Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain , decided to train and assign amphibious-assault skilled units to
5364-551: The Gilbert Islands in the Pacific. Although the negative perception prevailed among Allied planners in the interwar years, the war situation after 1940 meant that such operations had to be considered. However, despite early successes in North Africa and Italy, it was not until Normandy that the belief that opposed landings could not succeed was completely excised. One of the first amphibious landings involving armour
5513-585: The Independence class with 18 NSMs. In July 2014, the Navy confirmed that it would test-launch the NSM from Coronado to evaluate feasibility, the first time an LCS fired a surface-to-surface missile. The NSM has a range of 100 nmi (120 mi; 190 km), greater than the Harpoon anti-ship missile, but LCSs lack long-range fire control systems to detect targets at this distance. On 24 September 2014,
5662-611: The Mediterranean and Caribbean seas was maintained, including its ability to deny safe passage to enemy naval and merchant vessels while protecting its own merchant trade, as well as to its ability to project superior naval and military force anywhere on the planet. This was demonstrated during the American War of 1812 , when the ships of the North America Station of the Royal Navy and military forces of
5811-676: The Normandy Landings in 1944 and during the Falklands War in 1982. The campaign also influenced US Marine Corps amphibious operations during the Pacific War , and continues to influence US amphibious doctrine. During the interwar period the campaign "became a focal point for the study of amphibious warfare" in the United Kingdom and United States, because it involved the four types of amphibious operations:
5960-585: The Oliver Hazard Perry , Osprey , and Avenger classes were reaching the end of their lives, the U.S. Navy released the LCS requirement. In 2004, Lockheed Martin , General Dynamics and Raytheon submitted design proposals. It was decided to produce two vessels each (Flight 0) of the Lockheed Martin design (LCS-1 and LCS-3) and of the General Dynamics design (LCS-2 and LCS-4). After these are brought into service, and experience gathered on
6109-774: The Seven Years' War (known in the United States as the French and Indian War ), a war that ended the French colonial era in Atlantic Canada and led to the subsequent British campaign to capture all of French North America by the war's end. Another major amphibious landing took place during the Seven Years' War , the Siege of Quebec in 1759. The British, in addition to colonial American Ranger units, had raised experimental light infantry units to integrate aspects of
USS Billings - Misplaced Pages Continue
6258-607: The U.S. Coast Guard began advocating the LCS as a tailor-made platform for drug interdiction missions. Under pressure from Navy vessels retiring, the Coast Guard will suffer a surface vessel shortage for intercepting smuggling ships in the Caribbean area, forcing the Navy to examine other platforms for drug interdiction. The Coast Guard noted that the LCS has previously performed this task, and pointed towards its high speed and embarked helicopters to run down fast smuggling boats;
6407-622: The 1847 Siege of Veracruz . During the Crimean War of 1853–1856 the anti-Russian alliance launched an Anglo-French amphibious operation against Russia at Bomarsund , Finland on 8 August 1854. During the American Civil War of 1861–1865 the United States made several amphibious assaults along the coastlines of the Confederate States . Actions at Hatteras Inlet (August 1861) and at Port Royal, South Carolina were
6556-593: The 1920s to form the Royal Marines ) were used primarily as naval parties onboard Royal Navy warships to maintain discipline and man ships' guns. The RMLI joined a new Royal Navy division, the Royal Naval Division , formed in 1914 (out of those not needed on ships) to fight on land; however, throughout the conflict, army units were depended upon to provide the bulk, if not all, of troops used in amphibious landings. The first amphibious assault of
6705-595: The 1960s support this claim. As more littoral combat ships are built and enter service, Mabus said operational costs will decline to acceptable limits. On 2 November 2016 the Pentagon blocked publication of cost overruns on both designs. On 2 December 2016, it was reported that the GAO was critical of the LCS's ability to complete a navy requirement of 30 consecutive days underway without a critical failure of one or more essential subsystems. DOT&E Michael Gilmore states that
6854-420: The 57 mm main gun was more suitable to a patrol boat than a frigate. Austal's vice president for sales, Craig Hooper, suggested that the ships should instead be used for UAV operations. Navy Secretary Ray Mabus has called the lack of identified missions for the LCS "one of its greatest strengths". The various modules all use the same Internet Protocol formats. In 2013 Congressional auditors found that
7003-634: The ASW module in FY 2016. Module changes were envisioned to allow a single LCS to change roles in a matter of hours at any commercial port, allowing it to rapidly optimize effectiveness against a threat. A report from the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations (OPNAV) on a January 2012 sustainment wargame reportedly stated that, possibly for logistics reasons, the mission module changes may take as long as weeks, and that in
7152-663: The Acadian Provincial capital Port-Royal (Acadia) of French Canada, during Queen Anne's War (the name of the American theater of the War of the Spanish Succession ). The battle is known as the seminal moment in the conquest of Acadia . The siege resulted in the British imperial Force conquering French Arcadia and renaming Port Royal, Annapolis Royal . One famous instance of a failed amphibious assault
7301-623: The British Army, Board of Ordnance, and Royal Marines, maintained a blockade of much of the Atlantic seaboard of the United States of America , carried out amphibious raids such as the 22 June 1813 Battle of Craney Island , and then launched the Chesapeake Campaign (defeating American forces in the Battle of Bladensburg , capturing and burning Washington, DC , and raiding Alexandria, Virginia ), from Bermuda. The point
7450-493: The British government were opposed to returning it to the French as part of any peace agreement, but these were eventually overruled, and Louisbourg was returned, over the objections of the victorious British North Americans, to French control after the 1748 Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle , in return for French concessions elsewhere. The Siege of Louisbourg (1758) was a pivotal operation of the British military in 1758 (which included Colonial American Provincial and Ranger units) during
7599-528: The British lost two large and powerful squadrons in two separate battles, the Battle of Lake Erie & the Battle of Lake Champlain , losing the British control of the two strategic lakes, for no losses of American ships in either battle. In the Mexican–American War , US forces under Winfield Scott launched the first major amphibious assault in US history, and its largest amphibious assault until WWII, in
SECTION 50
#17328023767947748-554: The DD-21 and replaced it with a "family" of ships, including the littoral combat ship, being motivated to produce ships cheaper and faster to increase fleet size. Clark declared the LCS was his "most transformational effort" and number-one budget priority in 2003. The Navy committed to the $ 15 billion (2003) program in advance of rigorous analysis or clearly defined purpose, appearance, or survivability. Proponents typically pointed to its speed, asymmetric littoral threats, and impact on
7897-586: The Griffin was set for 2015, with a longer-ranged version to enter service around 2017; however, procurement was canceled after the missiles were judged as "too lightweight". An enhanced Griffin and the Sea Spear were considered likely competitors for the increment 2 missile. The Navy chose to integrate the millimeter wave radar-guided AGM-114L Hellfire missile to increase the LCS's standoff firepower and defense against swarming fast attack craft. Navy use of
8046-516: The Hellfire gives access to the U.S. Army's existing stockpile of 10,000 missiles. The Hellfire is an interim decision; the Navy is interested in developing a longer-range version. An LCS can carry 24 Hellfire missiles in its SSMM, using M299 vertical launchers mounted within a gas containment system; the SSMM design does not facilitate at-sea reloading. The Hellfire was slated to be operational aboard
8195-420: The LCS by 2017. A longer-range missile with an over-the-horizon (OTH) engagement capability was planned to defend against fast attack craft, ships, and patrol boats by 2020 as part of the surface warfare package Increment 4. Norwegian company Kongsberg Defense & Aerospace proposed equipping LCSs with their radar-evading Naval Strike Missile , presenting scale models of the Freedom class with 12 NSMs and
8344-414: The LCS in open water operations to assist carrier strike groups and guided-missile destroyers. The LCS was found to be more useful in open water operations than previously considered. The wargame found that an LCS operating the ASW package could perform the mission, which freed up a destroyer that would normally perform the mission to contribute to the lethality of the strike group. Submarine hunting ability
8493-628: The LCS using a variable depth sonar (VDS) and the TB-37 MFTA. Both can passively listen or actively emit to analyze the returns. The VDS was originally planned to be the Raytheon AN/SQS-62, but the Navy canceled it in 2022 due to high risk, instead choosing the Thales CAPTAS-4 in 2023. The VDS will allow the LCS to detect diesel-electric submarines while on the move. Submarines can hide behind water layers based on how sound
8642-417: The LCS was designed to pull out of combat upon sustaining damage. The baseline LCS seaframe designs, however, boast a better air and missile defense capability than the partially disarmed and now retired Perry class, which somewhat counters claims that LCS is "unsurvivable". Other observers suggest that the ships' lifecycle costs and resilience challenges result from the optimal-manning concept, which increases
8791-589: The LCS will be able to replace slower, more specialized ships such as minesweepers and larger amphibious-type assault ships. Most of the mission modules' functions are performed by carried vehicles such as helicopters or unmanned vehicles such as the Spartan Scout , AN/WLD-1 RMS Remote Minehunting System and MQ-8B Fire Scout as part of the Navy's goal to "unman the front lines". Performing functions such as sonar sweeps for mines or submarines as well as launching torpedoes against hostile submarines at
8940-608: The LCS-2 design for the Pacific Ocean's open waters. In order to increase commonality, the Navy will force both types to use the same combat system electronics. The handoff from General Dynamics to Austal of management for the Independence class led to a 13-month schedule slip as the company struggled with building the JHSV ships at the same facilities. In May 2013, the GAO called for a pause in ship construction until issues with
9089-545: The LCS. The Mine Countermeasure Module (MCM) is designed to provide minesweeping; remotely detecting and bypassing mines; and minehunting, detecting, and disabling. It was envisioned to perform "influence" minehunting via acoustic and magnetic signatures rather than contact or mechanical minehunting. The MCM includes the Airborne Laser Mine Detection system, the Airborne mine neutralization system,
SECTION 60
#17328023767949238-540: The NSC would be a better match for the listed mission set while lacking the LCS's mission modules to perform many missions. In May 2012, Northrop Grumman Aerospace Systems released a study that showed seven LCS can more efficiently perform anti-piracy patrols in the Western Indian Ocean than a fleet of 20 conventional ships for a quarter of the cost. To help reduce cost of each ships, in September 2009, Navy Acquisition Chief Sean Stackley and Vice Admiral Barry McCullough indicated that only one contractor would be offered
9387-472: The NSM was successfully fired at a mobile target. The LCS's modular design makes it possible to add weapons and sensors as part of the warfare suite. This could mitigate lethality criticism of the LCS, which is oriented toward asymmetric swarm boat threats rather than comparable surface combatants. In September 2015, the Navy issued a directive to install an OTH missile on Freedom and Coronado for their next deployments in early and mid-2016. The exact missile
9536-433: The Navy John Lehman called for fixed-price contracts to be adopted. Pressure mounted in Congress for the Navy to control the cost: in June 2009, during a hearing of the House Armed Services Seapower Subcommittee , Subcommittee Chairman Gene Taylor , D-Miss, said that other contractors would be keen to build LCS as the subcommittee added language requiring the Navy to open bidding if either lead contractor walked away from
9685-435: The Navy announced a new bidding process for the next three ships, the winner building two ships and the loser building one. In the 26 September 2008 U.S. presidential debate , Senator John McCain (R-AZ) cited the LCS as an example of botched contracting driving up costs unnecessarily. In March 2009, then-Secretary of the Navy Donald C. Winter announced that LCS-3 would be named Fort Worth after Fort Worth, Texas , and
9834-508: The Navy plans to base 10 Freedom -class ships at Naval Station Mayport, Florida which could be tasked to conduct interdiction missions. In the late 1990s, the U.S. Navy realized its Cold War -era cruisers and destroyers had been designed for open-ocean warfare and would be vulnerable in shallow coastal waters, where they would face dangers from high-speed boats, missile-firing fast-attack craft, small submarines, sea mines, and land and air-launched anti-ship missiles. The Navy's official solution
9983-408: The Navy released a request for information for a new multi-mission guided-missile frigate that can perform the same roles as the LCS while having better offensive and defensive capabilities. Almost any existing design that can be adapted to FFG(X) requirements can be considered, extending beyond versions of the two LCS hulls. In April 2020, it was announced that Fincantieri Marinette Marine had won
10132-431: The Navy's dependence on contractors and diminishes opportunities to monitor and repair engineering systems during operations. The deployment of USS Freedom was seen by the Navy as an opportunity to test the ship and operational concepts in the real-world. The Navy was about to conclude a war game at the Naval War College to examine ways of exploiting LCS capabilities in Western Pacific and other scenarios. Hunt added that
10281-474: The Navy's survivability standards, and that the LCS would be used during the initial phase in the theatre and sense the environment before hostilities occur. Detractors claim the LCS is not survivable enough for long-range threats that China possesses; LCSs are built to the Navy's survivability category Level I+, higher than Level I patrol craft and mine warfare ships, but lower than the Level II Oliver Hazard Perry -class frigate they are replacing. The Navy has said
10430-476: The Pacific Coast of South America . The USS Wachusett with Alfred Thayer Mahan in command, was stationed at Callao, Peru, protecting American interests during the final stages of the War of the Pacific. He formulated his concept of sea power while reading a history book in an English gentleman's club in Lima, Peru. This concept became the foundation for his celebrated The Influence of Sea Power upon History (1890). An amphibious assault took place on
10579-438: The Pacific alone, embark a helicopter, have a minimum 40 knot top speed, and cost $ 220 million. The Navy was only willing to build one type of ship; the ship's task force, realizing that it would be virtually impossible for one vessel to fill all roles, advocated for a larger hull to cover the mission range through modularity, organic combat power, and unmanned systems. Empty space was left for weapon and sensor mission modules. When
10728-468: The Pentagon's director of operational test and evaluation (DOT&E) found that neither design was expected to "be survivable in a hostile combat environment" and that neither ship could withstand the Navy's full ship shock trials. The Navy responded that the LCS is built to a Level 1+ survivability standard and that the ships will rely on warnings from networks and speed to avoid being hit, or if hit be able to limp to safety. ADM Jonathan Greenert said that
10877-566: The RMMV due to reliability issues, with the existing ten RMMVs to be upgraded to increase reliability. The upgraded RMMVs will be fielded in 2018, and testing will be conducted to see if the Fleet class common unmanned surface vessel (CUSV) can tow the AQS-20A, and if successful will be used for minehunting by 2020. If the Knifefish UUV can have its endurance increased, the vessel will take over
11026-645: The RMS will detect them below the waterline. To destroy mines, the AMNS is lowered by the helicopter and guided by an operator on board to neutralize it. Increment two will be the coastal battlefield reconnaissance and analysis system (COBRA) mounted on the MQ-8B to search beaches and surf zones. Increment three will involve adding the Fleet-class unmanned surface vessel (USV) with the unmanned surface sweep system (USSS),
11175-634: The Royal Armada specifically for fighting on and from ships. The Spanish Marines were born under the name Compañías Viejas del Mar de Nápoles ("All-Spanish Sea Companies of Naples "). The idea was to set up a permanent assignation of land troops to the Royal Spanish Navy that would be available for the Crown. The first "professional" marine units were already task-trained amphibious troops, but instead of being disbanded, they were kept for
11324-538: The Russians to abandon them with the loss of some 20,000 troops, 100 guns and the pre-dreadnought battleship Slava . The capture of the islands opened a route for German naval forces into the Gulf of Finland threatening the city of Petrograd , a fact that contributed to the cessation of hostilities on the Eastern front . The first large scale amphibious operations, ones that were to heavily influence theorists in
11473-827: The Spanish Crown's needs. Their first actions took place all along the Mediterranean Sea, where the Turks and pirate settlements were risks for commerce and navigation: Algiers , Malta and Gelves . In 1565, the island of Malta was invaded by the Ottoman Turks during the Great Siege of Malta , forcing its defenders to retreat to the fortified cities. A strategic choke point in the Mediterranean Sea , its loss would have been so menacing for
11622-542: The Surface-to-Surface Missile Module (SSMM) for the first time. In January 2011, the U.S. Navy recommended the selection of Raytheon 's Griffin missile to replace the NLOS-LS missile, lowering the LCS's missile range from 25 miles (40 km) to 3.5 miles (5.6 km). The packages were to be deployed in sets of three, with 15 per set for a total of 45 missiles. Initial deployment of
11771-582: The U.S. Navy to be towed behind the LCS, with a potential order of 25 units. The USN tested combination of this unit, derived from the Sonar 2087 on British Type 23 frigates , with the TB-37 Multi-Function Towed Array (MFTA) found on U.S. warships. As of September 2013 , deployment of the ASW module was planned for 2016, with the 2013 sequestration cuts potentially pushing it back to 2017. Submarine detection will be achieved on
11920-671: The U.S. shipbuilding industry. The LCS suffered from requirements creep, adding more missions and equipment, potentially rendering it too complex and expensive to use. When it was decided the ship would not be expendable, the original concept of a small, cheap, simple coastal warship became bigger, more expensive, and more complicated, with a smaller crew due to automation. The new design was assigned six different missions which had been previously performed by individual ships: submarine and mine hunting; combating small boats; intelligence gathering; transporting special forces; and counter-drug and piracy patrols. Each ship would be big enough to sail across
12069-683: The United Kingdom and the United States during the 1930s with introduction of vehicles such as Vickers-Carden-Loyd Light Amphibious Tank or the Landing Vehicle Tracked . Amphibious warfare includes operations defined by their type, purpose, scale and means of execution. In the British Empire at the time these were called combined operations which were defined as "...operations where naval, military or air forces in any combination are co-operating with each other, working independently under their respective commanders, but with
12218-456: The anti-submarine warfare (ASW) mission package would play an important role in protecting aircraft carriers and amphibious ships, and the mine countermeasures (MCMs) mission package would also provide necessary port security and waterway patrol capability following combat operations. Amphibious assault Amphibious warfare is a type of offensive military operation that today uses naval ships to project ground and air power onto
12367-578: The beach, possibly the first purpose-built amphibious landing-craft in history: "These [36 shallow draft, flat-bottomed] boats would be able to land three thousand men and twelve guns in a single wave". Neutral military observers closely studied landing tactics and operations during the War of the Pacific: two Royal Navy ships monitored the Battle of Pisagua ; United States Navy observer Lt. Theodorus B. M. Mason included an account in his report The War on
12516-550: The beaches of Veracruz, Mexico in 1914, when the United States Navy attacked and occupied the city as result of the Tampico Affair . World War I marked the beginning of the first modern amphibious warfare operations. However, tactics and equipment were still rudimentary and required much improvisation. At the time, British Royal Marine Light Infantry (merged with the Royal Marine Artillery in
12665-523: The bulk of his army (5,000 men) to ascend the cliff by the small road and then deploy for battle on the plateau. The operation proved a success, leading to the surrender of the city, and heavily influenced subsequent engagements. In 1762 a British force, with a small colonial American ranger contingent, successfully landed at Havana in Cuba, besieged the city and captured it after a two-month campaign thanks to improved coordination of land and sea forces. In
12814-477: The campaign. SS River Clyde , built as a collier , was adapted to be a landing ship for the Landing at Cape Helles . Openings were cut in her steel hull as sally ports from which troops would emerge onto gangways and then to a bridge of smaller boats from the ship to the beach. Boiler plate and sandbags were mounted on her bow, and behind them a battery of 11 machine guns was installed. The machine gun battery
12963-633: The cancellation of the XM501 Non-Line-of-Sight Launch System . The Independence variant reportedly has better helicopter facilities and more internal space while the Freedom variant is said to be better able to launch and recover boats in high seas. Admiral Gary Roughead said that a mix of both types would be "operationally advantageous". In April 2012, Chief of Naval Operations Greenert said, "You won't send it into an anti-access area"; rather, groups of two or three ships are intended to be sent into areas where access
13112-424: The cheaper (one-fourth the cost of a destroyer) and more numerous LCS can sweep for mines and deploy more sophisticated submarine-detecting sonar. Following the decision to arm the LCS with anti-ship missiles , Navy wargames showed the adversary's risk calculus was radically changed, devoting more reconnaissance assets to trying to locate the smaller ships and sustaining heavier losses. The ships are planned to have
13261-487: The coast in small boats from naval vessels offshore, the ships had to dock to unload the heavy vehicles and artillery guns. These operations were a major success for the Irish government forces, mainly due to the element of surprise and the use of armoured vehicles and artillery. Government forces were able to capture all the major towns and cities in southern Ireland . The Alhucemas landing on 8 September 1925, performed by
13410-571: The collision. Billings was officially commissioned in Key West, Florida on 3 August 2019. On the 4 July 2021, a contingent of her crew visited their ship’s namesake city to celebrate Independence Day . Later on the 10th of the same month, the ship together with the Dominican Republic Navy conducted a passing exercise ( PASSEX ). 24 August, Billings and Burlington were dispatched to support and provide relief to Haiti after
13559-831: The contract with its FREMM multi-purpose frigate -based design, which would be eventually adopted as the Constellation -class frigate . The concept behind the littoral combat ship, as described by former Secretary of the Navy Gordon R. England , is to "create a small, fast, maneuverable and relatively inexpensive member of the DD(X) family of ships". The ship is easy to reconfigure for different roles, including anti-submarine warfare , mine countermeasures , anti-surface warfare , intelligence , surveillance and reconnaissance , homeland defense, maritime intercept, special operations , and logistics . Due to its modular design,
13708-415: The crew would "conduct an orderly abandon ship" if their ship was struck by enemy fire, an action that might not be necessary on other vessels in the same circumstances. The ships were designed to minimize vulnerability with modern automated damage control systems to perform its mission, then withdraw from the area under its own power. The combat abilities of the LCS were said to be "very modest" even before
13857-531: The current LCS fleet "have a near-zero chance" of meeting this requirement. Instead of declaring a winner out of the two competing designs, the U.S. Navy in November 2010 asked the Congress to allow for the order of ten of each design. U.S. Senator Carl Levin (D-MI) said that the change was made because both bids were under the Congressional price cap. Pentagon press secretary Geoff Morrell said that unlike
14006-681: The decades to come, were conducted as part of the Battle of Gallipoli in 1915 against the Ottoman Empire during World War I . The Gallipoli peninsula forms the northern bank of the Dardanelles , a strait that provided a sea route to what was then the Russian Empire , one of the Allied powers during the war. Intending to secure it, Russia's allies Britain and France launched a naval attack followed by an amphibious landing on
14155-464: The design's usability and efficiency, the future design for the class would be chosen (Flight I). The ultimate decision was to fund both designs as two variants of the class. On 9 May 2005, Secretary of the Navy Gordon R. England announced that the first LCS would be named USS Freedom . Her keel was laid down on 2 June 2005 at Marinette Marine , Marinette, Wisconsin . The contract to build
14304-443: The excessive beam (width) of the trimaran Independence -class ships may pose a "navigational challenge in narrow waterways and tight harbors". The report also found that the contractor-based maintenance scheme for the ships had led to poorly supervised and unaccountable contractors leaving problems unresolved. As contract workers are required to be American, they must be flown out to any foreign ports visited by an LCS. A special panel
14453-495: The first of many attacks, others occurring on Roanoke Island , NC; Galveston , TX; Fort Sumter , Morris Island and James Island , SC; and several more. The largest such clash happened in January 1865 at Fort Fisher —the largest and most powerful fort in the world at the time—which protected the entrance of Wilmington, North Carolina . The assaulting force consisted of over 15,000 men and 70 warships with over 600 guns. During
14602-454: The first production contracts were awarded in 2004, no mission module worked outside of a laboratory. Fast, cheap construction was emphasized, solving problems with technology. In 2003, the Navy launched its first experimental LCS, Sea Fighter , designated as fast sea frame or FSF-1. In 2005, the SWATH -hulled Sea Fighter entered service as an experimental vessel using mission modules. As
14751-445: The following hours succeeded in overcoming resistance and moving inland. By the end of the day, an expeditionary army of 10,000 had disembarked at the captured port. In 1881 Chilean ships transported approximately 30,000 men, along with their mounts and equipment, 500 miles (800 km) in order to attack Lima. Chilean commanders commissioned purpose-built, flat-bottomed landing craft that would deliver troops in shallow water closer to
14900-465: The forefront much sooner than under the original schedule, some of which would not have been learnt until two years on." In 2013, Under Secretary of the Navy Robert O. Work explained that cost overruns were partly due to the shipbuilders' bidding to American Bureau of Shipping commercial standards, the Navy changed this to Level I survivability standards for greater crew survivability, although
15049-419: The fourth ship would be named Coronado after Coronado, California . The contracts for LCS-3 and LCS-4 were renewed in early 2009. In April 2009, the Navy announced its revised procurement plan that three ships be funded in the FY 2010 budget; officials also hinted that the Navy may not down-select to one design for further orders, pointing out complementary features of the two designs. Former Secretary of
15198-450: The future, the Navy plans to use LCSs with a single module, with module changes being a rare occurrence. In 2014, Independence switched from mine to surface warfare modes in 96 hours on short notice. In an announcement on 8 September 2016, the Navy revealed a radical change in operations and organization plans for the LCS. Of the 28 Flight 0 ships built or on order, the first four, two of each class, will be turned into training ships, and
15347-526: The gap in amphibious shipping. In August 2014, USS Coronado demonstrated the ability to rapidly stage and deploy Marine Corps ground units, including operations by two Marine Light Attack Helicopter Squadrons (HMLA) that conducted day and night deck-landing qualifications. The Independence -class LCS's features of high speed, a large flight deck to support UH-1Y Venom and AH-1W Super Cobra helicopters, and reconfigurable mission bay can support air and small-boat employment and delivery of ground and air forces;
15496-578: The kingdoms of Western Europe that forces were urgently raised to relieve the island. It took four months to train, arm and move a 5,500-man amphibious force to lift the siege. Other countries adopted the idea and subsequently raised their own early marine forces as well. From the 15th to the 20th centuries, several European countries established and expanded overseas colonies . Amphibious operations mostly aimed to settle colonies and to secure strong points along navigational routes. Amphibious forces were fully organized and devoted to this mission, although
15645-491: The lack of comprehensive risk assessment. On 13 December 2010, both production teams extended their contract offers until 30 December in order to give more time for the Navy to push through the plan. The Navy would be forced to award the contract to only one team if it failed to secure Congressional approval. The Navy budgeted $ 490 million for each ship while the Congressional Budget Office projected
15794-434: The landing boats; special supplies were readied to be unloaded and support the 11,000-man landing force strength. The total strength of the amphibious force was 15,000 men, including an armada of 90 ships. A superb example of successful combined operations, of both military branches and different imperial units, is the Siege of Port Royal (1710) . The siege was a combined arms, British/Colonial American amphibious assault upon
15943-414: The landings, and extensive intelligence gathering and planning of over a year. Although most amphibious operations are thought of primarily as beach landings, they can exploit available shore infrastructure to land troops directly into an urban environment if unopposed. In this case non-specialised ships can offload troops, vehicles and cargo using organic or facility wharf-side equipment. Tactical landings in
16092-432: The limited objectives of neutralising enemy defenders and obtaining a new base of operation. Such an operation may be prepared and planned in days or weeks, and would employ a naval task force to land less than a division of troops. The intent of operational landings is usually to exploit the shore as a vulnerability in the enemy's overall position, forcing redeployment of forces, premature use of reserves , and aiding
16241-431: The missile missed the target, the test validated the ability to launch Harpoon missiles from the forward deck of an LCS. In May 2018, the Navy selected the NSM as the LCS's OTH missile. In January 2020, the Navy reported that Lockheed Martin's 150 kW High Energy Laser with Integrated Optical-dazzler and Surveillance (HELIOS) would be put on USS Little Rock (LCS-9) for her upcoming deployment. The laser
16390-599: The mission bays in order to carry the crew required for operations. However, the ships are designed with sufficient headroom to change from 2-high bunking to 3-high bunking, which would allow crew sizes of 100 if needed. The LCS is the first USN surface combatant class in a generation to not use the Aegis Combat System , though Aegis-equipped variants have been offered to foreign customers. They have suffered from problems in their communications and radars and will require refits in these areas. Neither LCS class
16539-476: The mission from both systems. The Navy included an irregular warfare package in its 2012 budget request to Congress. Californian congressman Duncan D. Hunter wrote that the purchase of 55 LCS units was made at the cost of 10 fewer amphibious vessels. Assistant Commandant of the Marine Corps , General Joseph Dunford said in 2011 that the LCS is one of the platforms under consideration to help close
16688-416: The nearby French fisheries. The French government had spent 25 years in fortifying it, and the cost of its defenses was reckoned at thirty million livres. Although the fortress's construction and layout was acknowledged as having superior seaward defences, a series of low rises behind them made it vulnerable to a land attack. The low rises provided attackers places to erect siege batteries. The fort's garrison
16837-420: The nuances of this maneuver for all personnel involved. In essence, amphibious operations consist of the phases of strategic planning and preparation, operational transit to the intended theatre of operations , pre-landing rehearsal and disembarkation, troop landings, beachhead consolidation and conducting inland ground and air operations. Historically, within the scope of these phases a vital part of success
16986-481: The offered $ 460 million fixed price contracts. In response, the Naval Sea Systems Command conducted a study on whether reducing the top speed requirement from 40 knots to 30 could help keep the ships under the price cap. The Congress asked the Navy to study improvement programs on existing ships in place of the LCS program. In June 2009, Vice Admiral Barry McCullough , USN testified in
17135-410: The past have utilised small boats , small craft , small ships and civilian vessels converted for the mission to deliver troops to the water's edge. A naval landing operation requires vessels to troops and equipment and might include amphibious reconnaissance . Military intelligence services obtain information on the opponent. Amphibious warfare goes back to ancient times. The Sea Peoples menaced
17284-560: The peninsula with the eventual aim of capturing the Ottoman capital of Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul ). Although the naval attack was repelled and the land campaign failed, the campaign was the first modern amphibious landing, and featured air support, specialized landing craft and a naval bombardment . The seaplane tender HMS Ark Royal supported the landings under the command of Commander Robert Clark-Hall . Seaplanes were used for aerial reconnaissance , ground support for
17433-631: The possibility of splitting orders for projects like KC-X or the General Electric/Rolls-Royce F136 , the Pentagon had already paid the development cost for both designs so there was no further development required for both designs and have them compete for future orders. In December 2010, the Government Accountability Office identified some problems with the designs including extremely long crew training time, unrealistic maintenance plans, and
17582-504: The raid, demonstration, assault and withdrawal. Analysis of the campaign before World War II led to a belief among many armed forces that amphibious assaults could not succeed against modern defences. The perception continued until the Normandy Landings in June 1944, despite some successful examples of amphibious operations earlier in the war, such as those in Italy , and at Tarawa and in
17731-576: The ranger ideal into the regular army. They also produced the first specially designed landing-craft in order to enable their troops to cross the Saint Lawrence River in force. After considering and rejecting a number of plans for landings on the north shore of the river, Major General James Wolfe and his brigadiers decided in late August to land upriver of the city. The British prepared for their risky deployment upstream. Troops had already been aboard landing ships and drifting up and down
17880-427: The remaining 24 will be divided into six divisions of four ships each: three divisions of the Freedom class based at Naval Station Mayport , Florida, and three divisions of the Independence class based at Naval Station San Diego , California. The new organization does away with the LCS's signature interchangeable mission module concept, with each division being tasked to fulfill one of the three mission sets. Crewing
18029-399: The river for several days when on 12 September Wolfe made a final decision on the British landing site, selecting L' Anse-au-Foulon . Wolfe's plan of attack depended on secrecy and surprise—a key element of a successful amphibious operation—a small party of men would land by night on the north shore, climb the tall cliff, seize a small road, and overpower the garrison that protected it, allowing
18178-819: The same year, 1762, British Royal Navy sailors and marines succeed in taking the capital of the East Indies : Manila in the Philippines as well. In 1776 Samuel Nicholas and the Continental Marines , the "progenitor" of the United States Marine Corps , made a first successful landing in the Raid of Nassau in the Bahamas. In 1782 The British rebuffed a long Franco-Spanish attempt to seize Gibraltar by water-borne forces. In 1783
18327-508: The sea frames and modules were resolved. In August 2013, the USN revealed plans to reduce the procurement rate in 2016. A 2012 report by Rear Admiral Samuel Perez , USN, found that the ships lacked the manpower and firepower to complete the missions required by regional combatant commanders. The report found that the LCS is "ill-suited for combat operations against anything but" small, fast boats not armed with anti-ship missiles. It also found that
18476-744: The ship was managed by Lockheed's Maritime Systems and Sensors (MS2) division, directed by Fred Moosally . On 23 September 2006, LCS-1 was christened and launched at the Marinette Marine shipyard. On 19 January 2006, the keel for the General Dynamics trimaran, USS Independence , was laid at the Austal USA shipyards in Mobile, Alabama. LCS-2 was launched 30 April 2008. In 2007, the U.S. Navy canceled contracts to build LCS-3 of Lockheed Martin and LCS-4 of General Dynamics and Austal USA, citing failure to control cost overruns . Subsequently,
18625-424: The ship, made possible by its low cost. The concept of a manned expendable warship was contentious and the idea was not picked up. When Donald Rumsfeld was made Secretary of Defense in early 2001, he promised transformational approaches and doing jobs with fewer people. In October 2001, Cebrowski was assigned to head the Pentagon's new Office of Force Transformation, shortly after which Admiral Vernon Clark canceled
18774-552: The ships and call off the operation. The Siege of Louisbourg (1745) took place in 1745 when a New England colonial force aided by a small British fleet captured Louisbourg , the capital of the French province of Île-Royale (present-day Cape Breton Island ) during the War of the Austrian Succession , known as King George's War in the British colonies . The northern British colonies regarded Louisbourg as
18923-585: The ships lacked robust communications systems and a USN review "uncovered classified deficiencies" in the ship's cyberdefenses . At a hearing on 25 July 2013, the House Armed Services Committee's seapower subcommittee argued with Vice Admiral Richard W. Hunt on how the LCS would be employed if tensions with North Korea or China led to a confrontation in the Western Pacific. Hunt said the ships are designed in accordance with
19072-670: The ships were not expected to operate after being hit. The Navy acknowledged that their failure to communicate clearly that the experimental and developmental nature of the first two ships caused a perception that the overall LCS program was in worse shape. A GAO report in July 2014 found that the annual cost to operate an LCS was $ 79 million, compared to $ 54 million to operate a larger frigate. Navy Secretary Ray Mabus pointed out that new vessels traditionally start off costing more to operate because of difficulties with building and testing ships simultaneously; GAO reports of new warships since
19221-543: The ships' organic weapons systems, the surface warfare package includes two 30 mm gun systems, a counter-boat missile system, two 11-meter rigid hull inflatable boats (RHIBs), and weapons deployed from MH-60 helicopters and MQ-8 Fire Scout UAVs. The surface warfare mission module is intended to deal with small boats and is called the "best swarm killer in the surface fleet". It includes two 30 mm gun mission modules manufactured by Teledyne Brown Engineering, Inc. The Navy's proposed budget for FY 2015 includes funding for
19370-425: The stern transom was lengthened and buoyancy tanks were added to the stern to increase weight service and enhance stability. The ship will also feature automated sensors to allow "conditions-based maintenance" and reduce crew overwork and fatigue issues that Freedom had on her first deployment. Marinette Marine was awarded the contract to build the ship on 4 March 2013. Construction began on 20 October 2014 and she
19519-500: The systems cannot be overhauled, and other weight reduction ideas need to be implemented, such as lightening sensors and using composites in the handling system. Plans for the package shifted dramatically in 2011 when it was decided not to use the RMMV, used in the MCM package, in favor of an "in stride" capability. The ASW elements were chosen as cost-effective COTS sensors, so weight reduction needs by between 15 and 25 percent have been planned for since their selection for integration onto
19668-522: The troops landing at Anzac Cove and the bombing of fortifications. Ark Royal was augmented by a squadron from the No. 3 Squadron of the Royal Naval Air Service , operating from a nearby island. Initial landings, starting on 25 April, took place in unmodified rowing boats that were extremely vulnerable to attack from the shore defences. The first purpose-built landing craft were built for
19817-421: The troops not only fought ashore, but on board ships. By their nature amphibious assaults involve highly complex operations, demanding the coordination of disparate elements; when accomplished properly a paralyzing surprise to the enemy can be achieved. However, when there is a lack of preparation and/or coordination, often because of hubris, disastrous results can ensue. Álvaro de Bazán, Marquis of Santa Cruz ,
19966-575: The war was the Battle of Bita Paka (11 September 1914) was fought south of Kabakaul, on the island of New Britain , and was a part of the invasion and subsequent occupation of German New Guinea by the Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force (AN&MEF) shortly after the outbreak of the First World War . The first British amphibious assault of the war ended in disaster in November 1914. A large British Indian Army force
20115-463: Was launched on 1 July 2017. she is homeported to Naval Station Mayport , Florida and assigned to Littoral Combat Ship Squadron Two . In June 2019, Billings visited Cleveland, Ohio . Billings sustained damage after hitting Rosaire Desgagnes , a bulk cargo ship in Montreal , Quebec, Canada. The incident occurred on 24 June 2019. The vessel's starboard bridge wing was damaged as a result of
20264-465: Was "envisioned to be a networked, agile, stealthy surface combatant capable of defeating anti-access and asymmetric threats in the littorals ", although their ability to perform these missions in practice has been called into question. Littoral combat ships are comparable to corvettes found in other navies. The Freedom class and the Independence class are the two LCS variants. Each
20413-530: Was an early proponent of amphibious warfare. The " Terceras Landing " in the Azores Islands on 25 May 1583, was a military feat as Bazán and the rest of commanders decided to make a fake landing to distract the defending forces (5,000 Portuguese , English and French soldiers). Special seagoing barges were also arranged to unload cavalry horses and 700 artillery pieces on the beach; special rowing boats were armed with small cannons to support
20562-537: Was appointed to investigate "challenges identified". Twenty more bunks were installed to allow for a larger crew. In 2013, Captain Kenneth Coleman, the U.S. Navy's requirements officer for the program, identified the LCS as being especially vulnerable to tactical aircraft armed with standoff anti-ship missiles. Vice Admiral Thomas H. Copeman III is reported to be considering an upsized "Super" LCS, with space to install needed firepower, because he noted that
20711-409: Was commissioned in Mobile, Alabama. The Government Accountability Office (GAO) found that deploying the first two ships will delay the overall program because these two ships were not available for testing and development so changes may have to be made in the second pair of ships during construction instead of in advance. The U.S. Navy responded that "Early deployment brought LCS operational issues to
20860-549: Was commissioned on 8 November 2008 in Veteran's Park , Milwaukee , Wisconsin . The second ship, the trimaran USS Independence (LCS-2) , was commissioned on 16 January 2010, in Mobile, Alabama . In 2012, ADM Jonathan W. Greenert stated that the LCS would be deployed to Africa in place of destroyers and cruisers. In 2013 and 2014, the Navy's requirement for LCSs was progressively cut from 55 to 32 vessels in favor of
21009-543: Was conducted by the Irish National Army in 1922, during the Irish Civil War . Landings against Republican rebels at Westport , Fenit and Cork all involved armour cars. The Westport and Fenit landings involved light armoured cars and 18-pounder artillery guns being hoisted off the ships by crane. Heavier armoured cars were used at Cork, resulting in some difficulty. While Irish troops could reach
21158-640: Was created in four days resulting in an order for 200 'X' Lighters with a spoon-shaped bow to take shelving beaches and a drop down frontal ramp. The first use took place after they had been towed to the Aegean and performed successfully in the 6 August landing at Suvla Bay of IX Corps , commanded by Commander Edward Unwin . 'X' Lighters , known to the soldiers as 'Beetles', carried about 500 men, displaced 135 tons and were based on London barges being 105 feet, 6 inches long, 21 feet wide, and 7 feet, 6 inches deep. The engines mainly ran on heavy oil and ran at
21307-467: Was directed to launch an amphibious assault on Tanga , German East Africa . British actions prior to the assault, however, alerted the Germans to prepare to repel an invasion. The Indian forces suffered heavy casualties when they advanced on the city , forcing them to withdraw back to their boats, leaving much of their equipment behind. The Russian army and navy also grew adept to amphibious warfare in
21456-494: Was in 1741 at the Battle of Cartagena de Indias in New Granada , when a large British amphibious assault force commanded by Admiral Edward Vernon , and including a contingent of 200 Virginia "Marines"(not originally meant to be so) commanded by Lawrence Washington (older half brother of George Washington ), failed to overcome a much smaller, but very heavily fortified Spanish defence force and were forced to retreat back to
21605-482: Was manned by Royal Naval Air Service men. Work began on painting River Clyde ' s hull sandy yellow as camouflage , but this was incomplete by the time of the landing. It was soon clear that the Turkish defence was equipped with rapid-fire weapons, which meant that ordinary landing boats were inadequate for the task. In February 1915, orders had been placed for the design of purpose built landing craft. A design
21754-472: Was not specified, but sources say it will be both the Harpoon and NSM, each ship equipped with only one model of missile. The directive calls for up to eight missiles, likely in two quad packs, to be installed on box launchers as a standalone system without requiring full integration into the LCS combat system. On 19 July 2016, Coronado conducted a live-fire missile test of a Block 1C Harpoon missile; although
21903-458: Was often based on the military logistics , naval gunfire and close air support . Another factor is the variety and quantity of specialised vehicles and equipment used by the landing force that are designed for the specific needs of this type of operation. Amphibious operations can be classified as tactical or operational raids such as the Dieppe Raid , operational landings in support of
22052-417: Was poorly paid and supplied, and its inexperienced leaders mistrusted them. The colonial attackers were also lacking in experience, but ultimately succeeded in gaining control of the surrounding defences. The defenders surrendered in the face of an imminent assault. Louisbourg was an important bargaining chip in the peace negotiations to end the war, since it represented a major British success. Factions within
22201-632: Was the DD-21 , a large coastal warship that could absorb hits. Two Navy strategists, retired Captain Wayne Hughes and Vice Admiral Art Cebrowski, refined an opposing Streetfighter concept for a 1,000-ton small, specialized, and heavily armed vessel costing just $ 90 million (2001 dollars). Being small, light and numerous, the Streetfighter was envisioned as a "single-serving" ship to be abandoned once it suffered battle damage deemed "fatal" to
#793206