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52-507: The United Nigeria Congress Party (UNCP) was a Nigerian political party. It was one of the five state-sanctioned political parties allowed by the government of General Sani Abacha to participate in state assembly elections held in December 1997, in which it won many elections, and in parliamentary elections held in April 1998. Considered by its opposition to be the army’s proxy, it dominated

104-468: A Jersey account (£210m in British pounds). In 2019, more than 20 years after his death the U.S. Justice Department, Jersey courts and the government of Nigeria completed a civil asset forfeiture against the funds and they will be divided between those countries. Abacha oversaw the re-organisation of Nigeria into six geopolitical zones , in order to reflect cultural, economic, and political realities of

156-480: A decline in the respect towards international law in the United States from our highest government officials to the person on the street because of the misunderstood belief that the laws are in practice not enforceable. Lawal distinguishes between subjective and objective designations. Subjective designation can also exist on a national level, according to the interests and values of the designating nation. If

208-617: A large indigenous tribal group of the Indian state of Tamil Nadu . Under the Indian caste system, the Paraiyar were members of the lowest caste, which were called the "outcastes". Since its first recorded use in English in 1613, cultures worldwide have accepted the term "pariah" to mean "outcast". A pariah state, defined in its simplest terms, is an outcast state. This is not a new term in

260-451: A nation as a pariah state, nor is there any single accepted authority for doing so. Some criteria are proposed in the definitions offered in the previous section. For example, Harkavy and Marks make reference in their definitions to the international behavior of a nation in order to qualify it for pariahood. Marks goes one step further and includes the question of nuclear weapons in his criteria, while Weiss adds "a state’s defiant existence in

312-468: A nation that is an outcast in one region, has diplomatic and friendly relations with others. By some criteria, nations can be considered pariahs within their own neighborhood of surrounding states. By other criteria, an international body (such as the United Nations ) or perhaps a consensus among certain nations may govern the meaning or use of the term. The word "pariah" derives from Paraiyar ,

364-484: A pariah state, and Geldenhuys argues that major world powers by definition cannot be pariah states because they cannot be isolated or harmed politically or economically, or brought into compliance with international norms by pariah designations, whether by individuals or international governing bodies. Mary Ellen O'Connell , a professor of international law at the University of Notre Dame , explains that there has been

416-578: A pariah state. Both declarations were based on both the United States's leading violation of international laws and results from Gallup polls showing that only 10 percent of people around the world supported the Iraq War and that 24 percent of people in the world believed the United States represented the greatest threat to world peace. Such poll results are not listed among objective criteria advanced by academic sources, international authorities or NGOs, or any governing bodies as criteria for designation as

468-511: A presidential candidate. When General Abdulsalami Abubakar succeeded Sani Abacha after the latter's death in June 1998, he dissolved the five parties and announced that democratic elections would be held during the first quarter of 1999. He proposed the free formation of political parties, an independent judiciary, international electoral monitors. Sani Abacha Sani Abacha GCFR ( ( listen ) ; (20 September 1943 – 8 June 1998)

520-622: A record of human rights violations. To these four criteria, Geldenhuys adds another two: 5) nations that promote radical ideologies at home or even abroad (clarified as "exporting revolution"), and 6) nations that commit acts of military aggression abroad. In addition to these six categories of state conduct that can result in objective designation as a pariah state, Geldenhuys suggests a seventh category that might gain international consensus: nations that are involved in international drug trafficking. According to Lawal, international law can serve as objective criteria. For example, nations who violate

572-427: Is most simply exemplified by Weiss's definition, according to which pariah states are "states that violate international norms. " Similarly, Harkavy offers, "A Pariah State is one whose conduct is considered to be out of line with international norms of behavior. " Geldenhuys gives a more detailed definition of that type: "A pariah (or outcast) country is one whose domestic or international behaviour seriously offends

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624-576: Is noted for having been the first Nigerian Army officer to attain the rank of a full military general without skipping a single rank. Abacha was the defence minister and most senior official within the military hierarchy during the crisis of the Third Republic . He orchestrated the coup d'état of 1993 which overthrew the Interim National Government of Ernest Shonekan . In his nationwide broadcast, Abacha portrayed

676-486: Is that pariah states tend to develop a siege mentality . Similar to the "push effect" (described above regarding sanctions against nations developing nuclear arms ), this siege mentality can motivate pariah states to develop costly and ambitious arms programs. Finally, pariah states tend to develop resentments against the established world order. They may seek to subvert the international status quo. These characteristics are presented as generalizations, and not intended by

728-418: Is that, although they are not necessarily small, pariah states cannot be "regarded as a major power in world terms." Certainly there are individuals who disagree with this second characteristic, such as Noam Chomsky (cited above) and author-journalist Robert Parry , each of whom has applied his own personal criteria to describe the United States as a pariah state. The third characteristic noted by Geldenhuys

780-614: The 1985 Nigerian coup d'état which removed Buhari and brought General Ibrahim Babangida to power. When General Ibrahim Babangida was named President and Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of the Federal Republic of Nigeria in 1985, Abacha was named Chief of Army Staff . He was later appointed Minister of Defence in 1990. Abacha served as Chief of Army Staff from 1985 to 1990, as Chief of Defence Staff from 1990 to 1993, and as Minister of Defence . Abacha

832-587: The Abdulsalam Abubakar transitional government in November 1998 described the process. The report mentioned that Sani Abacha told Ismaila Gwarzo to provide fake national security funding requests, which Abacha approved. The funds were usually sent in cash or traveller's cheques by the Central Bank of Nigeria to Gwarzo, who took them to Abacha's house. Mohammed Sada then arranged to launder

884-624: The Fourth Nigerian Republic . Pariah state Until the past few centuries, the authority to designate a nation as an outcast, or pariah state, was relatively clear, often resting with religious authorities (e.g., "the Ottoman Empire for example was regarded as an outcast by European states" from the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648 until the nineteenth century on a "religious basis."). In more recent times, however,

936-744: The Mons Officer Cadet School in Aldershot , England . Abacha was involved in all the military coups in Nigeria during his military career. In 1966, when he was still a second lieutenant with the 3rd Battalion in Kaduna , he took part in the July 1966 Nigerian counter-coup from the conceptual stage. He could well have been a participant in the Lagos or Abeokuta phases of the coup

988-505: The National Democratic Coalition was attributed with several bombings across the country, and several members were arrested. When Moshood Abiola proclaimed himself president, he was jailed for treason and subsequently died in custody. Also, former military ruler Olusegun Obasanjo was jailed for treason and accused of plotting a coup together with General Oladipo Diya . In 1997, General Shehu Yar'Adua who

1040-561: The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty are often sanctioned for their actions. Such sanctions can include designation as a pariah state, as has been the approach used by the United States. However, international law can fail in this regard, as under the current international system, most nation states recognize their own legal supremacy over the laws of any international governing body. Thus, according to Lawal, consensus under international law can be problematic. In

1092-795: The US State Department , Abacha did have a few ties to American politicians. In 1997, Senator James Inhofe ( R - Oklahoma ) travelled to Nigeria to meet with Abacha as a representative of the " Family ", a group of evangelical Christian politicians and civic leaders. Abacha and the Family had a business and political relationship from that point until his death. Abacha also developed ties with other American political figures such as Senator Carol Moseley Braun (D-Illinois) Rev. Jesse Jackson and Minister Louis Farrakhan . Several African American political leaders visited Nigeria during his reign and Farrakhan supported his administration. Abacha

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1144-531: The lack (or disadvantage ) the pariah state objectively suffers from, and definitions focusing on the political justification - given by other nations - for why that pariah state "deserves" their extraordinary attitude towards it. The first type of definitions is well exemplified by Bellany's definition, according to which a pariah state is "A state lacking any significant soft power ." Similarly, The Penguin Dictionary of International Relations defines

1196-675: The Abacha transition programme. The UNCP was an amalgamation of three political parties, the United Nigeria Congress (UNC) led by Ibrahim Gusau , Attahiru Bafarawa, and Abdullahi Aliyu Sumaila, United Nigeria Party (UNP) led by Bode Olajumoke, Kashim Imam, Babs Akerele and Empire Kanu and the Solidarity Group of Nigeria (SGN) led by Umaru Dikko . Alhaji Ibrahim Gusau former Minister in the Second Republic

1248-608: The Obasanjo administration disclosed that the whole Abacha loot was politicised by the administration for his re-election bid. On 7 August 2014, the United States Department of Justice announced the forfeiture of US$ 480 million, the largest in its history, to the Nigerian government. Jersey discovered more than $ 267 million in funds that were allegedly laundered through the U.S. banking system and deposited in

1300-725: The United Kingdom and the United States. Abacha's death on 8 June 1998 brought about the Nigerian Fourth Republic a year later and he was succeeded as Nigeria's head of state by General Abdulsalami Abubakar . Abacha was born and brought up in Kano to a Kanuri family originally from present-day Borno State . He attended the Nigerian Military Training College in Kaduna , and was commissioned in 1963 after he had attended

1352-785: The United States' problem with Cuba was geographical more than ideological, as Cuba was no further from the United States on the political spectrum than the Soviet Union was at the time, but the Soviets had attempted to establish nuclear missile launch facilities in Cuba , within 99 miles (159 km) of the United States coastline. Lawal has summarized four primary categories often used for qualification as pariah states: 1) nations that possess or use weapons of mass destruction in contravention of existing treaties, 2) nations that support terrorism, 3) nations lacking democracy, and 4) nations with

1404-442: The case of nuclear arms development, international isolation can have a paradoxical "push effect" on a pariah state, motivating accelerated development of nuclear weapons. As of 2012, there was no provision in international law for pariah status. Geldenhuys has identified four common characteristics shared by many pariah states that are unrelated to any actions of international deviance that might have qualified them as pariahs under

1456-595: The cause of death as a sudden heart attack . It is believed by foreign diplomats, including United States intelligence analysts, that he may have been poisoned. His chief security officer , Hamza al-Mustapha, believed he was poisoned by Israeli operatives in the company of Yasser Arafat . At the time of his death, he was allegedly about to transfer power to a civilian government in October 1998, implemented in October 1995. After Abacha's death, General Abdulsalami Abubakar became head of state, whose short tenure ushered in

1508-506: The country with Nigeria becoming a pariah state in international relations particularly with regards to the execution of environmental activist Ken Saro-Wiwa . Sani Abacha was one of the twentieth century's most corrupt dictators as a kleptocrat for the alleged embezzlement of US$ 2–5 billion. Abacha, and his family allegedly hid most of the loot abroad in Switzerland, as well as in other jurisdictions including Liechtenstein,

1560-476: The country's five political parties into endorsing him as the sole presidential candidate. In 1995, following the execution of Ken Saro-Wiwa , Nigeria was suspended from the Commonwealth of Nations . While hosting Nelson Mandela , Abacha admitted he was advised against interfering with Saro-Wiwa's trial—but made assurances that he would use his rank in government to commute the sentence if death sentence

1612-570: The country, as a way to strengthen his agenda of Pan-Africanism . Abacha intervened in the Liberian Civil War . Through the Economic Community of West African States Monitoring Group , Abacha sent troops to Liberia to fight against the rising insurgency in the country. The Civil War, which began in 1989, saw an influx of Nigerian troops from 1990 when Abacha was defence minister. Despite being repeatedly condemned by

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1664-405: The criteria for and attached implications of pariah statehood, as well as the designating authorities, are the subject of much disagreement. For example, the Nigerian scholar Olawale Lawal has stated: There are so many open questions on the issue of Pariah State. For instance who determines a Pariah State and how a nation becomes a Pariah State... This becomes more profound when one realizes that

1716-554: The designating nation is powerful enough, the designation of pariah statehood can become objective based on the amount of pressure the designating state can apply to gain international consensus . Such was the case, according to Lawal, when the United States used its strength within the Western Bloc to impose pariah status on Fidel Castro 's Cuba instead of acting unilaterally through foreign policy , with no objective need to impose international pariah status. Lawal explains that

1768-541: The face of international non-recognition.". However, Bellany's sole criterion is a lack of soft power , while the Penguin Dictionary of International Relations requires that the pariah states also "suffer from diplomatic isolation and widespread global moral opprobrium". Left-wing political commentator and activist Noam Chomsky declared in 2003 and again in 2014 that the United States had become

1820-427: The lexicon of International Relations , nor is it a new historical concept. What is new, however, is what Lawal refers to as "the basis for Pariahood appellation." Other definitions have been advanced that expand this basis (see next section below), or perhaps add more academic nuance, which may vary by author or the author's field of study. These definitions are here grouped into two categories: definitions focusing on

1872-464: The money to offshore accounts . An estimated $ 1.4 billion in cash was delivered in this way. In 2004, a list of the ten most self-enriching leaders in the previous two decades was released; in order of amount allegedly stolen, the fourth-ranked of these leaders was Abacha and his family who are alleged to have embezzled between $ 1 billion – $ 5 billion. In 2002, rumours circulated that Abacha's family purportedly agreed to return $ 1.2 billion. Sources in

1924-436: The overthrow as an act of stability brought about through the socio-political uncertainties caused by the 1993 presidential election . Abacha ruled as Head of State and Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of the Federal Republic of Nigeria from 1993 to 1998. In September 1994, he issued a decree that placed his government above the jurisdiction of the courts effectively giving him absolute power. Another decree gave him

1976-450: The pariah states as "international States/actors which, by virtue of their political systems, ideological postures, leadership or general behavior, suffer from diplomatic isolation and widespread global moral opprobrium." This definition, as the previous one, does not indicate what kind of political system, ideological posture, leadership or general behavior, is ascribed to the pariah state by the other nations. The second type of definitions

2028-605: The previous January as well. In 1969, he fought during the Nigerian Civil War as a platoon and battalion commander. He later became commander of the 2nd Infantry Division in 1975. In 1983, Abacha was general officer commanding of the 2nd Mechanised Division , and was appointed a member of the Supreme Military Council . In 1983, Abacha played a prominent role in the 1983 Nigerian coup d'état which brought General Muhammadu Buhari to power; and

2080-510: The privatisation programs of the Ibrahim Babangida administration to a halt, reduced an inflation rate of 54% inherited from Ernest Shonekan to 8.5% between 1993 and 1998, all while the nation's primary commodity, oil was at an average of $ 15 per barrel. GDP growth, despite being estimated to be higher than the 2.2% growth in 1995, was largely limited to the petroleum sector . The unprecedented economic achievements coincided with

2132-483: The rapid expansion of embezzlement hitherto unseen in the history of corruption in Nigeria in the alleged saga known as "Abacha loot". Abacha's national security adviser, Alhaji Ismaila Gwarzo , was accused by the government of President Olusegun Obasanjo to have played a central role in the looting and transfer of money to overseas accounts . Abacha's son, Mohammed Abacha and best friend Alhaji Mohammed M. Sada were also involved. A preliminary report published by

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2184-456: The regions: This was achieved after adding six states to the already existing 30 to make up the present 36 states in the country. Abacha held a constitutional conference between 1993 and 1995. Early in 1998, Abacha announced that elections would be held on 1 August, with a view toward handing power to a civilian government on 1 October. It later became apparent that Abacha had no intention of relinquishing power. By April 1998, Abacha had coerced

2236-484: The right to detain anyone for up to three months without trial. He further abrogated Decree 691 of 1993. Abacha assembled a personal security force of 3,000 men trained in North Korea . Abacha's chief security officer Hamza al-Mustapha had an iron grip on the apparatus of military security. The Nigeria Police Force underwent a large-scale retraining. The state cracked down ruthlessly on criminals and dissidents,

2288-410: The various criteria. The first is that pariah states tend to lack strong identity as a nation. Geldenhuys cites Iraq as an example. Iraq is a relatively young nation state with "artificial borders." Saddam Hussein's ruling Ba'ath party denied that Iraqis formed a nation. Rather, they maintained that Iraqis were part of a larger Arab nation ( Iraqi Kurds are not Arabs. ). The second characteristic

2340-452: The world community or at least a significant group of states. " Marks's definition elaborates more: a pariah state is "a state with provocative policies or expansionary territorial ambitions , measures of the absence of diplomatic relations with neighboring states or the situational harm posed to other states if the state in question acquired nuclear weapons ." As of August 2014, no internationally accepted criteria exist for designating

2392-587: Was a Nigerian military dictator and statesman who ruled Nigeria as the military head of state from 1993 following a palace coup d'état until his sudden death in 1998. Abacha's seizure of power was the last successful coup d'état in Nigerian military history . He wielded power with an unyielding attitude and his rule heralded an unprecedented total disregard for human rights with several political assassinations and summary executions of dissidents and political opponents in Nigeria. His rule drew disrepute to

2444-568: Was a left centrist party, with a broader base and acceptance than the left-wing Grassroots Democratic Movement (GDM) headed by Alhaji Muhammadu Dikko Yusufu . The other authorized parties were the Congress for National Consensus (CNC), Democratic Party of Nigeria (DPN) and the National Centre Party of Nigeria (NCPN). The UNCP was the largest of these political parties, and one of four (out of five) to support Abacha standing as

2496-487: Was also jailed died in custody. Abacha's regime was accused of human rights abuses, especially after the hanging of Ogoni activist Ken Saro-Wiwa (only one of several executions of Ogoni activists opposed to the exploitation of Nigerian resources by the multinational petroleum company, Royal Dutch Shell ), whose death later led to the eviction of Nigeria from the Commonwealth Nations. Wole Soyinka

2548-575: Was charged in absentia with treason. Abacha's regime suffered opposition externally by pro-democracy activists. Abacha's administration oversaw an increase in the country's foreign exchange reserves from $ 494 million in 1993 to $ 9.6 billion by the middle of 1997, and reduced the external debt of Nigeria from $ 36 billion in 1993 to $ 27 billion by 1997. Abacha also constructed between 25 and 100 km of urban road in major cities such as Kano , Gusau , Benin , Funtua , Zaria , Enugu , Kaduna , Aba, Lagos , Lokoja and Port Harcourt . Abacha brought

2600-648: Was its pro tem National Chairman. In its first convention at Owerri, Ambassador Isa Aliyu Mohammed Argungu was elected as its first National Chairman. The party included politicians such as Atiku Abubakar , Abdullahi Aliyu Sumaila , Suleiman Takuma , Ibrahim Saminu Turaki , Attahiru Bafarawa , Kabiru Ibrahim Gaya , Adeleke Mamora , Funsho Williams , Mohammed Daggash , Adamu Aliero , Anyim Pius Anyim , Nnenadi Usman , Kashim Ibrahim-Imam , Ibrahim Kura Mohammed , Anyim Pius Anyim , Ibrahim Mantu, Emeka Ojukwu , Emmanuel Iwuanyanwu , Abubakar Koko , Joe Garba , Bode Olajumoke , Bello Matawalle and Ali Modu Sheriff . It

2652-557: Was married to Maryam Abacha and had seven sons and three daughters. As of 2018, he had thirty-three grandchildren. The scars on his face were tribal markings . On Monday 8 June 1998, Abacha died in the Aso Rock Presidential Villa in Abuja . He was buried on the same day according to Muslim tradition and without an autopsy , fueling speculation that he may have been assassinated. The government identified

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2704-477: Was pronounced. Justice Ibrahim Auta was the judge presiding over the proceedings and sentenced Saro-Wiwa to death by hanging . Abacha did not commute the sentence. In 1997, Muammar Gaddafi 's West African Tour to Sani Abacha to mark the new Islamic year directly infringed United Nations Sanctions on Libya, yet he was greeted by thousands of Abacha's supporters who came out to demonstrate their loyalty in Kano . The Libyan leader sought to strengthen relations with

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