113-742: The assistant to the president for national security affairs ( APNSA ), commonly referred to as the national security advisor ( NSA ), is a senior aide in the Executive Office of the President , based at the West Wing of the White House . The national security advisor serves as the principal advisor to the president of the United States on all national security issues. The national security advisor participates in meetings of
226-482: A $ 722 million aid package for South Vietnam, funds that had been promised by the Nixon administration. Congress voted against the proposal by a wide margin. Senator Jacob K. Javits offered "...large sums for evacuation, but not one nickel for military aid". Thieu resigned on April 21, 1975, publicly blaming the lack of support from the United States for the fall of his country. Two days later, on April 23, Ford gave
339-509: A boon to Ford's poll numbers; Senator Barry Goldwater declared that the operation "shows we've still got balls in this country." Some historians have argued that the Ford administration felt the need to respond forcefully to the incident because it was construed as a Soviet plot. But work by Andrew Gawthorpe, published in 2009, based on an analysis of the administration's internal discussions, shows that Ford's national security team understood that
452-485: A congressional committee. The Executive Office often helps with legislation by filling in specific points understood and written by experts, as Congressional legislation sometimes starts in broad terms. This table specifies the budget of the Executive Office for the years 2008–2017, and the actual outlays for the years 1993–2007. Ford administration Gerald Ford 's tenure as the 38th president of
565-605: A crisis with the 1974 Turkish invasion of Cyprus , which took place following the Greek -backed 1974 Cypriot coup d'état . The dispute put the United States in a difficult position as both Greece and Turkey were members of NATO . In mid-August, the Greek government withdrew Greece from the NATO military structure; in mid-September 1974, the Senate and House of Representatives overwhelmingly voted to halt military aid to Turkey. Ford vetoed
678-454: A decline in the faith that Americans placed in political institutions. Low public confidence added to Ford's already formidable challenge of establishing his own administration without a presidential transition period or the popular mandate of a presidential election. Though Ford became widely popular during his first month in office, he faced a difficult situation regarding the fate of former President Nixon, whose status threatened to undermine
791-445: A dismal economic growth rate, such as tax cuts and increased spending, risked exacerbating inflation. The conventional response to inflation, tax increases and a cut in government spending, risked damaging the economy. The economic troubles, which signaled the end of the post-war boom , created an opening for a challenge to the dominant Keynesian economics , and laissez-faire advocates such as Alan Greenspan acquired influence within
904-478: A far greater value in his cabinet officials than Nixon had, though cabinet members did not regain the degree of influence they had held prior to World War II . Levi, Secretary of State and National Security Adviser Henry Kissinger , Secretary of the Treasury William E. Simon , and Secretary of Defense James R. Schlesinger all emerged as influential cabinet officials early in Ford's tenure. Most of
1017-557: A highly strategic location near vital shipping lanes. In 1975, the left-wing Fretilin party seized power after a civil war in East Timor (now Timor-Leste), a former colony of Portugal that shared the island of Timor with the Indonesian region of West Timor . Indonesian leaders feared that East Timor would serve as a hostile left-wing base that would promote secessionist movements inside Indonesia. Anti-Fretilin activists from
1130-622: A joint surprise attack against Israel , seeking to re-take land lost in the Six-Day War of 1967. However, early Arab success gave way to an Israel military victory in what became known as the Yom Kippur War . Although an initial cease fire had been implemented to end active conflict in the Yom Kippur War, Kissinger's continuing shuttle diplomacy was showing little progress. Ford disliked what he saw as Israeli "stalling" on
1243-545: A landslide victory in the 1972 presidential election . Nixon's second term was dominated by the Watergate scandal , which stemmed from a Nixon campaign group's attempted burglary of the Democratic National Committee 's headquarters and the subsequent cover-up by the Nixon administration. Due to a scandal unrelated to Watergate, Vice President Agnew resigned on October 10, 1973. Under the terms of
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#17327809602541356-434: A major backlash to Ford's presidency. He also created a conditional clemency program for Vietnam War draft dodgers. Much of Ford's focus in domestic policy was on the economy, which experienced a recession during his tenure. After initially promoting a tax increase designed to combat inflation , Ford championed a tax cut designed to rejuvenate the economy, and he signed two tax reduction acts into law. The foreign policy of
1469-588: A means of achieving it. In the first major bill he signed as president, Ford's compromise solution was to win over the general population with mild anti-busing legislation. He condemned anti-busing violence, promoted the theoretical goal of school desegregation, and promised to uphold the Constitution. The problem did not go away – it only escalated and remained on the front burner for years. Tension exploded in Boston , where working-class Irish neighborhoods inside
1582-414: A pardon, but he came to believe that ongoing legal proceedings against Nixon would prevent his administration from addressing any other issue. Ford attempted to extract a public statement of contrition from Nixon before issuing the pardon, but Nixon refused. On September 8, 1974, Ford issued Proclamation 4311 , which gave Nixon a full and unconditional pardon for any crimes he might have committed against
1695-467: A peace agreement, and wrote, "[Israeli] tactics frustrated the Egyptians and made me mad as hell." During Kissinger's shuttle to Israel in early March 1975, a last minute reversal to consider further withdrawal, prompted a cable from Ford to Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin , which included: I wish to express my profound disappointment over Israel's attitude in the course of the negotiations ... Failure of
1808-564: A plan that implemented deeper tax cuts and an increase in government spending. Ford seriously considered vetoing the bill, but ultimately chose to sign the Tax Reduction Act of 1975 into law. In October 1975, Ford introduced a bill designed to combat inflation through a mix of tax and spending cuts. That December, Ford signed the Revenue Adjustment Act of 1975, which implemented tax and spending cuts, albeit not at
1921-435: A primary challenge from Ronald Reagan. Though Kissinger remained as Secretary of State, Brent Scowcroft replaced Kissinger as National Security Advisor. Ford's accession to the presidency left the office of vice president vacant. On August 20, 1974, Ford nominated Nelson Rockefeller , the leader of the party's liberal wing, for the vice presidency. Rockefeller and former Representative George H. W. Bush from Texas were
2034-579: A real shock" when seventy-six U.S. senators wrote him a letter urging him to be "responsive" to Israel's request for $ 2.59 billion in military and economic aid. Ford felt truly annoyed and thought the chance for peace was jeopardized. It was, since the September 1974 ban on arms to Turkey, the second major congressional intrusion upon the President's foreign policy prerogatives. The following summer months were described by Ford as an American-Israeli "war of nerves" or "test of wills". After much bargaining,
2147-533: A report of all of the CIA's domestic activities, and much of the report became public, beginning with the publication of a December 1974 article by investigative journalist Seymour Hersh . The revelations sparked outrage among the public and members of Congress. In response to growing pressure to investigate and reform the CIA, Ford created the Rockefeller Commission . The Rockefeller Commission marked
2260-512: A short list of potential Supreme Court nominees, and Levi suggested Stevens, Solicitor General Robert Bork , and federal judge Arlin Adams . Ford chose Stevens, an uncontroversial federal appellate judge, largely because he was likely to face the least opposition in the Senate. Early in his tenure on the Court, Stevens had a relatively moderate voting record, but in the 1990s he emerged as a leader of
2373-761: A speech at Tulane University , announcing that the Vietnam War was over "...as far as America is concerned". With the North Vietnamese forces advancing on the South Vietnamese capital of Saigon , Ford ordered the evacuation of U.S. personnel, while also allowing U.S. forces to aid others who wished to escape from the Communist advance. Forty-thousand U.S. citizens and South Vietnamese were evacuated by plane until enemy attacks made further such evacuations impossible. In Operation Frequent Wind ,
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#17327809602542486-430: Is also referred to as a "permanent government", since many policy programs, and the people who are charged with implementing them, continue between presidential administrations. The civil servants who work in the Executive Office of the President are regarded as nonpartisan and politically neutral, so they are capable of providing objective and impartial advice. With the increase in technological and global advancement,
2599-597: The 1976 presidential election to Democrat Jimmy Carter , after a period of 895 days in office. Ford took office in the aftermath of the Watergate scandal and in the final stages of the Vietnam War , both of which engendered a new disillusion in American political institutions. Ford's first major act upon taking office was to grant a presidential pardon to Nixon for his role in the Watergate scandal, prompting
2712-533: The Eisenhower presidency , the staff was expanded and reorganized. Eisenhower, a former U.S. Army general, had been Supreme Allied Commander during the war and reorganized the Executive Office to suit his leadership style. As of 2009, the staff is much bigger. Estimates indicate some 3,000 to 4,000 persons serve in office staff positions with policy-making responsibilities, with a budget of $ 300 to $ 400 million (George W. Bush's budget request for Fiscal Year 2005
2825-587: The Equal Rights Amendment (ERA), a proposed constitutional amendment that had been submitted to the states for ratification in 1972. The ERA was designed to ensure equal rights for all citizens regardless of gender. Despite Ford's support, the ERA would fail to win ratification by the necessary number of state legislatures. As president, Ford's position on abortion was that he supported "a federal constitutional amendment that would permit each one of
2938-643: The National Security Council (NSC) and usually chairs meetings of the principals committee of the NSC with the secretary of state and secretary of defense (those meetings not attended by the president). The NSA also sits on the Homeland Security Council (HSC). The national security advisor is supported by NSC staff who produce classified research and briefings for the national security advisor to review and present, either to
3051-601: The Paris Peace Accords , signed on January 27, 1973. The accords declared a cease fire across both North and South Vietnam , and required the release of American prisoners of war . The agreement guaranteed the territorial integrity of Vietnam and, like the Geneva Conference of 1954 , called for national elections in the North and South. South Vietnamese President Nguyen Van Thieu was not involved in
3164-732: The Reorganization Act of 1939 . The Act led to Reorganization Plan No. 1, which created the office, which reported directly to the president. The office encompassed two subunits at its outset, the White House Office (WHO) and the Bureau of the Budget, the predecessor to today's Office of Management and Budget , which was created in 1921 and originally located in the Treasury Department . It absorbed most of
3277-554: The Sinai Interim Agreement (Sinai II) between Egypt and Israel was formally signed, and aid resumed. A civil war broke out in Angola after the fledgling African nation gained independence from Portugal in 1975. The Soviet Union and Cuba both became heavily involved in the conflict, backing the left-wing MPLA , one of the major factions in the civil war. In response, the CIA directed aid to two other factions in
3390-625: The Soviet Union and China, easing the tensions of the Cold War . In doing so, he overcame opposition from members of Congress, an institution which became increasingly assertive in foreign affairs in the early 1970s. This opposition was led by Senator Henry M. Jackson , who scuttled a U.S.–Soviet trade agreement by winning passage of the Jackson–Vanik amendment . The thawing relationship with China brought about by Nixon's 1972 visit to China
3503-646: The Twenty-fifth Amendment , Nixon nominated Ford as Agnew's replacement. Nixon selected Ford, then the House Minority Leader and representative from Michigan's 5th congressional district , largely because he was advised that Ford would be the most easily confirmed of the prominent Republican leaders. Ford was confirmed by overwhelming majorities in both houses of Congress , and he took office as vice president in December 1973. In
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3616-517: The United States Trade Representative ). The information in the following table is current as of January 20, 2021. Only principal executives are listed; for subordinate officers, see individual office pages. The White House Office (including its various offices listed below ) is a sub-unit of the Executive Office of the President (office). The various agencies of the office are listed above. Congress as well as
3729-424: The apartheid regime of South Africa 's nuclear weapons program . By this point, however, the program was highly advanced, and this policy shift was, by this point, too late in time to significantly stall the apartheid regime's ultimate goal of developing a nuclear deterrent. U.S. policy since the 1940s has been to support Indonesia , which hosted American investments in petroleum and raw materials and controlled
3842-546: The 1970s were largely unsuccessful in lessening the influence of money in politics, as more contributions shifted to political action committees and state and local party committees. In 1971, the United States Supreme Court ruled in Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education that "Busing was a permissible tool for desegregation purposes." However, in the closing days of the Nixon administration,
3955-588: The 1972 elections, good government groups like Common Cause pressured Congress to amend campaign finance law to restrict the role of money in political campaigns. In 1974, Congress approved amendments to the Federal Election Campaign Act , establishing the Federal Election Commission to oversee campaign finance laws. The amendments also established a system of public financing for presidential elections, limited
4068-480: The 19th century, presidents had few staff resources. Thomas Jefferson had one messenger and one secretary at his disposal, both of whose salaries were paid by the president personally. It was not until 1857 that Congress appropriated money ($ 2,500) for the hiring of one clerk. By Ulysses S. Grant 's presidency (1869–1877), the staff had grown to three. By 1900, the White House staff included one "secretary to
4181-605: The 435 seats. Even Ford's former House seat was won by a Democrat. In the Senate elections , the Democrats increased their majority to 61 seats in the 100-seat body. The subsequent 94th Congress would override the highest percentage of vetoes since Andrew Johnson served as president in the 1860s. Ford's successful vetoes, however, resulted in the lowest yearly spending increases since the Eisenhower administration. Buoyed by
4294-400: The 50 States to make the choice". This had also been his position as House Minority Leader in response to the 1973 Supreme Court case of Roe v. Wade , which he opposed. Ford came under criticism for a 60 Minutes interview his wife Betty gave in 1975 , in which she stated that Roe v. Wade was a "great, great decision". During his later life, Ford would identify as pro-choice . After
4407-552: The CIA's assassination plots. The Senate created its own committee, led by Senator Frank Church , to investigate CIA abuses. Ford feared that the Church Committee would be used for partisan purposes and resisted turning over classified materials, but Colby cooperated with the committee. In response to the Church Committee's report, both houses of Congress established select committees to provide oversight to
4520-584: The Court's liberal bloc. In 2005 Ford wrote, "I am prepared to allow history's judgment of my term in office to rest (if necessary, exclusively) on my nomination 30 years ago of Justice John Paul Stevens to the U.S. Supreme Court". Ford also appointed 11 judges to the United States Courts of Appeals, and 50 judges to the United States district courts . Along with the experience of the Vietnam War and other issues, Watergate contributed to
4633-587: The Fall of Saigon, and Vietnam was reunified into one country. Many of the Vietnamese evacuees were allowed to enter the United States under the Indochina Migration and Refugee Assistance Act . The 1975 act appropriated $ 455 million toward the costs of assisting the settlement of Indochinese refugees. In all, 130,000 Vietnamese refugees came to the United States in 1975. Thousands more escaped in
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4746-400: The Ford administration was characterized in procedural terms by the increased role Congress began to play, and by the corresponding curb on the powers of the president. Overcoming significant congressional opposition, Ford continued Nixon's détente policies with the Soviet Union . In the 1976 presidential election, Ford was challenged by Ronald Reagan , a leader of the conservative wing of
4859-429: The Ford administration. In the final days of Nixon's presidency, Haig had floated the possibility of Ford pardoning Nixon, but no deal had been struck between Nixon and Ford before Nixon's resignation. Nonetheless, when Ford took office, most of the Nixon holdovers in the executive branch, including Haig and Kissinger, pressed for a pardon. Through his first month in office, Ford publicly kept his options open regarding
4972-446: The Ford administration. Ford seized the initiative, abandoned 40 years of orthodoxy, and introduced a new conservative economic agenda as he sought to adapt traditional Republican economics to deal with the novel economic challenges. At the time that he took office, Ford believed that inflation, rather than a potential recession, represented the greatest threat to the economy. He believed that inflation could be reduced, not by reducing
5085-660: The Helsinki Accords, which had the impact of overall weakening his foreign-policy stature. Though Ford was criticized for his apparent recognition of the Soviet domination of Eastern Europe, the new emphasis on human rights would eventually contribute to the weakening of the Eastern bloc in the 1980s and speed up its collapse in 1989. One of Ford's greatest challenges was dealing with the ongoing Vietnam War. American offensive operations against North Vietnam had ended with
5198-484: The NSC or the president. The national security advisor is appointed by the president and does not require confirmation by the United States Senate . An appointment of a three- or four-star general to the role requires Senate confirmation to maintain that rank in the new position. The influence and role of the national security advisor varies from administration to administration and depends not only on
5311-562: The Nixon holdovers in cabinet stayed in place until Ford's dramatic reorganization in the fall of 1975, an action referred to by political commentators as the " Halloween Massacre ". Ford appointed George H. W. Bush as Director of the Central Intelligence Agency , while Rumsfeld became Secretary of Defense and Cheney replaced Rumsfeld as Chief of Staff, becoming the youngest individual to hold that position. The moves were intended to fortify Ford's right flank against
5424-702: The November 1974 Vladivostok Summit , at which point the two leaders agreed to a framework for another SALT treaty. Opponents of détente, led by Jackson, delayed Senate consideration of the treaty until after Ford left office. When Ford took office in August 1974, the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE) negotiations had been underway in Helsinki, Finland , for nearly two years. Throughout much of
5537-472: The President and does not have line or budget authority over either the Department of State or the Department of Defense , unlike the secretary of state and the secretary of defense, who are Senate-confirmed officials with statutory authority over their departments. The national security advisor is able to offer daily advice (due to the proximity) to the president independently of the vested interests of
5650-552: The Republican Party. After a contentious series of primaries , Ford narrowly won the nomination at the 1976 Republican National Convention . In the general election, Ford lost to Carter by a narrow margin in the popular and electoral vote. In polls of historians and political scientists , Ford is generally ranked as a below average president, much like both his predecessor and successor. The Republican ticket of President Richard Nixon and Vice President Spiro Agnew won
5763-531: The Supreme Court largely eliminated District Court ability to order busing across city and suburban systems in the case of Milliken v. Bradley . It meant that disgruntled white families could move to the suburbs and not be reached by court orders regarding segregation of the central city schools. Ford, representing a Michigan district, had always taken the position in favor of the goal of school desegregation but opposition to court-ordered forced busing as
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#17327809602545876-433: The U.S. economy had entered into a period of stagflation , which economists attributed to various causes, including the 1973 oil crisis and increasing competition from countries such as Japan. Stagflation confounded the traditional economic theories of the 1970s, as economists generally believed that an economy would not simultaneously experience inflation and low rates of economic growth. Traditional economic remedies for
5989-455: The United States began on August 9, 1974, upon the resignation of President Richard Nixon , and ended on January 20, 1977. Ford, a Republican from Michigan , had been appointed vice president on December 6, 1973, following the resignation of Spiro Agnew from that office. Ford was the only person to serve as president without being elected to either the presidency or the vice presidency. His presidency ended following his narrow defeat in
6102-508: The United States while president. In a televised broadcast to the nation, Ford explained that he felt the pardon was in the best interests of the country, and that the Nixon family's situation "is a tragedy in which we all have played a part. It could go on and on and on, or someone must write the end to it. I have concluded that only I can do that, and if I can, I must." The Nixon pardon was highly controversial, and Gallup polling showed that Ford's approval rating fell from 71 percent before
6215-545: The United States. Ford expressed "strong support for full educational opportunities for our handicapped children" upon signing the bill. Ford was confronted with a potential swine flu pandemic . In the early 1970s, an influenza strain H1N1 shifted from a form of flu that affected primarily pigs and crossed over to humans. On February 5, 1976, an army recruit at Fort Dix mysteriously died and four fellow soldiers were hospitalized; health officials announced that "swine flu"
6328-523: The White House, Ford spoke to the assembled audience in a speech broadcast live to the nation. Ford noted the peculiarity of his position: "I am acutely aware that you have not elected me as your president by your ballots, and so I ask you to confirm me as your president with your prayers." He went on to state: I have not sought this enormous responsibility, but I will not shirk it. Those who nominated and confirmed me as Vice President were my friends and are my friends. They were of both parties, elected by all
6441-604: The administration policies in the Middle East. "Reassessment", in practical terms, meant canceling or suspending further aid to Israel. For six months between March and September 1975, the United States refused to conclude any new arms agreements with Israel. Rabin notes it was "an innocent-sounding term that heralded one of the worst periods in American-Israeli relations". The announced reassessments upset many American supporters of Israel. On May 21, Ford "experienced
6554-584: The agreement would mean the acceptance of Soviet domination over Eastern Europe and the permanent incorporation of the Baltic states into the USSR. Shortly before President Ford departed for Helsinki, he held a meeting with a delegation of Americans of Eastern European background, and stated definitively that U.S. policy on the Baltic States would not change, but would be strengthened since the agreement denies
6667-430: The amount of new currency entering circulation, but by encouraging people to reduce their spending. In October 1974, Ford went before the American public and asked them to " W hip I nflation N ow". As part of this program, he urged people to wear " WIN " buttons. To try to mesh service and sacrifice, "WIN" called for Americans to reduce their spending and consumption, especially with regards to gasoline . Ford hoped that
6780-560: The annexation of territory in violation of international law and allows for the peaceful change of borders. The American public remained unconvinced that American policy on the incorporation of the Baltic States would not be changed by the Helsinki Final Act. Despite protests from all around, Ford decided to move forward and sign the Helsinki Agreement. As domestic criticism mounted, Ford hedged on his support for
6893-403: The bill due to concerns regarding its effect on Turkish-American relations and the deterioration of security on NATO's eastern front. A second bill was then passed by Congress, which Ford also vetoed, although a compromise was accepted to continue aid until the end of the year. As Ford expected, Turkish relations were considerably disrupted until 1978 . In 1973, Egypt and Syria had launched
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#17327809602547006-666: The city limits violently resisted court-ordered busing of black children into their schools. When New York City faced bankruptcy in 1975, Mayor Abraham Beame was unsuccessful in obtaining Ford's support for a federal bailout. The incident prompted the New York Daily News ' famous headline "Ford to City: Drop Dead", referring to a speech in which "Ford declared flatly ... that he would veto any bill calling for 'a federal bail-out of New York City ' ". The following month, November 1975, Ford changed his stance and asked Congress to approve federal loans to New York City, upon
7119-500: The clemency required a reaffirmation of allegiance to the United States and two years of work in a public service position. The program for the Return of Vietnam Era Draft Evaders and Military Deserters established a Clemency Board to review the records and make recommendations for receiving a presidential pardon and a change in military discharge status. Ford's clemency program was accepted by most conservatives, but attacked by those on
7232-475: The condition that the city agree to more austere budgets imposed by Washington, D.C. In December 1975, Ford signed a bill providing New York City with access to $ 2.3 billion in loans. Despite his reservations about how the program ultimately would be funded in an era of tight public budgeting , Ford signed the Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975, which established special education throughout
7345-509: The country for Canada , but others remained in the United States. Ford had opposed any form of amnesty for the draft dodgers while in Congress, but his presidential advisers convinced him that a clemency program would help resolve a contentious issue and boost Ford's public standing. On September 16, 1974, shortly after he announced the Nixon pardon, Ford introduced a presidential clemency program for Vietnam War draft dodgers. The conditions of
7458-532: The country sank into the worst recession since the Great Depression . In November 1974, Ford withdrew his proposed tax increase. Two months later, Ford proposed a 1-year tax reduction of $ 16 billion to stimulate economic growth, along with spending cuts to avoid inflation. Having switched from advocating for a tax increase to advocating a tax reduction in just two months, Ford was greatly criticized for his "flip-flop". Congress responded by passing
7571-410: The crew from an island where the crew was believed to be held, but the Marines met unexpectedly stiff resistance just as, unknown to the U.S., the crew were being released. In the operation, three military transport helicopters were shot down and 41 U.S. servicemen were killed and 50 wounded while approximately 60 Khmer Rouge soldiers were killed. Despite American losses, the rescue operation proved to be
7684-495: The federal courts, most notably in the 1976 Supreme Court decision of Kleppe v. New Mexico . Ford's successes included the addition of two national monuments, six historical sites, three historic parks and two national preserves. None were controversial. In the international field, treaties and agreements with Canada, Mexico, China, Japan, the Soviet Union and several European countries included provisions to protect endangered species. Ford and his wife were outspoken supporters of
7797-437: The fighting or from executions or starvation. Upwards of half of the population of East Timor became refugees fleeing Fretilin-controlled areas between 1975 and 1981. Later, after international intervention in the 1999 East Timorese crisis , East Timor became an independent nation in 2002. Ford faced two assassination attempts during his presidency. In Sacramento, California , on September 5, 1975, Lynette "Squeaky" Fromme ,
7910-492: The final negotiations, and publicly criticized the proposed agreement, but was pressured by Nixon and Kissinger into signing the agreement. In multiple letters to the South Vietnamese president, Nixon had promised that the United States would defend Thieu's government, should the North Vietnamese violate the accords. Fighting in Vietnam continued after the withdrawal of most U.S. forces in early 1973. As North Vietnamese forces advanced in early 1975, Ford requested Congress approve
8023-408: The final phase of the evacuation preceding the fall of Saigon on April 30, military and Air America helicopters took evacuees to off-shore U.S. Navy vessels. During the operation, so many South Vietnamese helicopters landed on the vessels taking the evacuees that some were pushed overboard to make room for more people. The Vietnam War, which had raged since the 1950s, finally came to an end with
8136-459: The first time that a presidential commission was established to investigate the national security apparatus. The Rockefeller Commission's report, submitted in June 1975, generally defended the CIA, although it did note that "the CIA has engaged in some activities that should be criticized and not permitted to happen again." The press strongly criticized the commission for failing to include a section on
8249-592: The former president privately justified his pardon of Nixon by carrying in his wallet a portion of the text of Burdick v. United States , a 1915 Supreme Court decision which stated that a pardon indicated a presumption of guilt, and that acceptance of a pardon was tantamount to a confession of that guilt. During the Vietnam War, about one percent of American men of eligible age for the draft failed to register, and approximately one percent of those who were drafted refused to serve. Those who refused conscription were labeled as " draft dodgers "; many such individuals had left
8362-537: The functions of the National Emergency Council. Initially, the new staff system appeared more ambitious on paper than in practice; the increase in the size of the staff was quite modest at the start. However, it laid the groundwork for the large and organizationally complex White House staff that emerged during the presidencies of Roosevelt's successors. Roosevelt's efforts are also notable in contrast to those of his predecessors in office. During
8475-443: The importance of the role, controlling the flow of information to the president and meeting with him multiple times per day. Kissinger also holds the distinction of serving as national security advisor and secretary of state at the same time from September 22, 1973, until November 3, 1975. He holds the record for longest term of service (2,478 days); Michael Flynn holds the record for shortest term, at just 24 days. Brent Scowcroft held
8588-533: The intelligence community. Due to the frustration of environmentalists left over from the Nixon days, including Environmental Protection Agency head Russell E. Train , environmentalism was a peripheral issue during the Ford years. Secretary of the Interior Thomas S. Kleppe was a leader of the " Sagebrush Rebellion ", a movement of western ranchers and other groups that sought the repeal of environmental protections on federal land. They lost repeatedly in
8701-621: The job in two non-consecutive administrations: the Ford administration and the George H. W. Bush administration . 2009-02: The National Security Advisor and Staff (PDF) . WhiteHouseTransitionProject.org. 2009. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 3, 2016 . Retrieved March 1, 2015 . Executive Office of the President The Executive Office of the President of the United States ( EOP ) comprises
8814-471: The job twice, both times during the Eisenhower administration . The system has remained largely unchanged since then, particularly since President John Kennedy, with powerful national security advisors and strong staff but a lower importance given to formal NSC meetings. This continuity persists despite the tendency of each new president to replace the advisor and senior NSC staff. President Richard Nixon 's national security advisor, Henry Kissinger , enhanced
8927-777: The large bureaucracies and clientele of those departments. In times of crisis, the national security advisor is likely to operate from the White House Situation Room or the Presidential Emergency Operations Center (as on September 11, 2001 ), updating the president on the latest events in a crisis situation. The National Security Council was created at the start of the Cold War under the National Security Act of 1947 to coordinate defense, foreign affairs, international economic policy, and intelligence; this
9040-542: The left who wanted a full amnesty program. Full pardon for draft dodgers would later come in the Carter Administration . The 1974 congressional midterm elections took place less than three months after Ford assumed office. The Democratic Party turned voter dissatisfaction into large gains in the House of Representatives elections , taking 49 seats from the Republican Party, increasing their majority to 291 of
9153-453: The levels proposed by Ford. The economy recovered in 1976, as both inflation and unemployment declined. Nonetheless, by late 1976 Ford faced considerable discontent over his handling of the economy, and the government had a $ 74 billion deficit. Prior to Ford's presidency, the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) had illegally assembled files on domestic anti-war activists. In the aftermath of Watergate, CIA Director William Colby put together
9266-539: The months after his confirmation as vice president, Ford continued to support Nixon's innocence with regards to Watergate, even as evidence mounted that the Nixon administration had ordered the break-in and subsequently sought to cover it up. In July 1974, after the Supreme Court ordered Nixon to turn over recordings of certain meetings he had held as president, the House Judiciary Committee voted to begin impeachment proceedings against Nixon . After
9379-453: The most influential people in the Ford administration. Ford also appointed Edward H. Levi as Attorney General, charging Levi with cleaning up a Justice Department that had been politicized to unprecedented levels during the Nixon administration. Ford brought in Philip W. Buchen , Robert T. Hartmann , L. William Seidman , and John O. Marsh as senior advisers with cabinet rank. Ford placed
9492-408: The negotiation will have a far reaching impact on the region and on our relations. I have given instructions for a reassessment of United States policy in the region, including our relations with Israel, with the aim of ensuring that overall American interests ... are protected. You will be notified of our decision. On March 24, Ford informed congressional leaders of both parties of the reassessment of
9605-502: The negotiations, U.S. leaders were disengaged and uninterested with the process; Kissinger told Ford in 1974 that "we never wanted it but we went along with the Europeans ... [i]t is meaningless—it is just a grandstand play to the left. We are going along with it." In the months leading up to the conclusion of negotiations and signing of the Helsinki Final Act in August 1975, Americans of Eastern European descent voiced their concerns that
9718-418: The new class of " Watergate Babies ," liberal Democrats implemented reforms designed to ease the passage of legislation. The House began to select committee chairs by secret ballot rather than through seniority, resulting in the removal of some conservative Southern committee chairs. The Senate, meanwhile, lowered the number of votes necessary to end a filibuster from 67 to 60. By the time Ford took office,
9831-535: The offices and agencies that support the work of the president at the center of the executive branch of the United States federal government . The office consists of several offices and agencies, such as the White House Office (the staff working closest with the president, including West Wing staff), the National Security Council , Homeland Security Council , Office of Management and Budget , Council of Economic Advisers , and others. The Eisenhower Executive Office Building houses most staff. The office
9944-535: The other main parties fled to West Timor and called upon Indonesia to annex East Timor and end the communist threat. On December 7, 1975, Ford and Kissinger met Indonesian President Suharto in Jakarta . Suharto discussed the plans to invade East Timor; both Ford and Kissinger indicated the United States would not take a position on East Timor. Indonesia invaded the next day , and annexed the country . A bloody civil war broke out , and over one hundred thousand died in
10057-513: The pardon to 50 percent immediately after the pardon. Critics derided the move and said a " corrupt bargain " had been struck between the men. In an editorial at the time, The New York Times stated that the Nixon pardon was a "profoundly unwise, divisive and unjust act" that in a stroke had destroyed the new president's "credibility as a man of judgment, candor and competence". Ford's close friend and press secretary, Jerald terHorst , resigned his post in protest. The pardon would hang over Ford for
10170-448: The people and acting under the Constitution in their name. It is only fitting then that I should pledge to them and to you that I will be the President of all the people. Upon assuming office, Ford inherited Nixon's cabinet , although Ford quickly replaced Chief of Staff Alexander Haig with Donald Rumsfeld , who had served as a Counselor to the President under Nixon. Rumsfeld and Deputy Chief of Staff Dick Cheney rapidly became among
10283-526: The president has some control over the Executive Office of the President. Some of this authority stems from its appropriation powers given by the Constitution, such as the "power of the purse", which affects the Office of Management and Budget and the funding of the rest of federal departments and agencies. Congress also has the right to investigate the operation of the Executive Office, normally holding hearings bringing forward individual personnel to testify before
10396-468: The president" (then the title of the president's chief aide), two assistant secretaries, two executive clerks, a stenographer , and seven other office personnel. Under Warren G. Harding , there were thirty-one staff, although most were in clerical positions. During Herbert Hoover's presidency , two additional secretaries to the president were added by Congress, one of whom Hoover designated as his press secretary . From 1933 to 1939, as he greatly expanded
10509-493: The public would respond to this call for self-restraint much as it had to President Franklin D. Roosevelt 's calls for sacrifice during World War II , but the public received WIN with skepticism. At roughly the same time he rolled out WIN, Ford also proposed a ten-point economic plan. The central plank of the plan was a tax increase on corporations and high earners, which Ford hoped would both quell inflation and cut into government's budget deficit. Ford's economic focus changed as
10622-408: The qualities of the person appointed to the position, but also on the style and management philosophy of the incumbent president. ideally, the national security advisor serves as an honest broker of policy options for the president in the field of national security, rather than as an advocate for his or her own policy agenda. The national security advisor is a staff position in the Executive Office of
10735-556: The region. The administration proved it was willing to respond forcefully to challenges to its interests in the region when Khmer Rouge forces seized an American ship in international waters . In May 1975, shortly after the fall of Saigon and the Khmer Rouge conquest of Cambodia , Cambodians seized the American merchant ship Mayaguez in international waters, sparking the Mayaguez incident . Ford dispatched Marines to rescue
10848-410: The remainder of his presidency, and damaged his relationship with members of Congress from both parties. Against the advice of most of his advisers, Ford agreed to appear before a House Subcommittee that requested further information on the pardon. On October 17, 1974, Ford testified before Congress, becoming the first sitting president since Woodrow Wilson to do so. After Ford left the White House,
10961-400: The scope of the federal government's policies and powers in response to the Great Depression , Roosevelt relied on his "brain trust" of top advisers, who were often appointed to vacant positions in agencies and departments, from which they drew their salaries since the White House lacked statutory or budgetary authority to create new staff positions. After World War II , in particular, during
11074-456: The seizure of the vessel was a local, and perhaps even accidental, provocation by an immature Khmer government. Nevertheless, they felt the need to respond forcefully to discourage further provocations by other Communist countries in Asia. In the Middle East and eastern Mediterranean, two ongoing international disputes developed into crises during Ford's presidency. The Cyprus dispute turned into
11187-517: The size of campaign contributions, limited the amount of money that candidates could spend on their own campaigns, and required the disclosure of nearly all campaign contributions. Ford reluctantly signed the bill into law in October 1974. In the 1976 case of Buckley v. Valeo , the Supreme Court overturned the cap on self-funding by political candidates, holding that such a restriction violated freedom of speech rights. The campaign finance reforms of
11300-431: The size of the White House staff has increased to include an array of policy experts responsible with managing various federal governmental functions and policy areas. As of 2015, it included approximately 1,800 positions, most of which did not require confirmation from the U.S. Senate . The office is overseen by the White House chief of staff . Since February 8, 2023, that position has been held by Jeff Zients , who
11413-524: The tapes became public and clearly showed that Nixon had taken part in the cover-up, Nixon summoned Ford to the Oval Office on August 8, where Nixon informed Ford that he would resign. Nixon formally resigned on August 9, making Ford the first President of the United States who had not been elected as either president or vice president. Immediately after taking the oath of office in the East Room of
11526-533: The title Deputy Assistant to the President , and third-level staff have the title Special Assistant to the President . The core White House staff appointments, and most Executive Office officials generally, are not required to be confirmed by the U.S. Senate , although there are a handful of exceptions (e.g., the director of the Office of Management and Budget , the chair of the Council of Economic Advisers , and
11639-449: The two finalists for vice presidential nomination, and Ford chose Rockefeller in part due to a Newsweek report that revealed that Bush had accepted money from a Nixon slush fund during his 1970 Senate campaign. Rockefeller underwent extended hearings before Congress, which caused embarrassment when it was revealed he made large gifts to senior aides, including Kissinger. Although conservative Republicans were not pleased that Rockefeller
11752-550: The war, UNITA and the FNLA . After members of Congress learned of the CIA operation, Congress voted to cut off aid to the Angolan groups. The Angolan Civil War would continue in subsequent years, but the Soviet role in the war hindered détente. Congress's role in ending the CIA presence marked the growing power of the legislative branch in foreign affairs. During the Ford administration, the United States began to distance itself from
11865-532: The years that followed. Following the end of the war, Ford expanded the embargo of North Vietnam to cover all of Vietnam, blocked Vietnam's accession to the United Nations , and refused to establish full diplomatic relations. North Vietnam's victory over the South led to a considerable shift in the political winds in Asia, and Ford administration officials worried about a consequent loss of U.S. influence in
11978-508: Was appointed by President Joe Biden . In 1937, the Brownlow Committee , which was a presidentially commissioned panel of political science and public administration experts, recommended sweeping changes to the executive branch of the U.S. federal government , including the creation of the Executive Office of the President. Based on these recommendations, President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1939 lobbied Congress to approve
12091-444: Was for $ 341 million in support of 1,850 personnel). Some observers have noted a problem of control for the president due to the increase in staff and departments, making coordination and cooperation between the various departments of the Executive Office more difficult. The president had the power to reorganize the Executive Office due to the 1949 Reorganization Act which gave the president considerable discretion, until 1983 when it
12204-470: Was part of a large reorganization that saw the creation of the Department of Defense and the Central Intelligence Agency . The Act did not create the position of the national security advisor per se, but it did create an executive secretary in charge of the staff. In 1949, the NSC became part of the Executive Office of the President. Robert Cutler was the first national security advisor in 1953, and held
12317-530: Was picked, most of them voted for his confirmation, and his nomination passed both the House and Senate. He was sworn in as the nation's 41st vice president on December 19, 1974. Prior to Rockefeller's confirmation, Speaker of the House Carl Albert was next in line to the presidency . Ford promised to give Rockefeller a major role in shaping the domestic policy of the administration, but Rockefeller
12430-671: Was quickly sidelined by Rumsfeld and other administration officials. In the wake of Nixon's heavy use of executive privilege to block investigations of his actions, Ford was scrupulous in minimizing its usage. However, that complicated his efforts to keep congressional investigations under control. Political scientist Mark J. Rozell concludes that Ford's: Ford made one appointment to the Supreme Court while in office, appointing John Paul Stevens to succeed Associate Justice William O. Douglas . Upon learning of Douglas's impending retirement, Ford asked Attorney General Levi to submit
12543-603: Was reinforced with another presidential visit in December 1975. Despite the collapse of the trade agreement with the Soviet Union, Ford and Soviet Leader Leonid Brezhnev continued the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks , which had begun under Nixon. In 1972, the U.S. and the Soviet Union had reached the SALT I treaty , which placed upper limits on each power's nuclear arsenal. Ford met Brezhnev at
12656-420: Was renewed due to President Reagan's administration allegedly encountering "disloyalty and obstruction". The chief of staff is the head of the Executive Office and can therefore ultimately decide what the president needs to deal with personally and what can be dealt with by other staff. Senior staff within the Executive Office of the President have the title Assistant to the President , second-level staff have
12769-445: Was the cause. Soon after, public health officials in the Ford administration urged that every person in the United States be vaccinated . Although the vaccination program was plagued by delays and public relations problems, some 25% of the population was vaccinated by the time the program was canceled in December 1976. The vaccine was alleged to have been a factor in twenty-five deaths. Ford continued Nixon's détente policy with both
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