Misplaced Pages

#30969

125-431: Multics first introduced a hierarchical file system with directories (separated by ">") in the mid-1960s. Around 1970, Unix introduced the slash character ("/") as its directory separator. In 1981, the first version of Microsoft DOS was released. MS-DOS 1.0 did not support file directories. Also, a major portion of the utility commands packaged with MS-DOS 1.0 came from IBM and their command line syntax used

250-705: A 'no new features' release. Since its release, several OS X or macOS releases (namely OS X Mountain Lion , OS X El Capitan , macOS High Sierra , and macOS Monterey ) follow this pattern, with a name derived from its predecessor, similar to the ' tick–tock model ' used by Intel. In two succeeding versions, Lion and Mountain Lion , Apple moved some applications to a highly skeuomorphic style of design inspired by contemporary versions of iOS while simplifying some elements by making controls such as scroll bars fade out when not in use. This direction was, like brushed metal interfaces, unpopular with some users, although it continued

375-476: A WebDAV URL of http[s]://HostName[:Port]/SharedFolder/Resource becomes When viewed remotely, the "SharedFolder" may have a name different from what a program on the server sees when opening "\SharedFolder". Instead, the SharedFolder name consists of an arbitrary name assigned to the folder when defining its "sharing". Some Microsoft Windows interfaces also accept the "Long UNC": Microsoft Windows uses

500-683: A business that attempted to profit from selling macOS on non-Apple certified hardware, was sued by Apple in 2008. In April 2002, eWeek announced a rumor that Apple had a version of Mac OS X code-named Marklar , which ran on Intel x86 processors. The idea behind Marklar was to keep Mac OS X running on an alternative platform should Apple become dissatisfied with the progress of the PowerPC platform. These rumors subsided until late in May 2005, when various media outlets, such as The Wall Street Journal and CNET , announced that Apple would unveil Marklar in

625-434: A common syntax to describe the location of a network resource, such as a shared file, directory, or printer. The UNC syntax for Windows systems has the generic form: Microsoft often refers to this as a " network path ". Some Microsoft Windows interfaces also allow or require UNC syntax for WebDAV share access, rather than a URL. The UNC syntax is extended with optional components to denote use of SSL and TCP/IP port number,

750-747: A disadvantage due to blocking the Mac App Store's use for professional applications that require elevated privileges. Applications without any code signature cannot be run by default except from a computer's administrator account. Apple produces macOS applications. Some are included with macOS and some sold separately. This includes iWork , Final Cut Pro , Logic Pro , iLife , and the database application FileMaker . Numerous other developers also offer software for macOS . In 2018, Apple introduced an application layer, codenamed Marzipan, to port iOS apps to macOS. macOS Mojave included ports of four first-party iOS apps including Home and News , and it

875-516: A large number of papers about Multics, and various components of it; a fairly complete list is available at the Multics Bibliography page and on a second, briefer 1994 Multics bibliography (text format). The most important and/or informative ones are listed below. Mac OS X macOS , originally Mac OS X , previously shortened as OS X , is an operating system developed and marketed by Apple since 2001. It

1000-489: A long and short form), and symbolic links between directories are also supported. Multics is the first to use the now-standard concept of per- process stacks in the kernel , with a separate stack for each security ring. It is also the first to have a command processor implemented as ordinary user code – an idea later used in the Unix shell . It is also one of the first written in a high-level language (Multics PL/I ), after

1125-548: A matchbox", extends the Multics design to a networked graphics workstation environment. The Stratus VOS operating system of Stratus Computer (now Stratus Technologies ) is very strongly influenced by Multics, and both its external user interface and internal structure bear many close resemblances to the older project. The high-reliability, availability, and security features of Multics are extended in Stratus VOS to support

1250-460: A much more versatile and flexible operating system, and it failed miserably". This position, however, is said to have been discredited in the computing community because many of Multics' technical innovations are used in modern commercial computing systems. The permanently resident kernel of Multics, a system derided in its day as being too large and complex, was 135 KB of code. The first MIT GE-645 had 512 kilowords of memory (2 MiB),

1375-505: A new line of fault tolerant computer systems supporting secure, reliable transaction processing . Stratus VOS is the most directly related descendant of Multics still in active development and production usage today. General Motors ' Multiple Console Time Sharing System (MCTS) for the Control Data Corporation STAR-100 computer was based on Multics. The protection architecture of Multics, restricting

SECTION 10

#1732787749031

1500-467: A new recompiled version of OS X along with Rosetta , a binary translation layer which enables software compiled for PowerPC Mac OS X to run on Intel Mac OS X machines. The system was included with Mac OS X versions up to version 10.6.8. Apple dropped support for Classic mode on the new Intel Macs. Third party emulation software such as Mini vMac , Basilisk II and SheepShaver provided support for some early versions of Mac OS. A new version of Xcode and

1625-412: A number of features, such as fast file searching and improved graphics processing, that Microsoft had spent several years struggling to add to Windows Vista with acceptable performance. As the operating system evolved, it moved away from the classic Mac OS , with applications being added and removed. Considering music to be a key market, Apple developed the iPod music player and music software for

1750-621: A number of pre-G3 Power Macintosh systems that can be made to run up to and including Mac OS X 10.2 Jaguar, all G3-based Macs which can run up to and including Tiger, and sub-867 MHz G4 Macs can run Leopard by removing the restriction from the installation DVD or entering a command in the Mac's Open Firmware interface to tell the Leopard Installer that it has a clock rate of 867 MHz or greater. Except for features requiring specific hardware such as graphics acceleration or DVD writing,

1875-558: A performance penalty when run on Intel Macs through Rosetta. Moreover, some PowerPC software, such as kernel extensions and System Preferences plugins, are not supported on Intel Macs at all. Plugins for Safari need to be compiled for the same platform as Safari, so when Safari is running on Intel, it requires plug-ins that have been compiled as Intel-only or universal binaries, so PowerPC-only plug-ins will not work. While Intel Macs can run PowerPC, Intel, and universal binaries, PowerPC Macs support only universal and PowerPC builds. Support for

2000-458: A process first attempts to begin execution in them. Since different processes can use different search rules , different users can end up using different versions of external routines. Equally importantly, with the appropriate settings in the Multics security facilities, the code in the other segment can gain access to data structures maintained in a different process. Dynamic linking in Multics does not require special dynamic-link libraries (DLLs) ;

2125-449: A program can dynamically link to any executable segment to which it has access rights. Thus, to interact with an application running in part as a daemon (in another process), a user's process simply performs a normal procedure-call instruction to a code segment to which it had dynamically linked (a code segment that implemented some operation associated with the daemon). The code in that segment can then modify data maintained and used in

2250-752: A regular expression matching a UNC begins with 8 backslashes – \\\\\\\\ – because the string and regular expression both require escaping. This can be simplified by using raw strings , as in C#'s @"\\\\" or Python's r'\\\\' , or regular expression literals, as in Perl's qr{\\\\} . Most Unix-like systems use a similar syntax. POSIX allows treating a path beginning with two slashes in an implementation-defined manner, though in other cases systems must treat multiple slashes as single slashes. Many applications on Unix-like systems (for example, scp , rcp , and rsync ) use resource definitions such as: or URI schemes with

2375-464: A sense of depth. New interface elements were integrated, including sheets ( dialog boxes attached to specific windows) and drawers, which would slide out and provide options. The use of soft edges, translucent colors, and pinstripes, similar to the hardware design of the first iMacs , brought more texture and color to the user interface when compared to what Mac OS 9 and Mac OS X Server 1.0 's " Platinum " appearance had offered. According to Siracusa,

2500-418: A sizeable customer base. In contrast, the full potential of Multics’ flexibility for even mundane tasks was not easy to comprehend in that era and its features were generally outside the skill set of contemporary business analysts. The scope of this disconnect was concretized by an anecdote conveyed by Paul Stachour, CNO/CSC: When American Telephone and Telegraph was changing its name to just AT&T in 1983,

2625-464: A staffer from Honeywell’s legal department showed up and asked a Multician if he could arrange to have the name changed in all of their computerized documents. When asked when the process could be completed, the Multician replied, "It's done." The staffer repeated that he needed hundreds perhaps thousands of documents updated. The Multician explained that he had executed a global search and replace as

SECTION 20

#1732787749031

2750-445: A sub-contractor) to develop a security kernel for Multics. This would involve reducing the size of the Multics hardcore by moving specific components of the supervisor out of Ring 0. One of the initial steps after carrying out a security evaluation was the implementation of a Multilevel security framework within Multics called AIM (Access Isolation Mechanism). This provided Mandatory access control which could be enabled to supplement

2875-586: A system that would be adopted by Apple's primary market of home users and creative professionals. The project was first codenamed " Rhapsody " before officially being named Mac OS X. The letter "X" in Mac OS X's name refers to the number 10, a Roman numeral , and Apple has stated that it should be pronounced "ten" in this context. However, it is also commonly pronounced like the letter "X". The iPhone X , iPhone XR and iPhone XS all later followed this convention. Previous Macintosh operating systems (versions of

3000-416: A transcribed 2007 interview with Peter Seibel refers to Multics as "overdesigned and overbuilt and over everything. It was close to unusable. They [Massachusetts Institute of Technology] still claim it's a monstrous success, but it just clearly wasn't". On the influence of Multics on Unix, Thompson stated that "the things that I liked enough (about Multics) to actually take were the hierarchical file system and

3125-498: A trend of greater animation and variety in the interface previously seen in design aspects such as the Time Machine backup utility, which presented past file versions against a swirling nebula, and the glossy translucent dock of Leopard and Snow Leopard . In addition, with Mac OS X 10.7 Lion , Apple ceased to release separate server versions of Mac OS X, selling server tools as a separate downloadable application through

3250-409: A truly enormous amount at the time, and the kernel used a moderate portion of Multics main memory. The entire system, including the operating system and the complex PL/I compiler , user commands, and subroutine libraries, consists of about 1500 source modules. These average roughly 200 lines of source code each, and compile to a total of roughly 4.5 MiB of procedure code, which was fairly large by

3375-553: A variety of professional video and image formats and includes an extensive pre-installed font library, featuring many prominent brand-name designs. The Finder is a file browser allowing quick access to all areas of the computer, which has been modified throughout subsequent releases of macOS. Quick Look has been part of the Finder since version 10.5 . It allows for dynamic previews of files, including videos and multi-page documents without opening any other applications. Spotlight ,

3500-454: Is a POSIX -compliant operating system built on top of the XNU kernel , (which incorporated large parts of FreeBSD kernel ) and FreeBSD userland for the standard Unix facilities available from the command line interface . Apple has released this family of software as a free and open source operating system named Darwin . On top of Darwin, Apple layered a number of components, including

3625-420: Is also the final release with PowerPC Mac support. Mac OS X 10.6 Snow Leopard was the first version of Mac OS X to be built exclusively for Intel Macs, and the final release with 32-bit Intel Mac support. The name was intended to signal its status as an iteration of Leopard, focusing on technical and performance improvements rather than user-facing features; indeed it was explicitly branded to developers as being

3750-413: Is called by putting the active function name and the arguments to the active function in square brackets [ and ] . The string returned by the active function is substituted into the command in place of the call to the active function. For example, when the command echo [working_dir] is processed, the active function working_dir is run; it returns the full path of the working directory , which

3875-681: Is located in Folder directory which is located in the current directory of the current drive (since this example gives no drive-specification). Multics Multics (" MULTiplexed Information and Computing Service ") is an influential early time-sharing operating system based on the concept of a single-level memory . Nathan Gregory writes that Multics "has influenced all modern operating systems since, from microcomputers to mainframes." Initial planning and development for Multics started in 1964, in Cambridge, Massachusetts . Originally it

Path (computing) - Misplaced Pages Continue

4000-400: Is one of the earliest multiprocessor systems. Multics is the first major operating system to be designed as a secure system from the outset. Despite this, early versions of Multics were compromised repeatedly. This led to further work that made the system more secure, and prefigured modern security engineering techniques. Break-ins became very rare once the second-generation hardware base

4125-433: Is part of some segment, which appears in the file system ; this includes the temporary scratch memory of the process, its kernel stack, etc. Segments are limited to 256 kilowords , just over 1  MB , because Multics hardware had 18-bit word addresses for the content of a segment. Larger files are "multisegment files" and are handled differently. The 256 kiloword limit was rarely encountered in practice, because at

4250-451: Is quite different, focusing on keeping the system small and simple, and so correcting some perceived deficiencies of Multics because of its high resource demands on the limited computer hardware of the time. The name Unix (originally Unics ) is itself a pun on Multics . The U in Unix is rumored to stand for uniplexed as opposed to the multiplexed of Multics, further underscoring

4375-434: Is substituted into the command, so that the echo command prints the working directory. Some programs can act either as commands or as active functions; when run as a command, its result is printed, and when run as an active function, its result is returned as a string. Some common active functions are: Peter H. Salus , author of a book covering Unix's early years, stated one position: "With Multics they tried to have

4500-407: Is the primary operating system for Apple's Mac computers . Within the market of desktop and laptop computers, it is the second most widely used desktop OS , after Microsoft Windows and ahead of all Linux distributions, including ChromeOS and SteamOS . As of 2024 , the most recent release of macOS is macOS 15 Sequoia , the 21st major version of macOS. Mac OS X succeeded classic Mac OS ,

4625-414: Is therefore unsupported by Apple technical support, warranties etc.), but communities that cater to personal users, who do not install for resale and profit, have generally been ignored by Apple. These self-made computers allow more flexibility and customization of hardware, but at a cost of leaving the user more responsible for their own machine, such as on matter of data integrity or security. Psystar ,

4750-697: The Aqua interface and the Finder , to complete the GUI -based operating system which is macOS. With its original introduction as Mac OS X, the system brought a number of new capabilities to provide a more stable and reliable platform than its predecessor, the classic Mac OS . For example, pre-emptive multitasking and memory protection improved the system's ability to run multiple applications simultaneously without them interrupting or corrupting each other. Many aspects of macOS's architecture are derived from OPENSTEP , which

4875-665: The Burroughs MCP system written in ESPOL , an expanded version of ALGOL . The deployment of Multics into secure computing environments also spurred the development of innovative supporting applications. In 1975, Morrie Gasser of MITRE Corporation developed a pronounceable random word generator to address password requirements of installations such as the Air Force Data Services Center (AFDSC) processing classified information. To avoid guessable passwords,

5000-573: The Classic Environment with performance limitations; this feature was removed from 10.5 onwards and all Macs using Intel processors. Because macOS is POSIX compliant, many software packages written for the other Unix-like systems including Linux can be recompiled to run on it, including many scientific and technical programs. Third-party projects such as Homebrew , Fink , MacPorts and pkgsrc provide pre-compiled or pre-formatted packages. Apple and others have provided versions of

5125-525: The Mac App Store , a marketplace of software maintained by Apple through a process requiring the company's approval. Apps installed through the Mac App Store run within a sandbox , restricting their ability to exchange information with other applications or modify the core operating system and its features. This has been cited as an advantage, by allowing users to install apps with confidence that they should not be able to damage their system, but also as

Path (computing) - Misplaced Pages Continue

5250-419: The Mac App Store . Newer versions of Mac OS X also included modifications to the general interface, moving away from the striped gloss and transparency of the initial versions. Some applications began to use a brushed metal appearance, or non-pinstriped title bar appearance in version 10.4. In Leopard, Apple announced a unification of the interface, with a standardized gray-gradient window style. In 2006,

5375-800: The Mac transition to Intel processors , it was modified so that developers could build their applications as a universal binary , which provides compatibility with both the Intel-based and PowerPC-based Macintosh lines. First and third-party applications can be controlled programmatically using the AppleScript framework, retained from the classic Mac OS , or using the newer Automator application that offers pre-written tasks that do not require programming knowledge. Apple offered two main APIs to develop software natively for macOS: Cocoa and Carbon . Cocoa

5500-467: The Taligent , Copland and Gershwin projects, but all were eventually abandoned. This led Apple to acquire NeXT in 1997, allowing NeXTSTEP, later called OPENSTEP , to serve as the basis for Apple's next generation operating system. This purchase also led to Steve Jobs returning to Apple as an interim, and then the permanent CEO, shepherding the transformation of the programmer-friendly OPENSTEP into

5625-491: The Windows system API accepts slash, and thus all the above Unix examples should work. But many applications on Windows interpret a slash for other purposes or treat it as an invalid character, and thus require you to enter backslash – notably the cmd.exe shell (often called the "terminal" as it typically runs in a terminal window). Note that many other shells available for Windows, such as tcsh and Windows PowerShell , allow

5750-625: The X Window System graphical interface which can allow these applications to run with an approximation of the macOS look-and-feel. The current Apple-endorsed method is the open-source XQuartz project; earlier versions could use the X11 application provided by Apple, or before that the XDarwin project. Applications can be distributed to Macs and installed by the user from any source and by any method such as downloading (with or without code signing , available via an Apple developer account) or through

5875-437: The classic Mac OS ) were named using Arabic numerals , as with Mac OS 8 and Mac OS 9 . Until macOS 11 Big Sur , all versions of the operating system were given version numbers of the form 10. x , with this going from 10.0 up until 10.15; starting with macOS 11 Big Sur , Apple switched to numbering major releases with numbers that increase by 1 with every major release. The first version of Mac OS X, Mac OS X Server 1.0 ,

6000-449: The telephone and electricity utilities . Modular hardware structure and software architecture are used to achieve this. The system can grow in size by simply adding more of the appropriate resource, be it computing power, main memory, or disk storage. Separate access control lists on every file provide flexible information sharing, but complete privacy when needed. Multics has a number of standard mechanisms to allow engineers to analyze

6125-664: The "NS" prefix is ubiquitous in the framework, standing variously for N eXT S TEP or N eXT/ S un . The official OPENSTEP API, published in September 1994, was the first to split the API between Foundation and ApplicationKit and the first to use the "NS" prefix. Traditionally, Cocoa programs have been mostly written in Objective-C , with Java as an alternative. However, on July 11, 2005, Apple announced that "features added to Cocoa in Mac OS X versions later than 10.4 will not be added to

6250-495: The ' ¥ ' character or the ' ₩ ' character instead of the directory separator. In such cases the code for a backslash is being drawn as these characters. Very early versions of MS-DOS replaced the backslash with these glyphs on the display to make it possible to display them by programs that only understood 7-bit ASCII (other characters such as the square brackets were replaced as well, see ISO 646 , Windows Codepage 932 (Japanese Shift JIS) , and Codepage 949 (Korean) ). Although even

6375-415: The 1.0 release of the emulator, and adds a few new features, including command line recall and editing using the video system. The following is a list of programs and commands for common computing tasks that are supported by the Multics command-line interface . The Multics shell language supports "active functions", which are similar to commands, but which return a string value. An active function

SECTION 50

#1732787749031

6500-560: The 2010s. Rumors intensified in 2020, when numerous reports announced that the company would announce its shift to its custom processors at WWDC. Apple officially announced its shift to processors designed in-house on June 22, 2020, at WWDC 2020, with the transition planned to last for approximately two years. The first release of macOS to support ARM was macOS Big Sur . Big Sur and later versions support Universal 2 binaries , which are applications consisting of both Intel ( x86-64 ) and Apple silicon ( AArch64 ) binaries; when launched, only

6625-559: The AFDSC decided to assign passwords but concluded the manual assignment required too much administrative overhead. Thus, a random word generator was researched and then developed in PL/I. Instead of being based on phonemes , the system employed phonemic segments (second order approximations of English) and other rules to enhance pronounceability and randomness, which was statistically modeled against other approaches. A descendant of this generator

6750-463: The Aqua appearance. To some extent, Apple has used the successful transition to this new design as leverage, at various times threatening legal action against people who make or distribute software with an interface the company says is derived from its copyrighted design. Apple has continued to change aspects of the macOS appearance and design, particularly with tweaks to the appearance of windows and

6875-674: The Cocoa-Java programming interface." macOS also used to support the Java Platform as a "preferred software package"—in practice this means that applications written in Java fit as neatly into the operating system as possible while still being cross-platform compatible, and that graphical user interfaces written in Swing look almost exactly like native Cocoa interfaces. Since 2014, Apple has promoted its new programming language Swift as

7000-471: The GUI switch "/" typed by the user to ":" internally, and switch them back when displaying filenames (a ":" entered by the user is also changed into "/" but the inverse translation does not happen). Programming languages also use paths. E.g.: When a file is opened. Most programming languages use the path representation of the underlying operating system: This direct access to the operating system paths can hinder

7125-408: The Mac App Store. A review described the trend in the server products as becoming "cheaper and simpler... shifting its focus from large businesses to small ones." In 2012, with the release of OS X 10.8 Mountain Lion , the name of the system was officially shortened from Mac OS X to OS X, after the previous version shortened the system name in a similar fashion a year prior. That year, Apple removed

7250-592: The Mac, including iTunes and GarageBand . Targeting the consumer and media markets, Apple emphasized its new "digital lifestyle" applications such as the iLife suite, integrated home entertainment through the Front Row media center and the Safari web browser. With the increasing popularity of the internet, Apple offered additional online services, including the .Mac, MobileMe and most recently iCloud products. It later began selling third-party applications through

7375-782: The PowerPC platform was dropped following the transition. In 2009, Apple announced at WWDC that Mac OS X 10.6 Snow Leopard would drop support for PowerPC processors and be Intel-only. Rosetta continued to be offered as an optional download or installation choice in Snow Leopard before it was discontinued with Mac OS X 10.7 Lion. In addition, new versions of Mac OS X first- and third-party software increasingly required Intel processors, including new versions of iLife, iWork, Aperture and Logic Pro. Rumors of Apple shifting Macs from Intel to in-house ARM processors used by iOS devices began circulating as early as 2011, and ebbed and flowed throughout

7500-598: The United States. In 2006, Bull SAS released the source code of Multics versions MR10.2, MR11.0, MR12.0, MR12.1, MR12.2, MR12.3, MR12.4 & MR12.5 under a free software license. The last known Multics installation running natively on Honeywell hardware was shut down on October 30, 2000, at the Canadian Department of National Defence in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada. In 2006 Bull HN released

7625-412: The ability of code at one level of the system to access resources at another, was adopted as the basis for the security features of ICL 's VME operating system. The Edinburgh Multiple Access System (EMAS) draws particularly on the one-level store concept used by Multics, providing access to files only by mapping them into memory. All memory space is associated with a segment. The literature contains

SECTION 60

#1732787749031

7750-472: The absolute path for the directory as: Given bobapples as the relative path for the directory wanted, the following may be typed at the command prompt to change the current working directory to bobapples: Two dots (" .. ") point upward in the hierarchy , to indicate the parent directory ; one dot (" . ") represents the current directory itself. Both can be components of a complex relative path (e.g., " ../mark/./bobapples "), where " . " alone or as

7875-711: The already existing Discretionary access control that Multics already possessed. The resulting Project Guardian ran until termination in 1976; whilst most of its changes were not added to Multics, some parts of the project such as the proposed Secure Front End Processor was productized by Honeywell as SCOMP (Secure Communications Processor). The SCOMP and it's STOP operating system would eventually evolved via XTS-200 and XTS-300 into current XTS-400 offering of secure operating systems. Honeywell continued system development until 1985. About 80 multimillion-dollar sites were installed, at universities, industry, and government sites. The French university system had several installations in

8000-540: The appropriate binary is run. Additionally, Intel binaries can be run on Apple silicon-based Macs using the Rosetta 2 binary translation software. The transition was completed at WWDC 2023 with the announce of the Apple silicon Mac Pro , ending the transition in 3 years, slightly behind schedule. The change in processor architecture allows Macs with ARM processors to be able to run iOS and iPadOS apps natively. One of

8125-465: The backslash character ("\") as a directory separator, which looks similar to the slash character, though more modern version of Windows are slash-agnostic, allowing mixing of both types of slash in a path. An absolute or full path points to the same location in a file system, regardless of the current working directory . To do that, it must include the root directory . By contrast, a relative path starts from some given working directory, avoiding

8250-423: The coming months. On June 6, 2005, Steve Jobs announced in his keynote address at WWDC that Apple would be making the transition from PowerPC to Intel processors over the following two years, and that Mac OS X would support both platforms during the transition. Jobs also confirmed rumors that Apple had versions of Mac OS X running on Intel processors for most of its developmental life. Intel-based Macs would run

8375-483: The cost of updates from Snow Leopard onwards, before removing upgrade fees altogether in OS X Mavericks . Some journalists and third-party software developers have suggested that this decision, while allowing more rapid feature release, meant less opportunity to focus on stability, with no version of OS X recommendable for users requiring stability and performance above new features. Apple's 2015 update, OS X 10.11 El Capitan ,

8500-472: The daemon. When the action necessary to commence the request is completed, a simple procedure return instruction returns control of the user's process to the user's code. Multics also supports extremely aggressive on-line reconfiguration : central processing units , memory banks, disk drives, etc. can be added and removed while the system continues operating. At the MIT system, where most early software development

8625-421: The default file system is HFS+ , which it inherited from the classic Mac OS. Operating system designer Linus Torvalds had criticized HFS+, saying it is "probably the worst file system ever", whose design is "actively corrupting user data". He criticized the case insensitivity of file names, a design made worse when Apple extended the file system to support Unicode . The Darwin subsystem in macOS manages

8750-481: The default file system for SSD boot drives. Its successor, macOS 10.14 Mojave , was released in 2018, adding a dark mode option and a dynamic wallpaper setting . It was succeeded by macOS 10.15 Catalina in 2019, which replaces iTunes with separate apps for different types of media, and introduces the Catalyst system for porting iOS apps. In 2020, Apple announced macOS 11 Big Sur at that year's WWDC. This

8875-407: The designers' rejections of Multics' complexity in favor of a more straightforward and workable approach for smaller computers. (Garfinkel and Abelson cite an alternative origin: Peter Neumann at Bell Labs, watching a demonstration of the prototype, suggested the pun name UNICS – pronounced " eunuchs " – as a "castrated Multics", although Dennis Ritchie is said to have denied this. ) Ken Thompson, in

9000-530: The display to warmer colors at night, and two Continuity features: Universal Clipboard, which syncs a user's clipboard across their Apple devices, and Auto Unlock, which can unlock a user's Mac with their Apple Watch. macOS Sierra also adds support for the Apple File System (APFS), Apple's successor to the dated HFS+ file system. macOS 10.13 High Sierra , released in 2017, included performance improvements, Metal 2 and HEVC support, and made APFS

9125-789: The early 1980s. After Honeywell stopped supporting Multics, users migrated to other systems, such as Unix. In 1985, Multics was issued certification as a B2 level secure operating system using the Trusted Computer System Evaluation Criteria from the National Computer Security Center (NCSC), a division of the NSA ; it was the first operating system evaluated to this level. Multics was distributed from 1975 to 2000 by Groupe Bull in Europe , and by Bull HN Information Systems Inc. in

9250-448: The early releases in retrospect as "dog-slow, feature poor" and Aqua as "unbearably slow and a huge resource hog". Apple rapidly developed several new releases of Mac OS X. Siracusa's review of version 10.3, Panther , noted "It's strange to have gone from years of uncertainty and vaporware to a steady annual supply of major new operating system releases." Version 10.4, Tiger , reportedly shocked executives at Microsoft by offering

9375-429: The file system, which includes the Unix permissions layer. In 2003 and 2005, two Macworld editors expressed criticism of the permission scheme; Ted Landau called misconfigured permissions "the most common frustration" in macOS, while Rob Griffiths suggested that some users may even have to reset permissions every day, a process which can take up to 15 minutes. More recently, another Macworld editor, Dan Frakes, called

9500-444: The first Intel Macs were released with a specialized version of Mac OS X 10.4 Tiger . A key development for the system was the announcement and release of the iPhone from 2007 onwards. While Apple's previous iPod media players used a minimal operating system, the iPhone used an operating system based on Mac OS X, which would later be called " iPhone OS " and then iOS . The simultaneous release of two operating systems based on

9625-412: The first component of such a relative path represents the working directory . (Using " ./foo " to refer to a file " foo " in the current working directory can sometimes usefully distinguish it from a resource " foo " to be found in a default directory or by other means; for example, to view a specific version of a manual page instead of the one installed in the system.) Contrary to popular belief,

9750-619: The first version of Windows supported the 8-bit ISO-8859-1 character set which has the Yen sign at U+00A5, and modern versions of Windows supports Unicode which has the Won sign at U+20A9, much software will continue to display backslashes found in ASCII files this way to preserve backward compatibility. Mac OS X , as a derivative of UNIX, uses UNIX paths internally. However, to preserve compatibility for software and familiarity for users, many portions of

9875-591: The following types of paths: In versions of Windows prior to Windows XP, only the APIs that accept "long" device paths could accept more than 260 characters. The shell in Windows XP and Windows Vista , explorer.exe , allows path names up to 248 characters long. Since UNCs start with two backslashes, and the backslash is also used for string escaping and in regular expressions , this can result in extreme cases of leaning toothpick syndrome : an escaped string for

10000-410: The head of OS X development, Scott Forstall , and design was changed towards a more minimal direction. Apple's new user interface design, using deep color saturation, text-only buttons and a minimal, 'flat' interface, was debuted with iOS 7 in 2013. With OS X engineers reportedly working on iOS 7, the version released in 2013, OS X 10.9 Mavericks , was something of a transitional release, with some of

10125-488: The introduction of Aqua and its departure from the then conventional look "hit like a ton of bricks." Bruce Tognazzini (who founded the original Apple Human Interface Group) said that the Aqua interface in Mac OS X 10.0 represented a step backwards in usability compared with the original Mac OS interface. Third-party developers started producing skins for customizable applications and other operating systems which mimicked

10250-572: The major differences between the classic Mac OS and the current macOS was the addition of Aqua , a graphical user interface with water-like elements, in the first major release of Mac OS X. Every window element, text, graphic, or widget is drawn on-screen using spatial anti-aliasing technology. ColorSync , a technology introduced many years before, was improved and built into the core drawing engine, to provide color matching for printing and multimedia professionals. Also, drop shadows were added around windows and isolated text elements to provide

10375-597: The major version number, similarly to classic Mac OS and iOS, but is still named after places within California. The heritage of what would become macOS had originated at NeXT , a company founded by Steve Jobs following his departure from Apple in 1985. There, the Unix-like NeXTSTEP operating system was developed, before being launched in 1989. The kernel of NeXTSTEP is based upon the Mach kernel , which

10500-801: The menu bar. Since 2012, Apple has sold almost all of its Mac models with high-resolution Retina displays , and macOS and its APIs have extensive support for resolution-independent development on supporting high-resolution displays. Reviewers have described Apple's support for the technology as superior to that on Windows. The human interface guidelines published by Apple for macOS are followed by many applications, giving them consistent user interface and keyboard shortcuts. In addition, new services for applications are included, which include spelling and grammar checkers, special characters palette, color picker, font chooser and dictionary; these global features are present in every Cocoa application, adding consistency. The graphics system OpenGL composites windows onto

10625-456: The most common syntax: This path points to a file with the name File.txt , located in the directory Temp , which in turn is located in the root directory of the drive A: . This path refers to a file called File.txt located in the parent directory of the current directory on drive C: . This path denotes a file called File.txt located in SubFolder directory which in turn

10750-1022: The need to provide the full absolute path. A filename can be considered as a relative path based at the current working directory. If the working directory is not the file's parent directory , a file not found error will result if the file is addressed by its name. A base URL is the consistent part of an API path, to which endpoint paths are appended. The Japanese edition uses ¥ , the Korean version uses ₩ as Path separator [PSSnapIn name] \ [PSProvider name:][:PSDrive root] UserDocs:/Letter.txt Variable:PSVersionTable Registry::HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SOFTWARE\ Microsoft.PowerShell.Security\Certificate::CurrentUser\ [NODE["accountname password"]] :: [device name] [000000]: []IN_THIS_DIR.COM; [-.-]GreatGrandParent.TXT SYS$ SYSDEVICE:[.DRAFTS]LETTER.TXT;4 GEIN::[000000]LETTER.TXT;4 SYS$ LOGIN:LOGIN.COM FLIGHT.SIMULATOR,D2 note: &, %, and @ can also be used to reference

10875-476: The operating system offers the same functionality on all supported hardware. As most Mac hardware components, or components similar to those, since the Intel transition are available for purchase, some technology-capable groups have developed software to install macOS on non-Apple computers. These are referred to as Hackintoshes , a portmanteau of the words "hack" and "Macintosh". This violates Apple's EULA (and

11000-411: The performance of the system, as well as a number of adaptive performance optimization mechanisms. Due to its many novel and valuable ideas, Multics has had a significant influence on computer science despite its faults. Its most lasting effect on the computer industry was to inspire the creation of Unix, which carried forward many Multics features, but was able to run on less-expensive hardware. Unix

11125-485: The portability of programs. To support portable programs Java uses File.separator to distinguish between / and \ separated paths. Seed7 has a different approach for the path representation. In Seed7 all paths use the Unix path convention, independent of the operating system. Under windows a mapping takes place (e.g.: The path /c/users is mapped to c:\users ). The Microsoft Windows UNC , short for Universal Naming Convention or Uniform Naming Convention , specifies

11250-610: The preferred language for software development on Apple platforms. Apple's original plan with macOS was to require all developers to rewrite their software into the Cocoa APIs. This caused much outcry among existing Mac developers, who threatened to abandon the platform rather than invest in a costly rewrite, and the idea was shelved. To permit a smooth transition from Mac OS 9 to Mac OS X, the Carbon Application Programming Interface (API)

11375-704: The primary Macintosh operating system from 1984 to 2001. Its underlying architecture came from NeXT 's NeXTSTEP , as a result of Apple's acquisition of NeXT , which also brought Steve Jobs back to Apple. The first desktop version, Mac OS X 10.0 , was released on March 24, 2001. All macOS releases are UNIX 03 certified. The derivatives of macOS are Apple's other operating systems: iOS , iPadOS , watchOS , tvOS , and audioOS . macOS has supported three major processor architectures: originally PowerPC -based Macs in 1999; Intel Core-based Macs from 2006 ; and self-designed 64-bit Arm Apple M series Macs since 2020 . A prominent part of macOS's original brand identity

11500-646: The procedure of repairing permissions vastly overused. He argues that macOS typically handles permissions properly without user interference, and resetting permissions should only be tried when problems emerge. The architecture of macOS incorporates a layered design: the layered frameworks aid rapid development of applications by providing existing code for common tasks. Apple provides its own software development tools, most prominently an integrated development environment called Xcode . Xcode provides interfaces to compilers that support several programming languages including C , C++ , Objective-C , and Swift . For

11625-402: The process simply uses normal central processing unit (CPU) instructions, and the operating system takes care of making sure that all the modifications were saved to disk . In POSIX terminology, it is as if every file were mmap () ed; however, in Multics there is no concept of process memory , separate from the memory used to hold mapped-in files, as Unix has. All memory in the system

11750-404: The project in 1969 as it became clear it would not deliver a working system in the short term. Shortly thereafter, GE decided to exit the computer industry entirely and sold the division to Honeywell in 1970. Honeywell offered Multics commercially, but with limited success. Multics has numerous features intended to ensure high availability so that it would support a computing utility similar to

11875-479: The project in 1969; some of the people who had worked on it there went on to create the Unix system. Multics development continued at MIT and General Electric. At MIT in 1975, use of Multics was declining and did not recover by 1976 to prior levels. Finally by slashing prices, MIT managed to lure users back to Multics in 1978. In 1974 Honeywell entered into a development contract with the Air Force (with MIT as

12000-473: The release of Leopard onwards and announced that Carbon applications would not run at 64-bit. A number of macOS applications continued to use Carbon for some time afterwards, especially ones with heritage dating back to the classic Mac OS and for which updates would be difficult, uneconomic or not necessary. This included Microsoft Office up to Office 2016 , and Photoshop up to CS5. Early versions of macOS could also run some classic Mac OS applications through

12125-536: The root of the current user, the library and the current (working) directory respectively. When filesystems with filename extensions are mounted, '.' characters are changed to '/', as in the Japan/gif example above. // (root of domain) / (root of current node) note: prefix may be a number (0–31), * (boot volume) or @ (AppleShare home directory) hb set -p --product [PRODUCT_NAME] Japanese and Korean versions of Windows may often display

12250-471: The same frameworks placed tension on Apple, which cited the iPhone as forcing it to delay Mac OS X 10.5 Leopard . However, after Apple opened the iPhone to third-party developers its commercial success drew attention to Mac OS X, with many iPhone software developers showing interest in Mac development. In 2007, Mac OS X 10.5 Leopard was the sole release with universal binary components, allowing installation on both Intel Macs and select PowerPC Macs. It

12375-560: The screen to allow hardware-accelerated drawing. This technology, introduced in version 10.2, is called Quartz Extreme , a component of Quartz . Quartz's internal imaging model correlates well with the Portable Document Format (PDF) imaging model, making it easy to output PDF to multiple devices. As a side result, PDF viewing and creating PDF documents from any application are built-in features. Reflecting its popularity with design users, macOS also has system support for

12500-417: The service name (here 'smb'): The following worked example discusses the behavior of a Unix -style file system as it would appear from a terminal or terminal application (command-line window): Attached to a current working directory (cwd) of: One wants to change the current working directory to: At that moment, the relative path for the desired directory can be represented as: or for short: and

12625-425: The shell — a separate process that you can replace with some other process". Dennis Ritchie wrote that the design of UNIX was influenced by CTSS . The Prime Computer operating system, PRIMOS , was referred to as "Multics in a shoebox" by William Poduska , a founder of the company. Poduska later moved on to found Apollo Computer , whose AEGIS and later Domain/OS operating systems, sometimes called "Multics in

12750-425: The skeuomorphic design removed, while most of the general interface of Mavericks remained unchanged. The next version, OS X 10.10 Yosemite , adopted a design similar to iOS 7 but with greater complexity suitable for an interface controlled with a mouse. From 2012 onwards, the system has shifted to an annual release schedule similar to that of iOS and Mac OS X releases prior to 10.4 Tiger . It also steadily cut

12875-459: The slash character as a 'switch' prefix. For example, dir /w runs the dir command with the wide list format option. This use of slash can still be found in the command interface under Microsoft Windows . By contrast, Unix uses the hyphen-minus character ("-") as a command-line switch prefix. When directory support was added to MS-DOS in version 2.0, "/" was kept as the switch prefix character for backward compatibility . Microsoft chose

13000-521: The slash. In addition "\" does not indicate a single root, but instead the root of the "current disk". Indicating a file on a disk other than the current one requires prefixing a drive letter and colon. No ambiguity ensues, because colon is not a valid character in an MS-DOS filename, and thus one cannot have a file called "A:" in the current directory. UNC names (any path starting with \\?\ ) do not support slashes. The following examples show MS-DOS / Windows -style paths, with backslashes used to match

13125-414: The source code for MR12.5, the final 1992 Multics release, to MIT. Most of the system is now available as free software with the exception of some optional pieces such as TCP/IP . In 2014, Multics was successfully run on current hardware using an emulator created by Multicians Harry Reed and Charles Anthony. The 1.0 release of the emulator is available as of 2017 . Release 12.6f of Multics accompanies

13250-426: The staffer was speaking, and the task was in fact completed. The design and features of Multics influenced the Unix operating system, which was originally written by two Multics programmers, Ken Thompson and Dennis Ritchie . Influence of Multics on Unix is evident in many areas, including the hierarchical file system , redirection , the shell , and the naming of some commands. But the internal design philosophy

13375-434: The standards of the day. Multics compilers generally optimise more for code density than CPU performance, for example using small sub-routines called operators for short standard code sequences, which makes comparison of object code size with modern systems less useful. High code density is a good optimisation choice for Multics as a multi-user system with expensive main memory. During its commercial product history, it

13500-416: The time, one megabyte of memory was prohibitively expensive. Another major new idea of Multics was dynamic linking , in which a running process can make external routines available by adding the segments containing them to its address space. This allows applications to always use the latest version of any external routine, since those routines are kept in other segments, which are dynamically linked only when

13625-472: The underlying command-line compilers supported building universal binaries that would run on either architecture. PowerPC-only software is supported with Apple's official binary translation software, Rosetta , though applications eventually had to be rewritten to run properly on the newer versions released for Intel processors. Apple initially encouraged developers to produce universal binaries with support for both PowerPC and Intel. PowerPC binaries suffer

13750-532: Was a cooperative project led by MIT ( Project MAC with Fernando Corbató ) along with General Electric and Bell Labs . It was developed on the GE 645 computer, which was specially designed for it; the first one was delivered to MIT in January 1967. GE offered their earlier 635 systems with an early timesharing system known as "Mark I" and intended to offer the 645 with Multics as a larger successor. Bell withdrew from

13875-401: Was a descendant of APIs inherited from OPENSTEP with no ancestry from the classic Mac OS , while Carbon was an adaptation of classic Mac OS APIs, allowing Mac software to be minimally rewritten to run natively on Mac OS X. The Cocoa API was created as the result of a 1993 collaboration between NeXT Computer and Sun Microsystems . This heritage is highly visible for Cocoa developers, since

14000-496: Was a transitional product, featuring an interface resembling the classic Mac OS , though it was not compatible with software designed for the older system. Consumer releases of Mac OS X included more backward compatibility . Mac OS applications could be rewritten to run natively via the Carbon API ; many could also be run directly through the Classic Environment with a reduction in performance. The consumer version of Mac OS X

14125-507: Was added to Multics during Project Guardian. In 1964, Multics was developed initially for the GE-645 mainframe, a 36-bit system. GE's computer business, including Multics, was taken over by Honeywell in 1970; around 1973, Multics was supported on the Honeywell 6180 machines, which included security improvements including hardware support for protection rings . Bell Labs pulled out of

14250-607: Was adopted; it has hardware support for ring-oriented security , a multilevel refinement of the concept of master mode . A US Air Force tiger team project tested Multics security in 1973 under the codeword ZARF. On 28 May 1997, the American National Security Agency declassified this use of the codeword ZARF. Multics is the first operating system to provide a hierarchical file system , and file names can be of almost arbitrary length and syntax. A given file or directory can have multiple names (typically

14375-527: Was announced that the API would be available for third-party developers to use from 2019. With macOS Catalina in 2019, the application layer was made available to third-party developers as Mac Catalyst . List of macOS versions, the supported systems on which they run, and their RAM requirements Tools such as XPostFacto and patches applied to the installation media have been developed by third parties to enable installation of newer versions of macOS on systems not officially supported by Apple. This includes

14500-402: Was announced to focus specifically on stability and performance improvements. In 2016, with the release of macOS 10.12 Sierra , the name was changed from OS X to macOS with the purpose of aligning it with the branding of Apple's other primary operating systems: iOS , watchOS , and tvOS . macOS Sierra added Siri , iCloud Drive , picture-in-picture support, a Night Shift mode that switches

14625-401: Was created. Applications written with Carbon were initially able to run natively on both classic Mac OS and Mac OS X, although this ability was later dropped as Mac OS X developed. Carbon was not included in the first product sold as Mac OS X: the little-used original release of Mac OS X Server 1.0 , which also did not include the Aqua interface. Apple limited further development of Carbon from

14750-468: Was designed to be portable, to ease the transition from one platform to another. For example, NeXTSTEP was ported from the original 68k -based NeXT workstations to x86 and other architectures before NeXT was purchased by Apple, and OPENSTEP was later ported to the PowerPC architecture as part of the Rhapsody project . Prior to macOS High Sierra, and on drives other than solid state drives (SSDs),

14875-540: Was developed at Bell to allow their Multics team to continue their research using smaller machines, first a PDP-7 and ultimately the PDP-11 . Multics implements a single-level store for data access, discarding the clear distinction between files (called segments in Multics) and process memory . The memory of a process consists solely of segments that were mapped into its address space . To read or write to them,

15000-477: Was done, it was common practice to split the multiprocessor system into two separate systems during off-hours by incrementally removing enough components to form a second working system, leaving the rest still running for the original logged-in users. System software development testing could be done on the second system, then the components of the second system were added back to the main user system, without ever having shut it down. Multics supports multiple CPUs; it

15125-413: Was launched in 2001 with Mac OS X 10.0 . Reviews were variable, with extensive praise for its sophisticated, glossy Aqua interface , but criticizing it for sluggish performance. With Apple's popularity at a low, the maker of FrameMaker , Adobe Inc. , declined to develop new versions of it for Mac OS X. Ars Technica columnist John Siracusa, who reviewed every major OS X release up to 10.10, described

15250-555: Was often commented internally that the Honeywell Information Systems (HIS) (later Honeywell-Bull) sales and marketing staff were more familiar with and comfortable making the business case for Honeywell's other computer line, the DPS 6 running GCOS . The DPS-6 and GCOS was a well-regarded and reliable platform for inventory, accounting, word processing, and vertical market applications, such as banking, where it had

15375-493: Was originally developed at Carnegie Mellon University , with additional kernel layers and low-level user space code derived from parts of FreeBSD and other BSD operating systems. Its graphical user interface was built on top of an object-oriented GUI toolkit using the Objective-C programming language. Throughout the 1990s, Apple had tried to create a "next-generation" OS to succeed its classic Mac OS through

15500-628: Was the first increment in the primary version number of macOS since the release of Mac OS X Public Beta in 2000; updates to macOS 11 were given 11.x numbers, matching the version numbering scheme used by Apple's other operating systems. Big Sur brought major changes to the user interface and was the first version to run on Apple Silicon , based on the ARM architecture. The numbering system started with Big Sur continued in 2021 with macOS 12 Monterey , 2022 with macOS 13 Ventura , 2023 with macOS 14 Sonoma , and 2024 with macOS 15 Sequoia . At macOS's core

15625-512: Was the use of Roman numeral X, pronounced "ten", as well as code naming each release after species of big cats , and later, places within California . Apple shortened the name to "OS X" in 2011 and then changed it to "macOS" in 2016 to align with the branding of Apple's other operating systems. After sixteen distinct versions of macOS 10, macOS Big Sur was presented as version 11 in 2020, and every subsequent version has also incremented

#30969