Political representation is the activity of making citizens "present" in public policy -making processes when political actors act in the best interest of citizens according to Hanna Pitkin's Concept of Representation (1967).
133-541: Ultras are a type of association football fans who are known for their fanatical support . The term originated in Italy, but is used worldwide to describe predominantly organised fans of association football teams. The behavioural tendency of ultras groups includes singing football chants , playing musical instruments such as drums , their use of flares and smoke bombs (primarily in tifo choreography), frequent use of elaborate displays, vocal support in large groups and
266-617: A Swede who coached England ; as well as Berti Vogts , a German who coached Scotland and Nigeria . Another German, Otto Rehhagel , is practically a national icon in Greece after leading its national team to a shock victory in UEFA Euro 2004, and shortly afterwards turning down an offer to coach Germany and remain coaching Greece. Dutch coach Guus Hiddink has a similar iconic status in South Korea after coaching its national team to
399-413: A certain number of party seats for particular groups. It can also be instituted through national electoral quotas either by reserving seats for office or candidate quotas for political parties. Traditionally, quotas have been thought of as a way of providing adequate representation for previously disadvantaged groups such as women or oppressed ethnic groups. However, another way of conceptualizing quotas
532-444: A constituency that formerly had quotas, even when the quotas are removed, and women leaders provide public goods favoured by women constituents. Evidence also shows that while caste -based quotas may not change stereotypes of how people view the oppressed caste group, they do change the social norms of interaction between caste groups Dyadic representation refers to the degree to which and ways by which elected legislators represent
665-509: A delegate or just a trustee when representing their constituents. It is a hybrid of the two models discussed above and involves representatives acting as delegates and trustees, depending on the issue. The mandate model views representatives as less independent actors. This came about after the emergence of modern political parties; now constituents rarely vote for a representative based on their personal qualities but more broadly, they vote for their party to be elected into government. A mandate
798-511: A dentist's chair. Later in his life, Gascoigne struggled with alcohol and drug addiction and had to be hospitalised for overdose on several occasions. There have been incidents in England of players being accused of violence and misconduct off the pitch. Although on many occasions, players have been found not guilty, such cases are highly controversial. In 2001, two Leeds United players, Jonathan Woodgate and Lee Bowyer , appeared in court over
931-449: A few ultras that are connected to football clubs Manijaci , Horde zla , Lešinari , Red Army , Škripari , Ultras Mostar and many more. Gate-9 ( Greek : Θύρα 9 ) is a Cypriot fans' group that supports the football team People's Athletic Club Omonia 1948 and all the sport departments of AC Omonia except football. Omonia supporters are traditionally left wing. A 2009 gallop poll estimated that three out of four Omonia fans vote for
1064-580: A focal point for the movement against the commercialisation of sports and football in particular. Ultras also have regional variants and analogues, such as casuals in the United Kingdom , barra bravas in Hispanic America , and torcidas organizadas in Brazil . The origin of the ultras movement is disputed, with many supporters groups from various countries making claims solely on
1197-399: A goal in general, the term can also be applied to specific actions, such as a player removing his shirt or performing a somersault. Many unique goal celebrations have been immortalized, such as in a statue ( Thierry Henry ), advertisements ( Ronaldo ), postage stamps ( Pelé ), magazine covers, or in video games: Cristiano Ronaldo , Gareth Bale , Lionel Messi among many others are featured in
1330-630: A goodwill ambassador for the United Nations Development Programme in 2000 as he had the highest global appeal among sportspeople. Former FIFA World Player of the Year and African Footballer of the Year George Weah secured most votes in the first round of the 2005 Liberian presidential election, but was defeated in the run-off ballot. He was elected President 12 years later . Another football celebrity
1463-429: A group of people such as the working class or women to its full potential you must be part of that social group yourself. Therefore, only people who have shared experiences and interests can fully identify with particular issues. An alternative way of considering types of representation is as follows: Substantive representation occurs when representatives' opinions and actions reflect the wishes, needs, and interests of
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#17327651252541596-577: A handful of fans to hundreds or thousands, with larger groups often claiming entire sections of a stadium for themselves. Ultras groups often have a representative who liaises with the club owners on a regular basis, mostly regarding tickets, seat allocations and storage facilities. Some clubs provide groups with cheaper tickets, storage rooms for flags and banners and early access to the stadium before matches to prepare displays. These types of favoured relationships are often criticised when ultras groups abuse their power. While ultras groups can become violent,
1729-626: A heart condition known as Arrhythmogenic Right Ventricular Cardiomyopathy . On 25 August 2007, Sevilla player Antonio Puerta suffered a heart attack during Sevilla's first match of the season – against Getafe – while running back towards his own goal. Sevilla teammate Ivica Dragutinović and Sevilla medical staff subsequently rushed to his aid. He was admitted to hospital but died on 28 August, aged 22. Several players have also been struck by lightning while playing during sudden storms. On 29 December 2007, Motherwell captain Phil O'Donnell suffered from
1862-544: A lot of money and were successful for a few seasons. However, the debts became unmanageable, the successful players were sold off and the team were eventually relegated twice, first from the Premier League to the Championship , and then to League One . Not all clubs do well out of television money. Clubs in lower leagues receive less money for matches and, if promoted to higher leagues, can have trouble matching
1995-448: A match against Barcelona , and threatened to quit the game if they kept insulting him. The same occurred to then- Messina defender Marc Zoro in a match against Inter Milan. In some countries, such as England and Germany, there have been strong campaigns to remove racism and intolerance from football on the pitch and on the terraces. In other countries, such as Spain and Italy, little action has been taken despite visible problems. For
2128-621: A primarily continental European phenomenon (emerging later in Asia, Australia and North Africa), while in South America, the barra bravas (oldest violent organised supporters' groups, emerged in the 1950s in Argentina) are common, with the exception of Brazil, where torcidas organizadas are more prevalent. Such is the popularity of football that some players become better known for their 'off-the-pitch' activities. The celebrity status
2261-420: A prominent accessory; having been first introduced in the 1930s, they became much more prominent in England in the 1960s and 70s. These accessories replaced more traditional fan accessories, such as rosettes and rattles . Fair Play is the name of a FIFA programme which aims to increase sportsmanship as well as prevent discrimination in the game of football. This also involves programmes to reduce racism in
2394-644: A section of the club's home stadium Villa Park for a Premier League match against A.F.C. Bournemouth to launch the group's presence at Aston Villa's matches. Several clubs in Hungary have large ultras groups, such as Ferencváros (Green Monsters), Újpest (Viola Fidelity), Diósgyőr (Ultras Diósgyőr), Honvéd (Ultras Kispest, Északi Kanyar), Fehérvár (Red Blue Devils), Tatabánya (Turul Ultrái), Debrecen (Szívtiprók Ultras Debrecen) and other strongly developing groups such as Kecskemét (Ultras Kecskemét). The national team of Hungary has an ultras group known as
2527-651: A suspected heart failure on the pitch in a match against Dundee United , as a result of which he died several hours later in hospital. At the end of that season, a tribute match was played in his honour between stars of the Motherwell team which won the Scottish FA Cup in 1991 and the Celtic team which won the League Championship in 1998, both of which O'Donnell starred for. Motherwell also named
2660-410: A team wins a championship, survives relegation or achieves an upset, typically in a cup competition. Solo invasions are more common although few in number. In some cases, these are streakers who try to invade the pitch while nude. Supporters tend to view this as harmless fun. One such pitch invasion was at UEFA Euro 2004 , in the final between Portugal and Greece , when " Jimmy Jump " ran onto
2793-418: A theory that accounts well for when belief sharing representation, delegate representation, trustee representation, responsible party representation, and party elite led representation will arise. The concept of collective representation can be found in various normative theory and scientific works, but Weissberg (1978, 535) offered the first systematic characterization of it in the scientific literature and for
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#17327651252542926-469: A transformation, purchasing a number of expensive football players after itself being purchased by Russian billionaire Roman Abramovich . In 2008, Manchester City became the richest club in the world after being bought-out by Emirati billionaire Mansour bin Zayed Al Nahyanan . The catalyst for this change was the arrival of satellite television. Satellite TV companies paid massive sums for
3059-439: A typical dish from Minas Gerais , is very common. In Germany, many football fans eat bratwurst and drink beers. In Argentina, choripán (a sandwich with grilled chorizo with crusty bread) and grilled hamburgers are commonly served in stadiums. In the past, a variety of pizza without cheese was served, which is now known as pizza de cancha ("pitch pizza"). In Spain and Bulgaria, it is very common to eat sunflower seeds during
3192-618: A wider area. However, some European clubs have been accused of exploitation for doing this, as some African youngsters they have recruited for football teams have eventually been left with nothing after the team no longer requires their services. In the modern game, most clubs have multiple foreign players. This is especially evident in the English Premier League , where English players are outnumbered by their foreign counterparts. Some of football's leading authorities, including former FIFA president Sepp Blatter , have argued this
3325-570: Is Italy. The first Italian ultras groups were formed in 1951, including the Fedelissimi Granata of Torino . The 1960s saw the continuing spread and development of the culture with the formation of the Fossa dei Leoni and Boys San groups, the former often regarded in Italy as the first full-fledged ultras group (associated with violence). The term "ultras" was used as a name for the first time in 1969, when supporters of Sampdoria formed
3458-519: Is a representative can be either democratic or non-democratic. In a case where the selection agent, relevant audience and the represented are the same and the rules of judgment are democratic (e.g. elections), the familiar democratic case of political representation arises and where they are not, undemocratic cases arise. This is the preferred (and far more common) method for democratic countries, where elected representatives will be chosen by similarly-sized groups of voters . The shortened term "rep-by-pop"
3591-776: Is also involved in humanitarian work for refugees in Cyprus. The group, besides Nicosia , has fan clubs in Limassol , Athens, Thessaloniki , Larnaka , Paphos , and London. There are also ultras groups affiliated with the APOEL FC and the Anorthosis Famagusta FC . Although small in size, Malta has some notable ultras groups. The main ultras groups in Malta are Birkirkara Ultras 1997, Ultras Beltin 999, and Paola Boys Hibs Ultras, Sliema Ultras Blue Gladiators as well as
3724-420: Is an order or instruction from a superior body therefore this model suggests representatives follow the party line and must carry out policies outlined during election campaigns. The resemblance model is less concerned about the way representatives are selected and more concerned whether they resemble the group they claim to represent. It is similar to descriptive representation , they argue that to represent
3857-420: Is detrimental to the game and an issue for supporters. Published academic research on this question (by David Ranc) seems to demonstrate the opposite. Many teams attempt to build a complete team with players with ball control, others with strength, others with speed and others with vision. Traditionally, these skillsets are associated with different regions: ball control is regarded as a South American trait, speed
3990-719: Is generally agreed to have come from Italian and English ultraism and hooliganism at the 1982 World Cup held in Spain. Held only seven years after the death of Franco, the World Cup was an opportunity for Spain to join the world of modern international football. Spanish ultraism is particularly known for its dramatic and polarized distinction across two ideological cleavages: fascism and (regional) nationalism. The vast majority of ultra groups identify as either fascist or anti-fascist, and either separatist or nationalist. In The Netherlands , most professional football teams have an ultras group.
4123-494: Is new, and since these have begun, the younger generation of fans in Northern Ireland has increased more than it has in many years. The first Polish ultras groups were formed in 1980s by fans of Legia Warszawa and Arka Gdynia . Those early ultra groups identified as either fascist or national-socialist and opposed the communist government of Wojciech Jaruzelski . The 1990s saw the continuing spread and development of
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4256-586: Is not a universally accepted concept; minimalist theorists like Adam Przeworski (1999) reject the idea that representatives can be driven to act in the best interests of the public. In contrast to substantive representation, minimalists believe that democracy is merely a system in which competitive elections select rulers and that democracies should be defended regardless of the outcomes they produce for their citizenry. Nonetheless, democratic theorists often consider substantive representation to be salient due to its emphasis on action in office, particularly in relation to
4389-486: Is rare. One example includes a message to Christian Vieri , apparently by an Inter Milan fan, which threatened to burn down his restaurant, criticising his attitude towards the team. There is also the notorious incident where the Colombian international player Andrés Escobar was murdered shortly after returning home from the 1994 World Cup . This was reputedly for scoring the own goal which eliminated Colombia from
4522-430: Is someone who is elected to represent and convey the views of others. The delegate model of representation suggests that representatives have little or no capacity to exercise their own judgement or preferences. They are merely elected to be the mouthpiece of their constituency and act only the way their constituents would want them to, regardless of their own opinion. Joseph Tussman stated, "The essence of representation
4655-456: Is such that advertisers and sports goods manufacturers hire them to sponsor their products. The Brazilian footballer Pelé is such a player. He was so admired as a player during his time that he went on to become a UNICEF ambassador, as well as being a spokesman in advertisements for many different companies. He also spent some time in politics in Brazil. Brazilian striker Ronaldo was chosen as
4788-503: Is the English footballer David Beckham . He has been perceived as a trend-setter in England due to a history of frequent hairstyle changes. He is also married to the former Spice Girl Victoria Beckham , and his relationship difficulties were widely reported in the UK press in 2004 and 2005. Statues have been made of him, notably at a Buddhist temple as well as made out of chocolate. Beckham
4921-411: Is the delegation or granting of authority. To authorize a representative is to grant another the right to act for oneself. Within the limits of the grant of authority one is, in fact, committing himself in advance to the decision or will of another". A trustee is someone who acts on behalf of others, using their knowledge, experience and intelligence upon a certain field. The trustee model contrasts with
5054-416: Is the traditional view of democratic political representation. Anticipatory, surrogate and gyroscopic representation, on the other hand, are more modern views that have emerged from the work of empirical political scientists . Anticipatory representatives take actions that they believe voters (the represented) will reward in the next election. Surrogate representation occurs when representatives "act for"
5187-548: Is to institute a maximum or ceiling quota for advantaged groups. This may improve the meritocracy of the system and improve the process of candidate selection Empirically, quotas show mixed results. In Lesotho, quota-mandated female representation has had no effect or even reduced several dimensions of women's engagement with local politics. In Argentina, quotas have mandated negative stereotypes about women politicians. Meanwhile, in India, women are more likely to win an election in
5320-458: Is typically associated with African players and strength is typically seen as the European way. Therefore, prominent clubs scout these regions heavily for rising talent and advise them to have a trial with the club. Football has become a global sport where spectators from around the world can enjoy many different leagues. It has created international rivalries as well as community rivalries, but at
5453-643: Is used in Canada whereas " one person, one vote " is more common in the U.S. This form of representation tends to occur as a political necessity for unifying many independent actors, such as in a federation (e.g. NATO , the UN ). It's highly unusual (and controversial) where it exists within countries because of its violation of the 'one person, one vote' principle. Examples of representation by area within countries tend to be historical remnants of when those countries were federations before their unification. For example,
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5586-589: Is very different from the situation in British non-league football and other leagues around the world where it is common to see terracing (standing areas) making up some, or even all of the room for fans. Allegations of corruption in football have always been present. This level of corruption can vary from country to country, and can involve players, agents and clubs. In 1980, Italian sides Milan and Lazio were relegated to Serie B for match-fixing . The 2005–06 football season saw many corruption scandals. This included
5719-416: Is viewed by some as a branch of hooliganism, yet still maintaining its own independence and culture. Ultras tend to be more conspicuous when they travel, proudly displaying their scarves and club colours while arriving en masse , which allows the police to keep a close eye on their movements. In Scotland, Ultras Aberdeen are the ultras group who follow Aberdeen F.C. , they organise chants and choreography in
5852-513: The FIFA series. There have been deaths of players on the pitch and dugouts. On 5 September 1931, Celtic goalkeeper John Thomson suffered a skull fracture when he collided with Rangers player Sam English during an Old Firm match. He was fatally injured and died later that day. On 10 September 1985, Scotland manager Jock Stein died of a heart attack as his team scored the equaliser against Wales which virtually secured qualification for
5985-461: The accountability view, a representative is an individual who will be held to account. Representatives are held accountable if citizens can judge whether the representative is acting in their best interest and sanction the representative accordingly. The descriptive and symbolic views of political representation describe the ways in which political representatives "stand for" the people they represent. Descriptive representatives "stand for" to
6118-474: The 1980 Scottish Cup Final . Sales of alcohol still occur in executive lounges. Some teams and countries have Supporters Clubs which have friendly drinking reputations. However, some countries are more associated with drunken hooliganism as mentioned in the violence section below. More recently research has cast doubt on the effectiveness of alcohol restrictions on reducing the likelihood of disorder and violence, particularly involving English football fans such as
6251-420: The 1986 World Cup finals. He was aged 62. In 2003, Cameroon international player Marc-Vivien Foé collapsed during a FIFA Confederations Cup match against Colombia and was pronounced dead later that day. His death was attributed to previously undiagnosed heart problems. On 8 September 1990, York City 's David Longhurst collapsed and died on the pitch during his team's match with Lincoln City . The match
6384-482: The 2002 World Cup , the head of the Korea Football Association decided to run for president of South Korea. In football, a goal celebration is the practice of celebrating the scoring of a goal . The celebration is normally performed by the goalscorer, and may involve his or her teammates, the manager or coaching staff and/or the supporters of the team. Whilst referring to the celebration of
6517-530: The 2005 Bundesliga scandal in Germany, with the refereeing scandals of Robert Hoyzer ; and the Brazilian football match-fixing scandal involving Edilson Pereira de Carvalho . This was followed by the 2006 Serie A scandal ("Calciopoli") in Italy where five clubs were found guilty for interference in the referees work by their leaders and resulted in several top clubs being penalised (most notably, Juventus
6650-910: The American Constitution was not quite able to eliminate its rep-by-area features due to smaller states already holding disproportionate power in the proceedings from the Articles of Confederation . In Canada, provinces such as Prince Edward Island also have unequal representation in Parliament (in the Commons as well as the Senate) relative to Ontario, British Columbia, and Alberta, largely for similar historical reasons. Models of representation refer to ways in which elected officials behave in representative democracies . There are three main types: delegate, trustee, and politico. A delegate
6783-497: The Heysel Stadium disaster . The level of passion with which football teams are supported has from time to time caused problems, and clashes between fans can result in violence. Some violence occurs by people aiming to cause trouble, a phenomenon known as hooliganism . Other fans group together in hooligan firms , which are organised gangs that seek fights with other firms supporting rival clubs. Both are sometimes known as
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#17327651252546916-2069: The Maltese national football team ultras group, the South End Core. Romania's ultras only finds itself in the traditional teams like Steaua București,iau la muie Dinamo București and fac laba Rapid București; but there are some small ultras groups which support their local club. The biggest ultras groups are: Peluza Nord FCSB, Peluza Sud Steaua, Peluza Cătălin Hîldan, Peluza Sud Dinamo, Peluza Nord Rapid, Peluza Sud Timisoara, t2 Rapid, Peluza Şepcile Roşii and Peluza Nord Hunedoara. There are also some honourable mentions like Peluza Marină Farul, Peluza Sud Craiova, Peluza Dron Craiolguța and Peluza Nord Galați. The three big clubs of Turkey, namely Beşiktaş , Fenerbahçe and Galatasaray , have dedicated and passionate fanbases. The ultras of these clubs are Çarşı , Genç Fenerbahçeliler and UltrAslan , respectively. The most famous ultras in Bulgaria are Sector G ( CSKA Sofia ), Sector B ( Levski Sofia ), Bultras ( Botev Plovdiv ), Green Fighters ( Neftochimic Burgas ), Moryatsi ( Cherno More Varna ) and Lauta Army ( Lokomotiv Plovdiv ). – Ultras Méga Boys 2007 – Ultras Fanatic Reds 09 – Ultra Dey Boys 09 – Ultras Crazy Capital 14 – Ultras Polina 10 – Ultras Asnam Boys 1437 – Groupe Djawarih 2014 – Group Armata Rosso 2019 – Ultras Scorpion Trop Puissant – Ultras Verde Veteranos – Ultra' Combattiva – Ultras Vescera – Red Scorpion – RossoNero – Ultras Kop 13 – Ultras Giallo Verde – Ultras Vikings 2009 – Ultras Red Army 2013 – Ultras Gouraya United – Ultras Marins – Les Genies – Ultras Guida Nascosta – I Prescelti – Ultras Blue Vichingo – Ultras Tauras Blue – Ultras Mina Men Association football culture Association football culture , or football culture refers to
7049-533: The Progressive Party of Working People , the communist party of Cyprus. While the group retains its left wing beliefs, in recent years it has been openly critical of the party's involvement in the club's administrative decisions. The party has denied accusations that it influences club decisions. Gate-9 members are associated with communist beliefs and have been noted for waving banners bearing Che Guevara 's portrait, and other communist symbols. The group
7182-577: The Ultras Tito Cucchiaroni and fans of Torino formed the Ultras Granata. The style of support that would become synonymous with Italian football developed most during the 1970s, as more groups formed, including the radical S.S. Lazio Ultras in 1974, with a strong predominance of fascist slogans and chants amongst other groups such as Hellas Verona supporters. The active support of the ultras became more apparent, in contrast with
7315-426: The cultural aspects surrounding the game of association football . As the sport is global, the culture of the game is diverse, with varying degrees of overlap and distinctiveness in each country. In many countries, football has ingrained itself into the national culture, and parts of life may revolve around it. Many countries have daily football newspapers, as well as football magazines. Football players, especially in
7448-430: The three most followed sportspeople on Instagram , and all 3 in the top 12 most followed people. Many other players have also become celebrities and are treated as heroes by the fans. Retired players, such as Gary Lineker , have become celebrities in their own right by working on television or radio. Even non-footballers who are connected to football have become famous through their association alone. For instance, after
7581-525: The " English Disease ," after the disorder caused by English fans travelling abroad to support either their club or national team in the 1970s and 1980s. However, violent organised supporters' groups surrounding football have been prevalent in other countries, most notably barras bravas that emerged in Argentina in the 1950s, some years before the appearance of significant hooligan firms in England. In addition, ultras , originally emerging in Italy in
7714-424: The "prune juice effect"; clubs expenditure continually outnumbering the profits coming from sponsorships and prize money. While most grassroot clubs and lower division league teams struggle to make ends meet, large clubs can make significant revenue. For example, sides such as Manchester United and Real Madrid are considered amongst the richest in the world, with a global support base. Chelsea has also undergone
7847-430: The "traditional" culture, choreographic displays, signature banners and symbols, giant flags, drums and fireworks became the norm as groups aimed to take their support to higher levels. The decade also saw the violence and unrest of Italian society at the time overlap with the ultras movement, adding a dimension that has plagued it ever since. The ultras movement spread across Europe, Australia, Asia and North Africa during
7980-477: The 1960s, and in parts of Europe, Asia, Australia and North Africa, and torcidas organizadas in Brazil (emerged as non-violent groups during the 1930s but became violent ones in the 1970s) have become significant. Violence by fans has ranged from small fights between fans to tragedies such as the Heysel Stadium disaster and also the Football War . There have been incidents of fans being murdered, such as
8113-507: The 1980s, 1990s and 2000s, starting with the countries geographically closest to Italy. Ultras groups are usually centred on a core group of founders or leaders (who tend to hold executive control), with smaller subgroups organised by location, friendship or political stance. Ultras tend to use various styles and sizes of banners and flags bearing the name and symbols of their group. Some ultras groups sell their own merchandise to raise funds for performing displays. An ultras group can number from
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#17327651252548246-604: The Carpathian Brigade. The group was formed in 2009. Hungarian ultras occupy sector B Central at the Puskás Aréna . – Suspeitos do Costume 2008 In Greece , most professional football teams have an ultras group. Most of them are named after a gate number which refers to the specific place where the fans are situated at the stadium. Others have actual names or no special names at all and they are named after their supporting team. Red Star Belgrade have one of
8379-763: The FIFA World Cup, the African Cup of Nations and the UEFA European Championship bring in supporters from nations around the world, this national pride is a part of globalism. This complex system is all a part of the global community of football. Football brings players, fans, coaches and clubs together from every part of the world. A prime example of the unifying power of football is the African nation of Ghana. It gained independence from British imperial rule in 1957 and used football to unite
8512-579: The Merkland Road Stand, at Pittodrie Stadium, also known as the "Red Shed". The Green Brigade are an ultras group that follow Celtic F.C. and regularly make tifo displays and often voice support for a United Ireland . They are left-wing . On the other side of Glasgow are the Rangers F.C. ultra group The Union Bears. The Union Bears are known for their elaborate fan displays and their support for Northern Irish and Scottish unionism within
8645-551: The Partizan multi-sports club, and mostly wear black and white symbols, which are the club's colors. FC Copenhagen (Sektion 12) and Brøndby IF (Sydsiden) have some of the most renowned ultras groups on the continent, and the derby between the two is also one of the fiercest in Europe. AaB's ultras group caused a 14-minute delay in the 2020 Danish Cup final for a failure to adhere to COVID-19 social distancing rules. The group
8778-521: The U.S. Congress, defining such representation as "Whether Congress as an institution represents the American people, not whether each member of Congress represented his or her particular district." Hurley (1982) elaborated and qualified Weissberg's explication of how such representation should be assessed and how it relates to dyadic representation. Stimson, MacKuen, and Erikson (1995), offer the most advanced theoretical exposition of such representation for
8911-465: The U.S. Congress. And the latter work was extended in Erikson, MacKuen, and Stimson (2002). In most parliamentary political systems with strong (or ideologically unified) political parties and where the election system is dominated by parties instead of individual candidates, the primary basis for representation is also a collective, party based one. The foundational work on assessing such representation
9044-978: The UK. They celebrate and support the Protestant history of both Rangers and Scotland. Block Seven are a supporters group that support Hibernian FC , the Gorgie Ultras support rivals, Heart of Midlothian FC . In England, there are ultras groups at, Colchester United known as the BWA (Blue and White Army), Hartlepool United known as the NWC, Middlesbrough F.C. (Red Faction), Norwich City (City Elite), Crystal Palace F.C. ( Holmesdale Fanatics ), Ipswich Town F.C. (Blue Action), Leicester City F.C. (Union FS), Huddersfield Town F.C. (Cowshed Loyal), and Stockport County (Hatters 83), Bristol City (Section 82), Arsenal (Ashburton Army) Several non-league football teams in England have ultras groups that are left-wing, such as
9177-482: The US with her family in her early teens, and current manager Vlatko Andonovski moved from North Macedonia to the US as a player in 2000 and has remained in the US ever since as a player and coach. While many football players can be argued to be good role models, there have been headlines in the news regarding bad behaviour by footballers. Such is the influence of footballers, their activities tend to be reported widely in
9310-535: The United Kingdom, attendance at football matches is associated with the consumption of traditional football foods such as meat pies and Bovril . Food and beverage sales in stadiums can raise high incomes for clubs, and some clubs make attempts to improve their service and diversify out of traditional foods. In Brazil, sanduíche de calabresa ( pepperoni sandwich) is a popular meal in the surrounding areas of stadiums. In Mineirão stadium, feijão tropeiro ,
9443-457: The assault of a student outside a nightclub. Woodgate was found guilty of affray . In 2002, three players (two from Chelsea , John Terry and Jody Morris ; and one from Wimbledon , Des Byrne ) appeared in court on charges of affray. All were acquitted. On 20 May 2008, Joey Barton was sentenced to six months in jail after pleading guilty for his part in an assault in December 2007. Barton
9576-471: The basis of their dates of foundation. The level of dispute and confusion is aided by a contemporary tendency (mainly in Europe) to categorise all groups of overtly fanatical supporters as ultras. Supporters groups of a nature comparable to the ultras have been present in Brazil since 1939, when the first torcida organizada was formed (although these groups began to focus on violence in the 1970s). Inspired by
9709-437: The best players, it means their services can be offered to clubs in a number of different countries and for compensation they have significant bargaining power in setting – the top players can make salaries of millions in a year, in addition to whatever endorsements they receive. Teams have also benefited from this by being able to find a wider support base outside their traditional local areas. They can also scout for talent from
9842-542: The competition. Before the 1998 FIFA World Cup , 26 Seaburn Casuals (a Sunderland A.F.C. supporters firm) hooligans were arrested in a police raid after a military-issue smoke bomb was let out at a local pub after a fight with bouncers. By the end of the operation, over 60 were facing charges. Some of the Seaburn Casuals hooligans picked up in the raid were also involved with neo-Nazi groups like Combat 18 . The operation failed when judge ruled CCTV footage from
9975-452: The crossed ball with his hands, causing the referee to call a foul for handball. The referee stopped play and allowed the goalkeeper to receive treatment for the cuts and bruises to his face. The referee smiled and did not issue a red card, which he should have done according to the laws of the game. When the referee noticed he was being shown close-up on the scoreboard screen, he pointed at his smile and began blowing loudly on his whistle. In
10108-649: The delegate model as this time constituents "entrust" their elected representatives to represent them however they see fit, with autonomy to vote and behave in the best way for their constituents. Edmund Burke , who formulated the model, stated in a speech, "You choose a member indeed; but when you have chosen him he is not member of Bristol, but he is a member of parliament...your representative owes you, not his industry only, but his judgement; and he betrays, instead of serving you, if he sacrifices it to your own opinion". The politico model came about when theorists recognized that representatives rarely consistently act as just
10241-420: The displaying of flags and banners at football stadiums, all of which are designed to create an atmosphere which encourages their own team and intimidates the opposing players and their supporters. These groups also commonly organise trips to attend away games . Ultras groups have been responsible for many cases of football hooliganism and violence, although differently from hooligan firms , ultras do not have
10374-417: The earliest black player was in 1881. However, in the 1970s onwards, players were increasingly accepted leading to a situation where many club and national teams have players of varying ethnicities. However, full acceptance in the bigger footballing nations did not occur until the 1990s, and racism still exists at some levels. Samuel Eto'o , for example, was once racially insulted by some Real Zaragoza fans at
10507-593: The end of a Premier League match. Clubs have moved from amateur status to, in some cases, big commercial concerns. Players have also managed to increase their earnings massively during this change. After the Hillsborough Disaster, the British government commissioned the Taylor Report which resulted in standing being banned from many stadiums, including every top league stadium. Groups such as Stand Up Sit Down are campaigning for its return. This
10640-640: The entire Chapecoense first team squad. People of different races have sometimes not been accepted as players in European football. This is changing at the start of the 21st century due to society change as well as campaigning on the part of the football authorities in different countries. UEFA and the European Union support the Football Against Racism in Europe ("FARE") project, which aims to stop racism. Many black players were not accepted initially into European football, even though
10773-403: The expanse of the globe giving it a uniquely universal audience". The wearing of football kits has been a significant part of football fan culture since the 1973–74 season , when Leeds United 's replica kit, made by Admiral , was sold to football fans for the first time. By the late 1990s, this had become a common part of global fan culture. A similar series of events saw scarves become
10906-411: The explicit objective of fighting other fans. Ultras groups are also in some cases directly linked to ideologies like neo-Nazism and other forms of far-right politics , and sometimes far-left politics . In some instances, hooliganism and/or this politicisation goes to the point where support for their team is relegated to a secondary feature of the phenomenon. In recent decades, the culture has become
11039-492: The extent that they resemble, in their descriptive characteristics (e.g. race , gender , class etc.), the people they represent. On the other hand, symbolic representatives "stand for" the people they represent as long as those people believe in or accept them as their representative. Hanna Fenichel Pitkin argues that these views of political representation give an inadequate account of political representation because they lack an account both of how representatives "act for"
11172-400: The fans of Dulwich Hamlet F.C. who have a group called The Rabble. A Vice article claims Casuals United are at war with anti-fascist football ultras. In Early 2022, a Norwich City supporters group was formed known as City Elite. They have grown to become one of the leading fan groups at the club. After many set backs with the club they have now been approached by the club to help with
11305-1154: The first ultras groups in the Netherlands were formed in the 1970s by fans of Feyenoord they called themselves S.C.F. Hooligans . After S.C.F. Hooligans were formed many other ultras groups started forming such as AFC Ajax ( F-side ) FC Utrecht (Bunnikside) ADO Den Haag (north side) De Graafschap (Brigata Tifosi) FC Twente (Vak-P) FC Groningen (Z-Side). Most clubs in Belgium have an ultra-group, such as Sporting Charleroi (Storm Ultras 2001), Sint-Truidense V.V. (Brigada Hesbania), KRC Genk (Drughi Genk), RSC Anderlecht (Mauves Army 2003) Standard Liège (Ultras Inferno 1996) Several clubs in Luxembourg have an ultras group, such as FC Differdange 03 (UD45), Jeunesse Esch (Ultras Esch), Avenir Beggen (Ultras Beggen), Luxembourg national football team (M-Block) People in Bosnia and Herzegovina are known for their national ultras group BHFanaticos . Also, they have
11438-491: The game. The programme extends to outside of football, in trying to support charities and other organisations which improve conditions around the world. The principles of the Fair Play programme can be summarised as follows: Both FIFA and UEFA have awards which they hand out to individuals or groups of people who have promoted what they see as the spirit of Fair Play , both within and outside of football. An example of this
11571-628: The hooligans to organise and participate in disorder. CCTV inside and outside stadiums and also at other anticipated "flash points" such as city centres and railway stations now makes it more likely that people involved in disorder can be identified later even if they are not arrested at the scene. However, there are still disruptions surrounding football matches. One example being the UEFA Champions League matches which were played on 12 and 13 April 2005. Violence by fans has also affected players, including professional athletes, but this
11704-463: The interest of people outside their constituencies. Finally, in gyroscopic representation, representatives use their own judgements to determine how and for what they should act for on behalf of the people they represent. Under Andrew Rehfeld 's general theory of representation, a person is considered a representative as long as the particular group they represent judges them as such. In any case of political representation, there are representatives,
11837-721: The interests of women and ethnic minorities. Scholars have defined representation as "the making present in some sense of something which is nevertheless not present literally or in fact". Descriptive representation is the idea that a group elects an individual to represent them who in their own characteristics mirror some of the more frequent experiences and outward manifestations of the group. This descriptive representation can have again different types such as "perfect over representation", "over representation", "proper representation", "under/nominal representation" & "No representation". In this form of representation, representatives are in their own persons and lives in some sense typical of
11970-593: The killings of Christopher Loftus and Kevin Speight, two Leeds United supporters, in Istanbul in 2000 on the eve of the UEFA Cup Semi-Final first leg. In recent years this aspect of the game seems to have passed its peak in England though it has by no means disappeared completely. Specialist police units and information-sharing between regional and international police forces has made it much harder for
12103-413: The larger class of persons whom they represent. For example, certain ethnic groups or gender-based groups may want to elect a leader that shares these descriptive characteristics as they may be politically relevant. Disadvantaged groups may gain benefit from descriptive representation primarily in two ways: Descriptive representation can be instituted by political parties independently where they set aside
12236-548: The main stand of their stadium in his honour. Other disasters have occurred away from stadia. Most notably, the Superga air disaster of 1949 in which the entire Torino squad perished. Other examples include the Munich air disaster which involved the 1958 Manchester United squad; the loss of the entire Zambia national team squad in an air crash in 1993 ; and a plane crash in 2016 that killed 71 passengers, including almost
12369-464: The majority of matches attended by ultras conclude with no violent incidents. Unlike hooligan firms , whose main aim is to fight hooligans of other clubs, the main focus of ultras is generally to support their own team. Some hooligans try to be inconspicuous when they travel; usually not wearing team colours, to avoid detection by the police. Within the ultra or hooligan culture however, those dressing to "blend in" would be referred to as casuals , which
12502-432: The manager and club captain, interviews with players, ex-players and backroom staff, information about ticketing arrangements for forthcoming matches, a detailed fixture list and review of the team's season so far, competitions, pages for junior fans, and a detailed feature on the opposition. Programmes from some matches are collectible items, and can fetch money at an auction. Pitch invasions happen when supporters move from
12635-486: The match, with drinking occurring inside the stadium, sometimes illicitly, as well as in pubs and bars outside. However, unwanted behaviour caused by drinking has led to the banning of the sale of alcohol to general supporters in stadiums across the UK, although most English and Welsh sides continue to sell alcohol within general stadium areas, with only clubs in Scotland being subject to a blanket ban following rioting after
12768-516: The match. Although not in the whole of Bosnia and Herzegovina , but especially in Sarajevo , ćevapi are commonly seen to be sold around the stadiums before and after the matches, and people can often be seen selling pepita and juices in front of the entrance of the stadium and on the stands during the match. In many countries with drinking culture , football has been associated with alcohol consumption. This can be before, during and after
12901-463: The media and also bring condemnation from the government of the countries in which they play. Shortly prior to UEFA Euro 1996 , the England national team gained notoriety for the "Dentist's Chair" incident. Several English players, including Paul Gascoigne and Teddy Sheringham , were photographed in Hong Kong after being seen in a bar pouring beer down each other's throats while the person sat on
13034-492: The members of the Congress. Miller and Stokes (1963) presented the seminal research of this kind in an exploratory effort to account for when alternative models of policy representation arise. Their work has been emulated, replicated, and enlarged by a host of subsequent studies. The most advanced theoretical formulation in this body of work, however, is by Hurley and Hill (2003) and by Hill, Jordan, and Hurley (2015) who present
13167-470: The messages sent by mobile phone between the gang members on the day. There have been a number of accidents and disasters in the history of football. Some of these, such as the Hillsborough and Ibrox disasters , were due to problems with crowd control. The Heysel Stadium disaster was a combination of hooliganism and poor crowd control. The Bradford City stadium fire was due to poor fire safety in
13300-479: The most dedicated ultras groups in Europe, Delije is a collective name for supporters of various groups that are a part of the Red Star Belgrade multi-sport club. They attend every match, and usually do choreographies and shout chants, with many subgroups present on the stadium as well. FK Partizan , have a ultras group of their own named Grobari (Gravediggers).They generally support all clubs within
13433-532: The mostly past era of hooliganism , however its depiction of matchday passion shows just how important derby day is to fans. When it comes to derbies, the culture of football thrives and shines in all its colours. How Soccer Explains the World is a perfect source into how derbies emerged and what they mean to the community. There are many types of sub-cultures and types of groups centred around football. Casuals are interlinked with hooligan firms . Ultras are
13566-502: The nation. " The Black Stars ", as the national team became known as, hosted the first African Cup of Nations. Ghana has become one of the most passionate footballing nations in both Africa and the world, thanks to the unifying power of the sport. Coaches are also becoming sought after internationally. This extends to national team coaches, once being native to their country, being brought in from other countries. Examples include Brazilian legend Zico coaching Japan ; Sven-Göran Eriksson ,
13699-424: The nature of government action between elections. Thus, substantive representation is predicated on the fact that democracy is evident between elections rather than isolated to formal procedures like voting. Recently, Pitkin's concept of substantive representation has been criticized by several political scientists on the grounds that it "assumes a static notion that interests are entities waiting to be brought into
13832-517: The new safe standing plans and they hope to be given a singing section within the Barclay. In late 2022, an Arsenal F.C. supporters group called "Ashburton Army" gained prominence, taking their name from Ashburton Grove, an historic road upon which the team's Emirates Stadium was built. In 2024, following the inception of the group and a subsequent meeting with club officials, an Aston Villa F.C. supporters group called "1897 Group" were allocated
13965-437: The people they represent and the normative criteria for assessing the actions of representatives. Promissory representation is a form of representation in which representatives are chosen and assessed based on the promises they make to the people they represent during election campaigns. For Mansbridge, promissory representation, preoccupied with how representatives are chosen (authorized) and held to account through elections,
14098-519: The people they represent. Democratic theorists often study substantive representation in terms of ideological congruence, meaning that representation is high when representatives hold the same policy positions as their constituents. Recent research shows that the ideological opinion-policy relationship is upheld for both foreign and domestic affairs, although foreign affairs and defense policy were long considered immune to public pressure. According to Hanna F. Pitkin's The Concept of Representation (1967),
14231-661: The pitch to disrupt the match. Another well known invasion was carried out by Karl Power, who sneaked into Manchester United's team photograph before their UEFA Champions League match with Bayern Munich . His other stunts have involved the England national rugby union team and the British Grand Prix . Derby matches, which are matches between two neighbouring rival clubs, are often fiercely competitive. Sometimes there are underlying political or sectarian tensions. The term often applies to matches between two teams from
14364-477: The preferences or interests of the specific geographic constituencies from which they are elected. Candidates who run for legislative office in an individual constituency or as a member of a list of party candidates are especially motivated to provide dyadic representation. As Carey and Shugart (1995, 417) observe, they have "incentives to cultivate a personal vote" beyond whatever support their party label will produce. Personal vote seeking might arise from representing
14497-723: The pub inadmissible. In March 2000, the Seaburn Casuals fought with hooligans from the Newcastle Gremlins in a pre-arranged clash near the North Shields Ferry terminal, in what was described as "some of the worst football related fighting ever witnessed in the United Kingdom". The leaders of the Gremlins and Casuals were both jailed for four years for conspiracy, with 28 others jailed for various terms, based on evidence gained after police examined
14630-428: The public policy interests of the constituency (by way of either the delegate, responsible party, or trustee models noted above), providing it "pork barrel" goods, offering service to individual constituents as by helping them acquire government services, and symbolic actions. The most abundant scientific scholarship on dyadic representation has been for the U.S. Congress and for policy representation of constituencies by
14763-464: The representational process." Among these scholars is Michael Saward (2010), who argues that substantive representation should be constructed as a process of "claims-making" in which representatives "speak for" their constituents. However, Ellie Severs (2012) disparages this logic, as she claims it obscures the interactions between representatives and the represented that are essential to the substantive representation process. Substantive representation
14896-501: The representatives themselves judge is in the best interests of citizens. And representatives may be viewed as individuals who have been authorized to act on the behalf of others, or may alternatively be viewed as those who will be held to account by those they are representing. Political representation can happen along different units such as social groups and area, and there are different types of representation such as substantive representation and descriptive representation. Under
15029-580: The represented and the normative criteria for judging representative's actions. Hence, Pitkin proposes a substantive view of representation. In this view of political representation, representation is defined as substantive "acting for", by representatives, the interests of the people they represent. In contrast, Jane Mansbridge has identified four views of democratic political representation: promissory, anticipatory, surrogate and gyroscopic. Mansbridge argues that each of these views provides an account of both how democratic political representatives "act for"
15162-401: The represented, a selection agent, a relevant audience and rules by which the relevant judge whether a person is a representative. Representatives are those who are selected by a selection agent from a larger set of qualified individuals who are then judged to representatives by a relevant audience using particular rules of judgement. The rules by which a relevant audience judges whether a person
15295-414: The rights to cover football matches, and in turn have recouped this investment from the many fans who are unable to catch the match in person. This benefits the "hardcore" and "casual" fan as they have more choice of which game they want to watch. While some clubs do well out of the increased money in football, other clubs can get into trouble trying to keep up. Leeds United attempted to do this by spending
15428-529: The same city or region, but it is sometimes used to refer to matches between big clubs from the same country. Derbies are usually treated as the most important matches by the fans, players and clubs, regardless of position in the league table, et cetera. The film Green Street embodies the spirit of derbies when one of the characters refers to the West Ham United– Millwall rivalry as that of Israel against Palestine. Of course this film does focus on
15561-544: The same time, it has the power to bring communities together. The FIFA World Cup brings the world of football together for an entire month. Through triumph and defeat it is a modern example of nationalism fused with globalisation. In Franklin Foer 's How Soccer Explains the World , he explains that national teams create a tribal sense of nationalism amongst fans. This nationalism is shown in wearing football shirts, scarves and flying flags to express pride. When tournaments such as
15694-500: The scandal led to a media outcry about footballers and their behaviour, especially with regard to children who look up to them. Wayne Rooney was also attacked in the media for alleged visits to prostitutes in 2004, a claim he later admitted was true. Adrian Mutu admitted cocaine use after failing a drugs test, and Graham Stack was charged with rape but cleared in 2005. Lee Bowyer again made headlines in 2005 when he and Newcastle United teammate Kieron Dyer fought each other near
15827-523: The semi-finals of the 2002 World Cup , so much so that one of South Korea's World Cup stadiums was renamed in his honour shortly after the competition. The two most recent managers of the US women were born outside the country, although both had lived in the US for many years before becoming USWNT head coaches. Jill Ellis , who managed the USWNT to World Cup wins in 2015 and 2019, is a native of England who moved to
15960-421: The spending power of bigger clubs. This leaves them more likely to be relegated again. Representation (politics) This definition of political representation is consistent with a wide variety of views on what representing implies and what the duties of representatives are. For example, representing may imply acting on the expressed wishes of citizens, but it may alternatively imply acting according to what
16093-424: The stadium. Another example is the 1977 British Home Championship match between England and Scotland, again at Wembley. After Scotland won 2–1, the " Tartan Army " invaded the pitch and managed to break down the goalposts, as well as cutting up the turf to take. In addition, there are better natured pitch invasions, typically at the end of games that involve success for one of the teams. This commonly occurs after
16226-405: The stadium. Lessons learned from these disasters have led to safer football stadiums and gradual bans on smoking . Matchday programme are sold inside and outside stadiums before, and sometimes during, matches. In their most simple form, they provide basic information on the teams, players, and match officials. Larger clubs usually produce multiple-page programmes with features such as comments from
16359-432: The standard for assessing the quality of substantive representation is the representative's responsiveness to the evolving needs of their citizenry. As a result, low substantive representation in representative democracies usually arises from representatives' inability to judge and act on the interests of the public rather than inactivity in office. Pitkin also argues that substantive representation should be apparent through
16492-404: The stands onto the football pitch, some times to deliberately disrupt a match. This is distinguished from times when, due to safety reasons, fans are let onto the pitch. Examples of pitch invasions include the 1923 " White Horse " FA Cup final between Bolton Wanderers and West Ham United at Wembley Stadium . Due to the overwhelming numbers in the stadium, the police had to bring order back to
16625-501: The top levels of the game, have become role models. Football has 160 years of history. The rules were first written in England in 1863, and since then a vast and diverse culture has emerged. The culture of football can be easily divided into how the players, fans and clubs see the sport. Held every four years, the FIFA World Cup is a "month long festival of football", with The Independent adding "its extreme popularity across
16758-455: The torcidas and the colourful scenes of the 1950 World Cup , supporters of Hajduk Split formed Torcida Split on 28 October 1950. The group is often cited as the oldest torcida style group in Europe. But the first supporters' groups in the world formed to produce violence were barras bravas , originated in Argentina in the 1950s. One country closely associated with the ultras movement
16891-541: The ultra culture with the formation of the Wisła Sharks and Cracovia Jude Gang groups, the former often regarded in Poland as the first full-fledged ultras group. With intimidating and non-stop chanting, they've made their presence felt in the stands. Modern hooligans try to be inconspicuous when they enter the stadium; usually not wearing team colours, to avoid detection by the police and PZPN officials. Spanish ultraism
17024-507: Was abandoned and York City paid tribute to the player later by naming a stand in his honour at their Bootham Crescent ground. In 2004, the Hungarian international Miklós Fehér died from a heart attack while playing for Benfica against Vitória de Guimarães . On 9 September 2006, Hinckley United player Matt Gadsby collapsed on the pitch and died during a Conference North match against Harrogate Town . Medical tests revealed he died from
17157-548: Was captured on CCTV punching a man 20 times. In 2004, the Leicester City trio of Paul Dickov , Frank Sinclair and Keith Gillespie spent a week in prison after being accused of sexual assault while on a training break at the La Manga resort in Spain with their team. However, the case was dropped after forensic evidence showed the accusations to be baseless. Although the players accused were ultimately innocent,
17290-426: Was for a long time an Armani model, famous for his underwear advertisements. In late 2009, Beckham was replaced by Cristiano Ronaldo as Armani's primary footballer/model. Nine of the top ten most followed sportspeople on Facebook are footballers, including the top six, Cristiano Ronaldo, Messi, Beckham, Neymar , Ronaldinho and Kaká , with Cristiano also the most followed person. Cristiano, Messi and Neymar are
17423-549: Was relegated to Serie B for the 2006–07 season and lost many top players) and getting their own title stripped off from them and being rewarded to Inter Milan, who were runners-up; and Apito Dourado in Portugal, with Porto and Boavista involved. In a 1997 address to the Oxford Union , then Tottenham Hotspur chairman Alan Sugar described clubs' inability to manage the ever-increasing amounts of money in football as
17556-520: Was the Italian player Paolo Di Canio who, while not given an award, was congratulated by many sections of the football world for a generous display of Fair Play . Despite having a goal-scoring opportunity while playing for West Ham United against Everton , when Di Canio saw the Everton goalkeeper had incurred an injury, instead of scoring what would have been the easiest goal of his career, he caught
17689-831: Was ultimately ejected from the stadium and the game resumed, which was won by Sønderjyske . Several groups exist in Rep. of Ireland, as follows: Shamrock Rovers - SRFC Ultras St Patrick's Athletic - Shed End Invincibles Drogheda United - Famous 45 Ultras Dundalk FC - Shed Side Army Bohemian FC - Notorious Boo Boys Galway United F.C. - maroon army Waterford FC - Block E Boys Finn Harps FC - Ballybofey brigade Sligo Rovers - Forza Rovers The ultras scene in Northern Ireland
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