137-538: In the United States, several federal agencies and laws have some jurisdiction over pollution from ships in U.S. waters. States and local government agencies also have responsibilities for ship-related pollution in some situations. MARPOL 73/78 (the "International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution From Ships") is one of the most important treaties regulating pollution from ships . Six Annexes of
274-603: A bidet shower may be plumbed in. The left hand is used for cleansing, for which reason that hand is considered impolite or polluted in many Asian countries. The use of water in many Christian countries is due in part to the biblical toilet etiquette which encourages washing after all instances of defecation. The bidet is common in predominantly Catholic countries where water is considered essential for anal cleansing , and in some traditionally Orthodox and Lutheran countries such as Greece and Finland respectively, where bidet showers are common. There are toilets on
411-474: A charter city . In some states, large areas have no general-purpose local government below the county level. Town or township governments are organized local governments authorized in the state constitutions and statutes of 20 Northeastern and Midwestern states, established to provide general government for a defined area, generally based on the geographic subdivision of a county. An additional dimension that distinguishes township governments from municipalities
548-544: A mayor or president . Alternatively, the institution may be of the council–manager government form, run by a city manager under direction of the city council . In the past the municipal commission was also common. Across the US, local governments employ more than ten million people. The ICMA has classified local governments into five common forms: mayor–council , council–manager , commission , town meeting , and representative town meeting . In addition to elections for
685-406: A sanitation system, although other elements are also needed: transport, treatment, disposal, or reuse . Diseases, including Cholera , which still affects some 3 million people each year, can be largely prevented when effective sanitation and water treatment prevents fecal matter from contaminating waterways , groundwater , and drinking water supplies. The fourth millennium BC would witness
822-450: A toilet seat , with additional considerations for those with disabilities , or for a squatting posture more popular in Asia , known as a squat toilet . In urban areas, flush toilets are usually connected to a sewer system ; in isolated areas, to a septic tank . The waste is known as blackwater and the combined effluent, including other sources, is sewage . Dry toilets are connected to
959-553: A 15- ppm oil water separator, and unless the discharge does not cause a visible sheen. Beyond 12 miles (19 km), oil or oily mixtures can be discharged while a vessel is proceeding en route and if the oil content without dilution is less than 100 ppm. Vessels are required to maintain an Oil Record Book to record disposal of oily residues and discharges overboard or disposal of bilge water. In addition to Section 311 requirements, APPS implements MARPOL Annex I concerning oil pollution . APPS applies to all U.S. flagged ships anywhere in
1096-445: A certified MSD prior to discharge. Between three and 12 miles (19 km) from shore, sewage discharges must be treated by no less than maceration or chlorination ; sewage discharges beyond 12 miles (19 km) from shore are unrestricted. Vessels are permitted to meet alternative, less stringent requirements when they are in the jurisdiction of countries where less stringent requirements apply. In U.S. waters, vessels must comply with
1233-422: A city can, either by separating from its county or counties or by merging with one or more counties, become independent of any separately functioning county government and function both as a county and as a city. Depending on the state, such a city is known as either an independent city or a consolidated city-county . A consolidated city-county differs from an independent city in that in a consolidated city-county,
1370-488: A council or mayor, elections are often also held for positions such as local judges, the sheriff , prosecutors, and other offices. Local governments across the US consist of hundreds of thousands of elected officials. Local elections are often marked by "abysmally low" voter turnout , as these elections are de-synchronized from state and federal elections. A 2009 study found that less than 40% of registered voters participate in local elections for mayor and city council. Turnout
1507-629: A cubicle over the drain. Around the 18th century BC, toilets started to appear in Minoan Crete , Pharaonic Egypt , and ancient Persia . In 2012, archaeologists found what is believed to be Southeast Asia's earliest latrine during the excavation of a neolithic village in the Rạch Núi archaeological site , southern Vietnam. The toilet, dating back 1500 BC, yielded important clues about early Southeast Asian society. More than 30 coprolites , containing fish and shattered animal bones, provided information on
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#17327810783061644-481: A gypsum-based mortar that emptied either into the surrounding water bodies or alternatively into cesspits , the latter of which were regularly emptied and cleaned. Other very early toilets that used flowing water to remove the waste are found at Skara Brae in Orkney, Scotland, which was occupied from about 3100 BC until 2500 BC. Some of the houses there have a drain running directly beneath them, and some of these had
1781-615: A loose association with authorities in London . Representative government sprung up spontaneously in various colonies, and during the colonial years, it was recognized and ratified by later charters. But the colonial assemblies passed few bills and did not conduct much business, but dealt with a narrow range of issues, and legislative sessions lasted weeks (occasionally longer), and most legislators could not afford to neglect work for extended periods; so wealthier people tended to predominate in local legislatures. Office holders tended to serve from
1918-663: A number of deficiencies with this regulatory structure as it affects large vessels. First, the MSD regulations only cover discharges of bacterial contaminants and suspended solids, while the NPDES permit program for other point sources typically regulates many more pollutants such as chemicals , pesticides , heavy metals , oil , and grease that may be released by large vessels as well as land-based sources. Second, sources subject to NPDES permits must comply with sampling, monitoring, recordkeeping, and reporting requirements, which do not exist in
2055-622: A number of factors limit the ability of Coast Guard inspectors to detect violations of environmental law and rules, including the inspectors' focus on safety, the large size some ships, limited time and staff for inspections, and the lack of an element of surprise concerning inspections. The Coast Guard carries out a wide range of responsibilities that encompass both homeland security ( ports , waterways , and coastal security, defense readiness, drug and migrant interdiction) and non-homeland security ( search and rescue , marine environmental protection , fisheries enforcement, aids to navigation ). Since
2192-436: A pit , removable container , composting chamber , or other storage and treatment device, including urine diversion with a urine-diverting toilet . The technology used for modern toilets varies. Toilets are commonly made of ceramic ( porcelain ), concrete, plastic, or wood. Newer toilet technologies include dual flushing , low flushing , toilet seat warming , self-cleaning, female urinals and waterless urinals . Japan
2329-523: A quarter of a liter per flush) or none, (as in waterless urinals ). Some flush with coloured disinfectant solution rather than with water. They may be used to separate blackwater and greywater , and process them separately (for instance, the fairly dry blackwater can be used for biogas production, or in a composting toilet ). Passenger train toilets , aircraft lavatories , bus toilets, and ships with plumbing often use vacuum toilets. The lower water usage saves weight, and avoids water slopping out of
2466-633: A sense of duty and prestige, and not for financial benefit. Campaigning by candidates was different from today's. There were no mass media or advertising. Candidates talked with voters in person, walking a line between undue familiarity and aloofness. Prospective officeholders were expected to be at the polls on election day and made a point to greet all voters. Failure to appear or to be civil to all could be disastrous. In some areas, candidates offered voters food and drink, evenhandedly giving "treats" to opponents as well as supporters. ––Ed Crews. Taxes were generally based on real estate since it
2603-650: A single function, but, in some instances, their enabling legislation allows them to provide several, usually related, types of services. The services provided by these districts range from such basic social needs as hospitals and fire protection to the less conspicuous tasks of mosquito abatement and upkeep of cemeteries. The Census Bureau classification of special district governments covers a wide variety of entities, most of which are officially called districts or authorities. Additionally, U.S. courts have ruled that there are smaller areas which are to be considered as fulfilling government functions, and should therefore be bound by
2740-561: A toilet at all; they must openly defecate and urinate. These issues can lead to the spread of diseases transmitted via the fecal-oral route , or the transmission of waterborne diseases such as cholera and dysentery . Therefore, the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 6 wants to "achieve access to adequate and equitable sanitation and hygiene for all and end open defecation". The number of different types of toilets used worldwide
2877-523: A toilet linked to a pigsty by a chute, is still in use to a limited extent. It was common in rural China, and was known in Japan, Korea, and India. The "fish pond toilet" depends on the same principle, of livestock (often carp ) eating human excreta directly. There are cultural differences in socially accepted and preferred voiding positions for urination around the world: in the Middle East and Asia,
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#17327810783063014-422: A transporter of hazardous waste, and thus subject to RCRA rules. Issues that the ship industry may face relating to RCRA include ensuring that hazardous waste is identified at the point at which it is considered generated; ensuring that parties are properly identified as generators, storers, treaters, or disposers; and determining the applicability of RCRA requirements to each. Hazardous waste generated on board ships
3151-435: A vent pipe attached to the sewer line. The amount of water used by conventional flush toilets usually makes up a significant portion of personal daily water usage. However, modern low flush toilet designs allow the use of much less water per flush. Dual flush toilets allow the user to select between a flush for urine or feces, saving a significant amount of water over conventional units. One type of dual flush system allows
3288-613: A vessel could also theoretically trigger coverage under the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA; also known as "Superfund."). In addition to RCRA, hazardous waste discharges from ships are subject to Section 311 of the Clean Water Act, which prohibits the discharge of hazardous substances in harmful quantities into or upon the navigable waters of the United States, adjoining shorelines , or into or upon
3425-407: A waste is hazardous if it is ignitable , corrosive , reactive , or toxic , or appears on a list of about 100 industrial process waste streams and more than 500 discarded commercial products and chemicals . Treatment, storage, and disposal facilities are required to have permits and comply with operating standards and other EPA regulations. The owner or operator of a ship may be a generator and/or
3562-402: Is a ceramic bowl (pan) connected on the "up" side to a cistern (tank) that enables rapid filling with water, and on the "down" side to a drain pipe that removes the effluent. When a toilet is flushed, the sewage should flow into a septic tank or into a system connected to a sewage treatment plant . However, in many developing countries , this treatment step does not take place. The water in
3699-524: Is a convenient basis for understanding local government in the United States. The categories are as follows: County governments are organized local governments authorized in state constitutions and statutes. Counties and county-equivalents form the first-tier administrative division of the states. The county equivalents in Louisiana are called parishes , while those in Alaska are called boroughs . All
3836-405: Is called a "pour flush pit latrine" or a "twin pit pour flush to pit latrine". It can also be connected to a septic tank. Flush toilets on ships are typically flushed with seawater . Twin pit latrines use two pits used alternatively, when one pit gets full over a few months or years. The pits are of an adequate size to accommodate a volume of waste generated over one or two years. This allows
3973-545: Is common for residents of major U.S. metropolitan areas to live under six or more layers of special districts as well as a town or city, and a county or township . In turn, a typical metro area often consists of several counties, several dozen towns or cities, and a hundred (or more) special districts. In one state, California , the fragmentation problem became so bad that in 1963 the California Legislature created Local Agency Formation Commissions in 57 of
4110-407: Is distinguished from a pit latrine because the waste accumulates in the vault instead of seeping into the underlying soil. A chemical toilet collects human excreta in a holding tank and uses chemicals to minimize odors. They do not require a connection to a water supply and are used in a variety of situations. These toilets are usually, but not always, self-contained and movable. A chemical toilet
4247-457: Is highest among homeowners, the elderly, and the wealthy. While their territory nominally falls within the boundaries of individual states, Indian reservations actually function outside of state control. The reservation is usually controlled by an elected tribal council which provides local services, and some reservations have their own determined subdivisions. Navajo Nation is divided into five agencies. The most local form of government in
Regulation of ship pollution in the United States - Misplaced Pages Continue
4384-418: Is known for its toilet technology . Airplane toilets are specially designed to operate in the air. The need to maintain anal hygiene post- defecation is universally recognized and toilet paper (often held by a toilet roll holder ), which may also be used to wipe the vulva after urination, is widely used (as well as bidets ). In private homes, depending on the region and style, the toilet may exist in
4521-422: Is large, but can be grouped by: Toilets can be designed to be used either in a standing (urinatiing), sitting or in a squatting posture (defecating). Each type has its benefits. The " sitting toilet ", however, is essential for those who are movement impaired. Sitting toilets are often referred to as "western-style toilets". Sitting toilets are more convenient than squat toilets for people with disabilities and
4658-529: Is responsible for developing performance standards for MSDs, and the Coast Guard is responsible for MSD design and operation regulations and for certifying MSD compliance with the EPA rules. MSDs are designed either to hold sewage for shore-based disposal or to treat sewage prior to discharge. The Coast Guard regulations cover three types of MSDs. Large vessels use either Type II or Type III MSDs. In Type II MSDs,
4795-716: Is responsible for ensuring quarantine inspection and disposal of food-contaminated garbage. In some cases, states and localities have responsibilities as well. EPA issued its most recent Vessels General Permit, under the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES), a Clean Water Act (CWA) program, in 2013. The permit applies to large commercial vessels (79 feet (24 m) in length or greater) (except fishing vessels) and regulates 26 specific types of vessel discharges: In 2016 EPA estimated that approximately 69,000 vessels, both domestic and foreign flagged, were covered by
4932-497: Is responsible for or coordinates all of the relevant government functions. The U.S. Coast Guard and Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) have principal regulatory and standard-setting responsibilities, and the Department of Justice prosecutes violations of federal laws. EPA and the Department of Defense (DOD) began jointly issuing Uniform National Discharge Standards ("UNDS") for armed forces vessels in 2017. In addition,
5069-408: Is stored onboard until the wastes can be offloaded for recycling or disposal in accordance with RCRA. A range of activities on board cruise generate hazardous wastes and toxic substances that would ordinarily be presumed to be subject to RCRA. Ships are potentially subject to RCRA requirements to the extent that chemicals used for operations such as ship maintenance and passenger services result in
5206-407: Is structured around a relatively small tank, which requires frequent emptying. It is not connected to a hole in the ground (like a pit latrine ), nor to a septic tank , nor is it plumbed into a municipal system leading to a sewage treatment plant . When the tank is emptied, the contents are usually pumped into a sanitary sewer or directly to a treatment plant. The pig toilet , which consists of
5343-822: Is the historical circumstance surrounding their formation. For example, towns in New England are also defined by a tradition of local government presided over by town meetings — assemblies open to all voters to express their opinions on public policy. The term "town" is also used for a local level of government in New York and Wisconsin . The terms "town" and "township" are used interchangeably in Minnesota . Some townships or other incorporated areas like villages , boroughs , plantations , and hamlets have governments and political power; others are simply geographic designations. Townships in many states are generally
5480-432: Is unclear whether ships are classified as large or small generators of hazardous waste. Moreover, some ship companies argue that they generate less than 100 kilograms per month and therefore should be classified in a third category, as "conditionally exempt small-quantity generators," a categorization that allows for less rigorous requirements for notification, recordkeeping, and the like. A release of hazardous substances by
5617-545: The September 11 terrorist attacks on the United States, the Coast Guard has focused more of its resources on homeland security activities. One likely result is that less of the Coast Guard's time and attention are available for vessel inspections for MSD or other environmental compliance. Annex IV of MARPOL was drafted to regulate sewage discharges from vessels. It has entered into force internationally and would apply to ships that are flagged in ratifying countries, but because
Regulation of ship pollution in the United States - Misplaced Pages Continue
5754-518: The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers is responsible). Beyond waters that are under U.S. jurisdiction, no MPRSA permit is required for a ship to discharge solid waste. The routine discharge of effluent incidental to the propulsion of vessels is explicitly exempted from the definition of dumping in the MPRSA. The Act to Prevent Pollution from Ships (APPS) and its regulations, which implement U.S.-ratified provisions of MARPOL, also apply to ships. APPS prohibits
5891-779: The U.S. Virgin Islands has districts , and American Samoa has districts and unorganized atolls . Each Indian Reservation is subdivided in various ways. For example, the Navajo Nation is subdivided into agencies and Chapter houses , while the Blackfeet Nation is subdivided into Communities . When North America was colonized by Europeans from the 17th century onward, there was initially little control from governments back in Europe . Many settlements began as shareholder or stockholder business enterprises, and while
6028-415: The toilet seat , including enough room for a caregiver if necessary. In prisons , inmates may utilize toilets and the associated plumbing to communicate messages and pass products. The acoustic properties of communicating through the toilet bowl, known as toilet talk, potty talk, toilet telephone is influenced by flush patterns and bowl water volumes. Prisoners may also send binary signals by ringing
6165-480: The " incorporated places" that are recognized in Census Bureau reporting of population and housing statistics, although the Census Bureau excludes New England towns from their statistics for this category, and the count of municipal governments excludes places that are governmentally inactive. Municipalities range in size from the very small (e.g., the village of Monowi, Nebraska , with only 1 resident), to
6302-693: The "bedroom ware" or "chamber utensils". Once running water and flush toilets were plumbed into British houses, servants were sometimes given their own lavatory downstairs, separate from the family lavatory. The practice of emptying one's own chamber pot, known as slopping out , continued in British prisons until as recently as 2014 and was still in use in 85 cells in Ireland in July 2017. With rare exceptions, chamber pots are no longer used. Modern related implements are bedpans and commodes , used in hospitals and
6439-663: The 18th century. By the 16th century, cesspits and cesspools were increasingly dug into the ground near houses in Europe as a means of collecting waste, as urban populations grew and street gutters became blocked with the larger volume of human waste. Rain was no longer sufficient to wash away waste from the gutters. A pipe connected the latrine to the cesspool, and sometimes a small amount of water washed waste through. Cesspools were cleaned out by tradesmen, known in English as gong farmers , who pumped out liquid waste, then shovelled out
6576-502: The APPS regulations have limited applicability to ship operations. The VGP sets numeric ballast water discharge limits for large commercial vessels. The limits are expressed as the maximum acceptable concentration of living organisms per cubic meter of ballast water. The Coast Guard worked with EPA in developing the scientific basis and the regulatory requirements in the VGP. Congress amended
6713-488: The CWA in 1996 to require development of uniform national discharge standards ("UNDS") for military vessels. The standards are being developed jointly by EPA and DOD. Initial regulations were published in 1999, to identify and characterize a wide variety of discharge types from ships and boats. A final rule setting specific standards for 11 discharge types was published in 2017. A final rule covering 11 additional discharge categories
6850-432: The CWA prohibits the dumping of untreated or inadequately treated sewage from vessels into the navigable waters of the United States (defined as within 3 miles (4.8 km) of shore). It is implemented jointly by EPA and the Coast Guard. Under commercial and recreational vessels with installed toilets are required to have marine sanitation devices (MSDs), which are designed to prevent the discharge of untreated sewage. EPA
6987-399: The Census Bureau, despite the fact that they are legally municipal corporations , since their structure has no necessary relation to concentration of population, which is typical of municipalities elsewhere in the United States. In particular, towns in New England have considerably more power than most townships elsewhere and often function as legally equivalent to cities, typically exercising
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#17327810783067124-632: The Convention cover the various sources of pollution from ships and provide an overarching framework for international objectives. In the U.S., the Convention is implemented through the Act to Prevent Pollution from Ships (APPS). Under the provisions of the Convention, the United States can take direct enforcement action under U.S. laws against foreign-flagged ships when pollution discharge incidents occur within U.S. jurisdiction. When incidents occur outside U.S. jurisdiction or jurisdiction cannot be determined,
7261-647: The Department of State represents the United States at meetings of the IMO and in international treaty negotiations and is responsible for pursuing foreign-flag violations. Other federal agencies have limited roles and responsibilities. For example, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA, Department of Commerce) works with the Coast Guard and EPA to report on the effects of marine debris . The Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS)
7398-595: The MSD rules. In addition, the Coast Guard, responsible for inspecting vessels for compliance with the MSD rules, has been heavily criticized for poor enforcement of Section 312 requirements. In its 2000 report, the Government Accountability Office (GAO) said that Coast Guard inspectors "rarely have time during scheduled ship examinations to inspect sewage treatment equipment or filter systems to see if they are working properly and filtering out potentially harmful contaminants." GAO reported that
7535-699: The NMI are used as county equivalents by the U.S. Census, but Guam is treated as a single county. ) There are no municipal governments in the District of Columbia and the United States Virgin Islands ; only the district-wide and territory-wide governments under federal jurisdiction. In addition to general-purpose government entities legislating at the state, county, and city level, special-purpose areas may exist as well. Conservation districts are one such type of special purpose area, created for
7672-783: The Navajo Nation is the Chapter , which deals with local responsibilities expected of a municipal government. A census of all local governments in the country is performed every five years by the United States Census Bureau , in accordance with 13 USC 161. (not including insular areas ) * note: Municipalities are any incorporated places, such as cities , towns , villages , boroughs , etc. ** note: New England towns and towns in New York and Wisconsin are classified as civil townships for census purposes. The following sections provide details of
7809-510: The U.S. during the 1920s, according to one source, in which state law gave certain townships or other local governing bodies authority to decide how land was used; a typical zoning ordinance has a map of a parcel of land attached with a statement specifying how that land can be used, how buildings can be laid out, and so forth. Zoning legitimacy was upheld by the Supreme Court in its Euclid v. Ambler decision. The Tenth Amendment to
7946-583: The US Census Bureau's data collected in 2012, there were 89,004 local government units in the United States. This data shows a decline from 89,476 units since the last census of local governments performed in 2007. Each of the five permanently inhabited U.S. territories is also subdivided into smaller entities. Puerto Rico has 78 municipalities , and the Northern Mariana Islands has four municipalities. Guam has villages ,
8083-640: The United States Constitution makes local government a matter of state rather than federal law, with special cases for territories and the District of Columbia . As a result, the states have adopted a wide variety of systems of local government. The United States Census Bureau conducts the Census of Governments every five years to compile statistics on government organization, public employment, and government finances. The categories of local government established in this Census of Governments
8220-415: The United States for the purpose of dumping it into ocean waters without a permit or to dump any material transported from a location outside the United States into U.S. territorial seas or the contiguous zone (within 12 nautical miles (22 km) from shore) or ocean waters. EPA is responsible for issuing permits that regulate the disposal of materials at sea (except for dredged material disposal, for which
8357-435: The United States has not ratified Annex IV, it is not mandatory that ships follow it when in U.S. waters. However, its requirements are minimal, even compared with U.S. rules for MSDs. Annex IV requires that vessels be equipped with a certified sewage treatment system or holding tank, but it prescribes no specific performance standards. Within three miles (5 km) of shore, Annex IV requires that sewage discharges be treated by
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#17327810783068494-568: The United States refers cases to flag states, in accordance with MARPOL. These procedures require substantial coordination between the Coast Guard , the State Department , and other flag states, and the response rate from flag states has been poor. Different regulations apply to vessels, depending on the individual state. In the United States, several federal agencies have some jurisdiction over ships in U.S. waters, but no one agency
8631-653: The VGP. EPA issued its Small Vessels General Permit (sVGP) for smaller commercial vessels in 2014, however this permit only applied to ballast water. In 2018 Congress repealed the sVGP under the Vessel Incidental Discharge Act. As of 2023 small vessels are subject to the ballast water requirements of the VGP, Coast Guard regulations, and applicable state and local government requirements. The Vessel Incidental Discharge Act (VIDA), approved in 2018, requires EPA to develop new performance standards for vessel discharges, and generally requires that
8768-651: The ability to raise taxes or fees, fine members for infractions against association-rules, and initiate lawsuits. The question of civil rights in such communities has not yet been conclusively determined, and varies from state to state. School districts are organized local entities providing public elementary and secondary education which, under state law, have sufficient administrative and fiscal autonomy to qualify as separate governments. The category excludes dependent public school systems of county, municipal, township, or state governments (e.g., school divisions ). Special districts are all organized local entities other than
8905-448: The adequacy of port facilities to receive offloaded solid waste. The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) is the primary federal law that governs hazardous waste management through a " cradle-to-grave " program that controls hazardous waste from the point of generation until ultimate disposal. The act imposes management requirements on generators, transporters, and persons who treat or dispose of hazardous waste. Under this act,
9042-405: The back door of the kitchen for use by gardeners and other outside staff such as those working with the horses. The speed of introduction was varied, so that in 1906 the predominantly working-class town of Rochdale had 750 water closets for a population of 10,000. The working-class home had transitioned from the rural cottage, to the urban back-to-back terraces with external rows of privies, to
9179-434: The checking of blood pressure, temperature, and blood sugar. Some toilets have automatic lid operation, heated seats, deodorizing fans, or automated replacement of paper toilet-seat-covers. Interactive urinals have been developed in several countries, allowing users to play video games. The "Toylet", produced by Sega , uses pressure sensors to detect the flow of urine and translates that into on-screen action. Astronauts on
9316-702: The city and county both nominally exist, although they have a consolidated government, whereas in an independent city, the county does not even nominally exist. Such a jurisdiction constitutes a county-equivalent and is analogous to a unitary authority in other countries. In Connecticut, Rhode Island, and parts of Massachusetts, counties exist only to designate boundaries for such state-level functions as park districts or judicial offices (Massachusetts). In Puerto Rico, Guam, and Northern Mariana Islands, there are municipalities (villages in Guam) and no counties. (Municipalities in PR and
9453-445: The contents of the full pit enough time to transform into a partially sanitized, soil -like material that can be manually excavated. There is a risk of groundwater pollution when pits are located in areas with a high or variable water table, and/or fissures or cracks in the bedrock. A vacuum toilet is a flush toilet that is connected to a vacuum sewer system , and removes waste by suction. They may use very little water (less than
9590-764: The county in which they would otherwise be a part. In some states, particularly in New England, towns form the primary unit of local government below the state level, in some cases eliminating the need for county government entirely. Many rural areas and even some suburban areas of many states have no municipal government below the county level. In addition to counties and municipalities, states often create special purpose authorities, such as school districts and districts for fire protection, sanitary sewer service, public transportation , public libraries , public parks or forests, water resource management, and conservation districts . Such special purpose districts may encompass areas in multiple municipalities or counties. According to
9727-447: The crime. The engineer may receive a substantial prison sentence and fine. The ship operator pleaded guilty to violating APPS and was fined $ 1.65 million US and ordered to "implement a comprehensive Environmental Compliance Plan." Local government in the United States [REDACTED] [REDACTED] Most U.S. states and territories have at least two tiers of local government: counties and municipalities . Louisiana uses
9864-724: The diet of humans and dogs, and on the types of parasites each had to contend with. In Sri Lanka , the techniques of the construction of toilets and lavatories developed over several stages. A highly developed stage in this process is discernible in the constructions at the Abhayagiri complex in Anuradhapura where toilets and baths dating back to 2nd century BC to 3rd century CE are known, later forms of toilets from 5th century CE to 13th century CE in Polonnaruwa and Anuradhapura had elaborate decorative motifs carved around
10001-483: The discharge of all garbage within 3 nautical miles (5.6 km) of shore, certain types of garbage within 12 nautical miles (22 km) offshore, and plastic anywhere. It applies to all vessels, whether seagoing or not, regardless of flag, operating in U.S. navigable waters and the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ). It is administered by the Coast Guard, which carries out inspection programs to insure
10138-617: The discharge of both treated and untreated sewage from all vessels with installed toilets into some or all waters over which it has jurisdiction (up to 3 miles (4.8 km) from land). To create a no-discharge zone to protect waters from sewage discharges by vessels, the state must apply to EPA under one of three categories. Ship discharges of solid waste are governed by two laws. Title I of the Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act (MPRSA) applies to cruise ships and other vessels and makes it illegal to transport garbage from
10275-517: The dramatic growth in the sewage system , especially in London, which made the flush toilet particularly attractive for health and sanitation reasons. Flush toilets were also known as "water closets", as opposed to the earth closets described above. WCs first appeared in Britain in the 1880s, and soon spread to Continental Europe. In America, the chain-pull indoor toilet was introduced in the homes of
10412-438: The elderly. People use different toilet types based on the country that they are in. In developing countries , access to toilets is also related to people's socio-economic status . Poor people in low-income countries often have no toilets at all and resort to open defecation instead. This is part of the sanitation crisis which international initiatives (such as World Toilet Day ) draw attention to. A typical flush toilet
10549-443: The flush handle to be pushed up for one kind of flush and down for the other, whereas another design is to have two buttons, one for urination and the other for defecation. In some places, users are encouraged not to flush after urination. Flushing toilets can be plumbed to use greywater (water that was previously used for washing dishes, laundry, and bathing) rather than potable water (drinking water). Some modern toilets pressurize
10686-613: The four categories listed above, authorized by state law to provide designated functions as established in the district's charter or other founding document, and with sufficient administrative and fiscal autonomy to qualify as separate governments; known by a variety of titles, including districts, authorities, boards, commissions, etc., as specified in the enabling state legislation. A special district may serve areas of multiple states if established by an interstate compact . Special districts are widely popular, have enjoyed "phenomenal growth" and "nearly tripled in number" from 1957 to 2007. It
10823-477: The full range of powers that are divided between counties, townships, and cities in other states. In New England, towns are a principal form of local municipal government, providing many of the functions of counties in other states. In California , by contrast, the pertinent statutes of the Government Code clarify that "town" is simply another word for "city", especially a general law city as distinct from
10960-412: The generation of hazardous wastes. However, it is not entirely clear what regulations apply to the management and disposal of these wastes.30 RCRA rules that cover small-quantity generators (those that generate more than 100 kilograms but less than 1,000 kilograms of hazardous waste per month) are less stringent than those for large-quantity generators (generating more than 1,000 kilograms per month), and it
11097-501: The home. Before the introduction of indoor toilets, it was common to use the chamber pot under one's bed at night and then to dispose of its contents in the morning. During the Victorian era , British housemaids collected all of the household's chamber pots and carried them to a room known as the housemaids' cupboard. This room contained a "slop sink", made of wood with a lead lining to prevent chipping china chamber pots, for washing
11234-401: The home. In pre-modern Denmark, people generally defecated on farmland or other places where the human waste could be collected as fertilizer . The Old Norse language had several terms for referring to outhouses , including garðhús (yard house), náð-/náða-hús (house of rest), and annat hús (the other house). In general, toilets were functionally non-existent in rural Denmark until
11371-615: The homes of invalids. Long-established sanitary wear manufacturers in the United Kingdom include Adamsez, founded in Newcastle-upon-Tyne in 1880, by M.J. and S.H. Adams, and Twyfords , founded in Hanley , Stoke-on-Trent in 1849, by Thomas Twyford and his son Thomas William Twyford . Before the widespread adoption of the flush toilet , there were inventors, scientists, and public health officials who supported
11508-462: The invention of clay pipes, sewers, and toilets, in Mesopotamia , with the city of Uruk today exhibiting the earliest known internal pit toilet, from c. 3200 BC . The Neolithic village of Skara Brae contains examples, c. 3000 BC , of internal small rooms over a communal drain, rather than pit. The Indus Valley Civilisation in northwestern India and Pakistan was home to
11645-542: The king of Britain had technical sovereignty, in most instances "full governmental authority was vested in the company itself." Settlers had to fend for themselves; compact towns sprung up based as legal corporations in what has been described as "pure democracy": The people, owing to the necessity of guarding against the Indians and wild animals, and to their desire to attend the same church, settled in small, compact communities, or townships, which they called towns. The town
11782-468: The late 1990s, "a movement, frequently called 'New Regionalism', accepts the futility of seeking consolidated regional governments and aims instead for regional structures that do not supplant local governments." Unlike the relationship of federalism that exists between the U.S. government and the states (in which power is shared), municipal governments have no power beyond what is granted to them by their states. This legal doctrine, called Dillon's Rule ,
11919-477: The market with seats having integrated spray mechanisms for anal and genital water sprays (see for example Toilets in Japan ). This can be useful for the elderly or people with disabilities. An accessible toilet is designed to accommodate people with physical disabilities , such as age related limited mobility or inability to walk due to impairments. Additional measures to add toilet accessibility are providing more space and grab bars to ease transfer to and from
12056-441: The municipality and the county have been merged into a unified, coterminous jurisdiction—that is to say, these counties consist in their entirety of a single municipality whose city government also operates as the county government. Some counties, such as Arlington County, Virginia , do not have any additional subdivisions. Some states contain independent cities that are not part of any county; although it may still function as if it
12193-532: The new standards be at least as stringent as the 2013 VGP. On October 26, 2020 EPA published proposed VIDA implementation regulations. Until this proposal is finalized, the existing EPA discharge permits and Coast Guard regulations remain in effect. Commercial vessels discharging sewage, except fishing vessels, are subject to the VGP or SVGP requirements. Recreational vessels are exempt from the permit requirements, but vessel operators must implement Best Management Practices to control their discharges. Section 312 of
12330-432: The ones pictured here, are commonly thought to have been used in the sitting position. The Roman toilets were probably elevated to raise them above open sewers which were periodically "flushed" with flowing water, rather than elevated for sitting. Romans and Greeks also used chamber pots , which they brought to meals and drinking sessions. Johan J. Mattelaer said, " Plinius has described how there were large receptacles in
12467-448: The operation of local government in a selection of states, by way of example of the variety that exists across the country. Toilet A toilet is a piece of sanitary hardware that collects human waste such as urine and feces , and sometimes toilet paper , usually for disposal. Flush toilets use water, while dry or non-flush toilets do not. They can be designed for a sitting position popular in Europe and North America with
12604-437: The other, with one or more holes to sit on. These were above chutes or pipes that discharged outside the castle or Manor house . Garderobes would be placed in areas away from bedrooms because of the smell and also near kitchens or fireplaces to keep their enclosures warm. The other main way of handling toilet needs was the chamber pot , a receptacle, usually of ceramic or metal, into which one would excrete waste. This method
12741-699: The product of the Public Land Survey System . Municipal governments are organized local governments authorized in state constitutions and statutes, established to provide general government for a defined area, generally corresponding to a population center rather than one of a set of areas into which a county is divided. The category includes those governments designated as cities, boroughs (except in Alaska), towns (except in Minnesota and Wisconsin), and villages. This concept corresponds roughly to
12878-592: The purpose of conserving land, natural scenery, flora, and fauna. There are also numerous " special district governments " in existence throughout the various states. According to the U.S. Census Bureau , such governments are: independent, special-purpose governmental units (other than school district governments) that exist as separate entities with substantial administrative and fiscal independence from general-purpose local governments. Special district governments provide specific services that are not being supplied by existing general-purpose governments. Most perform
13015-453: The raw sewage prior to discharge and must meet a performance standard for fecal coliform bacteria of not greater than 1,000 per 100 milliliters and no visible floating solids. Type I MSDs are generally only found on recreational vessels or others under 65 feet (20 m) in length. The regulations, which have not been revised since 1976, do not require ship operators to sample, monitor, or report on their effluent discharges. Critics point out
13152-847: The regulations implementing Section 312 of the Clean Water Act. On some ships, especially many of those that travel in Alaskan waters, sewage is treated using Advanced Wastewater Treatment (AWT) systems that generally provide improved screening, treatment, disinfection , and sludge processing as compared with traditional Type II MSDs. AWTs are believed to be very effective in removing pathogens , oxygen demanding substances, suspended solids, oil and grease, and particulate metals from sewage, but only moderately effective in removing dissolved metals and nutrients ( ammonia , nitrogen and phosphorus ). Section 312 has another means of addressing sewage discharges, through establishment of no-discharge zones (NDZs) for vessel sewage. A state may completely prohibit
13289-437: The same bathroom as the sink, bathtub , and shower. Another option is to have one room for body washing (also called "bathroom") and a separate one for the toilet and handwashing sink ( toilet room ). Public toilets ( restrooms ) consist of one or more toilets (and commonly single urinals or trough urinals) which are available for use by the general public. Products like urinal blocks and toilet blocks help maintain
13426-690: The same restrictions placed on "traditional" local government bodies. These include homeowners associations (determined in Shelley v. Kraemer , Loren v. Sasser , Committee for a Better Twin Rivers v. Twin Rivers Homeowners' Association ), and company-owned towns (both for employees and for consumers, decided in the USSC case Marsh v. Alabama in 1946). Many homeowners' and neighborhood associations are considered non-profit organizations , but have
13563-453: The sewage or water pipes. Toilet talk enables communication for those in solitary confinement. Toilets have been subject to wiretaps. To this day, 1 billion people in developing countries have no toilets in their homes and are resorting to open defecation instead. Therefore, it is one of the targets of Sustainable Development Goal 6 to provide toilets (sanitation services) to everyone by 2030. Toilets are one important element of
13700-438: The smell and cleanliness of toilets. Toilet seat covers are sometimes used. Portable toilets (frequently chemical "porta johns" ) may be brought in for large and temporary gatherings. Historically, sanitation has been a concern from the earliest stages of human settlements . However, many poor households in developing countries use very basic, and often unhygienic, toilets – and nearly one billion people have no access to
13837-444: The solid waste and collected it during the night. This solid waste, euphemistically known as nightsoil , was sold as fertilizer for agricultural production (similarly to the closing-the-loop approach of ecological sanitation ). In the early 19th century, public officials and public hygiene experts studied and debated sanitation for several decades. The construction of an underground network of pipes to carry away solid and liquid waste
13974-468: The squatting position is more prevalent, while in the Western world the standing and sitting position are more common. In the Western world, the most common method of cleaning the anal area after defecation is by toilet paper or sometimes by using a bidet . In many Muslim countries , the facilities are designed to enable people to follow Islamic toilet etiquette Qaḍāʼ al-Ḥājah . For example,
14111-572: The state governments and became technically municipal corporations . Townships and county governments and city councils shared much of the responsibility for decision-making which varied from state to state. As the United States grew in size and complexity, decision-making authority for issues such as business regulation, taxation, environmental regulation moved to state governments and the national government, while local governments retained control over such matters as zoning issues, property taxes , and public parks. The concept of "zoning" originated in
14248-720: The state's 58 counties; that is, government agencies to supervise the orderly formation and development of other government agencies. One effect of all this complexity is that victims of government negligence occasionally sue the wrong entity and do not realize their error until the statute of limitations has run against them. Because efforts at direct consolidation have proven futile, U.S. local government entities often form "councils of governments", "metropolitan regional councils", or "associations of governments". These organizations serve as regional planning agencies and as forums for debating issues of regional importance, but are generally powerless relative to their individual members. Since
14385-517: The state's constitution. Dillon's Rule is the default rule, but some state constitutions and state statutes provide home rule authority for local governments. State constitutions and statutes which allow counties or municipalities to enact ordinances without the legislature's express permission are said to provide home rule authority. New Jersey , for example, provides for home rule. Under home rule authority, local governments have implicit authority to govern themselves, unless specifically denied by
14522-565: The state, local governments may operate under their own charters or under general law, or a state may have a mix of chartered and general-law local governments. Generally, in a state having both chartered and general-law local governments, the chartered local governments have more local autonomy and home rule. Municipalities are typically subordinate to a county government, with some exceptions. Certain cities, for example, have consolidated with their county government as consolidated city-counties . In Virginia , cities are completely independent from
14659-442: The state. This is especially true of matters of local concern. The nature of both county and municipal government varies not only between states, but also between different counties and municipalities within them. Local voters are generally free to choose the basic framework of government from a selection established by state law. In most cases both counties and municipalities have a governing council, governing in conjunction with
14796-521: The states are divided into counties or county-equivalents for administrative purposes, with most, although not all counties or county-equivalents, having an organized county government. County government has been eliminated throughout Connecticut and Rhode Island , as well as in parts of Massachusetts . The Unorganized Borough in Alaska also does not operate under a county level government. The specific governmental powers of counties vary widely between
14933-590: The states. In some states, mainly in New England , they are primarily used as judicial districts. In other states, counties have broad powers in housing, education, transportation and recreation. In areas lacking a county government, services are provided either by lower level townships or municipalities, or the state. Counties may contain a number of cities , towns, villages, or hamlets . Some cities including Philadelphia , Honolulu , San Francisco , Nashville , and Denver are consolidated city-counties , where
15070-571: The streets of cities such as Rome and Pompeii into which chamber pots of urine were emptied. The urine was then collected by fullers." ( Fulling was a vital step in textile manufacture .) The Han dynasty in China two thousand years ago used pig toilets . Garderobes were toilets used in the Post-classical history , most commonly found in upper-class dwellings. Essentially, they were flat pieces of wood or stone spanning from one wall to
15207-688: The term parish and Alaska uses the term borough for what the U.S. Census Bureau terms county equivalents in those states. Civil townships or towns are used as subdivisions of a county in 20 states, mostly in the Northeast and Midwest. Population centers may be organized into incorporated municipalities of several types, including the city , town , borough , and village . The types and nature of these municipal entities are defined by state law, and vary from state to state. In addition to these general-purpose local governments, states may also create special-purpose local governments. Depending on
15344-500: The terms are used interchangeably). However, the powers granted to townships or towns vary considerably from state to state. Many states grant townships some governmental powers (making them civil townships , either independently or as a part of the county government. In others, survey townships are non-governmental. Towns in the six New England states and townships in New Jersey and Pennsylvania are included in this category by
15481-486: The through terraced houses of the 1880 with their sculleries and individual external WC. It was the Tudor Walters Report of 1918 that recommended that semi-skilled workers should be housed in suburban cottages with kitchens and internal WC. As recommended floor standards waxed and waned in the building standards and codes, the bathroom with a water closet and later the low-level suite became more prominent in
15618-480: The toilet bowl in motion. Aboard vehicles, a portable collection chamber is used; if it is filled by positive pressure from an intermediate vacuum chamber, it need not be kept under vacuum. A floating toilet is essentially a toilet on a platform built above or floating on the water. Instead of excreta going into the ground they are collected in a tank or barrel. To reduce the amount of excreta that needs to hauled to shore, many use urine diversion . The floating toilet
15755-413: The toilet bowl is connected to a pipe shaped like an upside-down U. One side of the U channel is arranged as a siphon tube longer than the water in the bowl is high. The siphon tube connects to the drain. The bottom of the drain pipe limits the height of the water in the bowl before it flows down the drain. The water in the bowl acts as a barrier to sewer gas entering the building. Sewer gas escapes through
15892-511: The toilets. Several types of toilets were developed; these include lavatories with ring-well pits, underground terracotta pipes that lead to septic pits, urinary pits with large bottomless clay pots of decreasing size placed one above the other. These pots under urinals contained "sand, lime and charcoal" through which urine filtered down to the earth in a somewhat purified form. In Roman civilization, latrines using flowing water were sometimes part of public bath houses . Roman latrines, like
16029-490: The town clerk, treasurer, constables, assessors, and overseers of the poor. To this day the town government continues in a large measure in some parts of New England. ––historian Henry William Elson writing in 1904. Propertied men voted; in no colonies was there universal suffrage . The founding of the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1629 by a group of Puritans led by John Winthrop came with
16166-583: The understanding that the enterprise was to be "based in the new world rather than in London." The notion of self-government became accepted in the colonies, although it was not totally free from challenges; in the 1670s, the Lords of Trade and Plantations (a royal committee regulating mercantile trade in the colonies) tried to annul the Massachusetts Bay charter, but by 1691, the New England colonies had reinstalled their previous governments. Voting
16303-544: The use of "dry earth closets" – nowadays known either as dry toilets or composting toilets . Although a precursor to the flush toilet system which is widely used nowadays was designed in 1596 by John Harington , such systems did not come into widespread use until the late nineteenth century. With the onset of the Industrial Revolution and related advances in technology, the flush toilet began to emerge into its modern form. A crucial advance in plumbing,
16440-406: The very large (e.g., New York City , with about 8.5 million people), and this is reflected in the range of types of municipal governments that exist in different areas. There are approximately 30,000 incorporated cities in the United States, with varying degrees of self-rule. In most states, county and municipal governments exist side by side. There are exceptions to this, however. In some states,
16577-408: The waste is either chemically or biologically treated prior to discharge and must meet limits of no more than 200 fecal coliforms per 100 milliliters and no more than 150 milligrams per liter of suspended solids . Type III MSDs store wastes and do not treat them; the waste is pumped out later and treated in an onshore system or discharged outside U.S. waters. Type I MSDs use chemicals to disinfect
16714-449: The water in the tank, which initiates flushing action with less water usage. Another variant is the pour-flush toilet. This type of flush toilet has no cistern but is flushed manually with a few liters of a small bucket. The flushing can use as little as 2–3 litres (0.44–0.66 imp gal; 0.53–0.79 US gal). This type of toilet is common in many Asian countries. The toilet can be connected to one or two pits, in which case it
16851-586: The waters of the contiguous zone . Section 311 of the Clean Water Act, as amended by the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 , applies to ships and prohibits discharge of oil or hazardous substances in harmful quantities into or upon U.S. navigable waters, or into or upon the waters of the contiguous zone, or which may affect natural resources in the U.S. EEZ (extending 200 miles (320 km) offshore). Coast Guard regulations prohibit discharge of oil within 12 miles (19 km) from shore, unless passed through
16988-549: The wealthy and in hotels in the 1890s. William Elvis Sloan invented the Flushometer in 1906, which used pressurized water directly from the supply line for faster recycle time between flushes. "High-tech" toilets, which can be found in countries like Japan, include features such as automatic-flushing mechanisms; water jets or "bottom washers"; blow dryers, or artificial flush sounds to mask noises. Others include medical monitoring features such as urine and stool analysis and
17125-494: The world and to all foreign flagged vessels operating in the navigable waters of the United States, or while at a port under U.S. jurisdiction. To implement APPS, the Coast Guard has promulgated regulations prohibiting the discharge of oil or oily mixtures into the sea within 12 nautical miles (22 km) of the nearest land, except under limited conditions. However, because many ships are foreign registered and because APPS only applies to foreign ships within U.S. navigable waters,
17262-490: The world's first known urban sanitation systems. In Mohenjo-Daro ( c. 2800 BC ), toilets were built into the outer walls of homes. These toilets had vertical chutes, via which waste was disposed of into cesspits or street drains. In the Indus city of Lothal ( c. 2350 BC ), houses belonging to the upper class had private toilets connected to a covered sewer network constructed of brickwork held together with
17399-675: Was a consolidated city-county, an independent city was legally separated from any county. Some municipalities are in multiple counties ; New York City is uniquely partitioned into five boroughs that are each coterminous with a county. In many states, most or all of the land area of counties is divided into townships , which may or may not be incorporated. In New York, Wisconsin and New England, county subdivisions are called towns . The U.S. Census divides counties in states not having such subdivisions into other minor civil divisions , sometimes using electoral districts. The terms "township" and "town" are closely related (in many historical documents
17536-469: Was a legal corporation, was the political unit, and was represented in the General Court. It was a democracy of the purest type. Several times a year the adult males met in town meeting to discuss public questions, to lay taxes, to make local laws, and to elect officers. The chief officers were the "selectmen," from three to nine in number, who should have the general management of the public business;
17673-423: Was developed for residents without quick access to land or connection to a sewer systems. It is also used in areas subjected to prolonged flooding. The need for this type of toilet is high in areas like Cambodia . A vault toilet is a non-flush toilet with a sealed container (or vault) buried in the ground to receive the excreta, all of which is contained underground until it is removed by pumping. A vault toilet
17810-526: Was established as a precedent early on; in fact, one of the first things that Jamestown settlers did was conduct an election. Typically, voters were white males described as "property owners" aged twenty-one and older, but sometimes the restrictions were greater, and in practice, persons able to participate in elections were few. Women were prevented from voting (although there were a few exceptions) and African-Americans were excluded. The colonists never thought of themselves as subservient but rather as having
17947-594: Was established by Judge John Forrest Dillon in 1872 and upheld by the U.S. Supreme Court in Hunter v. Pittsburgh , 207 U.S. 161 (1907), which upheld the power of Pennsylvania to consolidate the city of Allegheny into the city of Pittsburgh , despite the wishes of the majority of Allegheny residents. In effect, state governments can place whatever restrictions they choose on their municipalities (including merging municipalities, controlling them directly, or abolishing them outright), as long as such rules do not violate
18084-477: Was fixed in place and plainly visible, its value was generally well known, and revenue could be allocated to the government unit where the property was located. After the American Revolution , the electorate chose the governing councils in almost every American municipality, and state governments began issuing municipal charters. During the 19th century, many municipalities were granted charters by
18221-596: Was only begun in the mid 19th-century, gradually replacing the cesspool system, although cesspools were still in use in some parts of Paris into the 20th century. Even London, at that time the world's largest city, did not require indoor toilets in its building codes until after the First World War . The water closet , with its origins in Tudor times, started to assume its currently known form, with an overhead cistern, s-bends, soil pipes and valves around 1770. This
18358-779: Was published in 2020. The majority of vessels covered belong to the U.S. Navy , but the regulations also cover vessels of the Coast Guard, Marine Corps , Army , Military Sealift Command , and Air Force , totalling over 7,000 vessels. In April 2021 a ship engineer on the Zao Galaxy, an oil tanker, was convicted in the United States District Court for the Northern District of California for intentionally dumping oily bilge water in February 2019 and submitting false paperwork in an attempt to conceal
18495-525: Was the S-trap , invented by the Scottish mechanic Alexander Cummings in 1775, and still in use today. This device uses the standing water to seal the outlet of the bowl, preventing the escape of foul air from the sewer. It was only in the mid-19th century, with growing levels of urbanisation and industrial prosperity, that the flush toilet became a widely used and marketed invention. This period coincided with
18632-407: Was the work of Alexander Cumming and Joseph Bramah . Water closets only started to be moved from outside to inside of the home around 1850. The integral water closet started to be built into middle-class homes in the 1860s and 1870s, firstly on the principal bedroom floor and in larger houses in the maids' accommodation, and by 1900 a further one in the hallway. A toilet would also be placed outside
18769-468: Was used for hundreds of years; shapes, sizes, and decorative variations changed throughout the centuries. Chamber pots were in common use in Europe from ancient times, even being taken to the Middle East by medieval pilgrims. By the Early Modern era, chamber pots were frequently made of china or copper and could include elaborate decoration. They were emptied into the gutter of the street nearest to
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