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143-461: Upsilon Pi Epsilon was established at Texas A&M University in January 1967 as an honor society for computer information. It was founded with 22 original members. Dr. Dan Drew, head of the university's Department of Computer Science, was the society's advisor and, later, its national president. The purpose of Upsilon Pi Epsilon was "the promotion of high scholarship and original investigation in

286-586: A Boer goat , pigs, a cat, a deer, and a horse. In 2016, the animal-rights group People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) targeted the university and alleged abusive experiments on dogs. According to Texas A&M, the dogs in question were given several experimental treatments to improve or cure a genetic condition that also affects humans. During this period, the dogs were under the care of board-certified veterinarians and other highly trained staff with oversight from multiple agencies including

429-477: A National Public Radio affiliate since 1977, and the student-run station KANM , which bills itself "the college station of College Station". W5AC , a student-run amateur radio club, broadcast the first live, play-by-play broadcast of a college football game at Kyle Field in November 1921. Texas A&M culture is a product of the university's founding as a rural military and agricultural school. Although

572-630: A Rough Collie , lives with her handlers in the Corps in the Quad. Texas A&M is one of six United States senior military colleges . As of 2019, the university's Corps of Cadets (or the Corps), with more than 2,500 members, is the largest uniformed student body outside the service academies . Many members participate in Reserve Officers' Training Corps (ROTC) programs and earn commissions in

715-679: A $ 6 million marine biology center in Haifa , Israel, in 2016. As of 2020, approximately 20% of the Texas A&;M student body lived on campus, primarily in one of two distinct housing sections located on opposite ends of the campus. Both the Northside and Southside areas contain student residence halls. Some halls are single-sex. Several halls include a "substance-free" floor whose residents pledge to refrain from bringing alcoholic beverages , recreational drugs , or tobacco products into

858-616: A World War II propaganda movie, We've Never Been Licked , which was filmed on the A&;M campus and showcased many of the school traditions. Though Texas A&M was originally established as a branch of the yet-to-be-created University of Texas, subsequent acts of the Texas Legislature never gave the university any authority over Texas A&M. This internal legal conflict in Texas was nullified in 1948 when Texas A&M became

1001-623: A campus in Kōriyama , Japan , and accepted students starting in 1990 with the aim to transfer students to the College Station campus after two years of classes. The campus closed down in 1994 due to insufficient enrollment. The Corps welcomed its first female members in the fall of 1974. At the time, the women were segregated into a special unit, known as W-1, and suffered harassment from many of their male counterparts. Women were originally prohibited from serving in leadership positions or in

1144-563: A change in name from "college" to "school". Additionally, the Texas A&M pharmacy unit was renamed the Texas A&M University Irma Lerma Rangel School of Pharmacy . The following year, Banks suddenly resigned in July, only days after the resignation of the interim dean of the College of Arts & Sciences, after a botched attempted hiring of Kathleen McElroy to revive the university's journalism program. The initial job offer, which included

1287-410: A daughter of one of the faculty, became the first woman to take classes; in 1899, her sisters Sophie and Mary Hudson did the same. Though not explicitly envisioned as such, over time it became a de facto all-male institution and led to a decades-long debate about the role of women at the college. In 1911, under pressure from the Texas Legislature, the college allowed women to attend classes during

1430-519: A family member or friend answers "here" and lights a candle to symbolize although their loved one is not physically present, his or her spirit will shine forever; this is traditionally followed by a three-volley salute . The event received nationwide attention during World War II, when 25 Texas A&M alumni held a brief Aggie Muster during the Battle of Corregidor . History of Texas A%26M University The history of Texas A&M University ,

1573-399: A future college. The Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas, known as Texas A.M.C., was established by the state legislature on April 17, 1871, as the state's first public institution of higher education. The legislature provided US$ 75,000 for the construction of buildings at the new school, and state leaders invested profits from the sale of 180,000 acres (730 km ) received under

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1716-609: A limited number of women were allowed to attend classes but forbidden from gaining a degree. During World War I , 49% of A&M graduates were in military service, and in 1918, the senior class was mustered into military service to fight in France. During World War II , Texas A&M produced over 20,000 combat troops, contributing more officers than both the United States Military Academy and United States Naval Academy combined. Shortly after World War II,

1859-450: A more official standing. The Texas Legislature in 1911 refused to give A&M permission to hold a summer semester unless women were also permitted to attend. For the next several decades during the summers cadets were not required to be in uniform and women could attend class and participate in intramural activities. Texas A&M graduates were called to use their military training during World War I , and by 1918, 49% of graduates of

2002-488: A multiyear offer and tenure, was later watered down, with McElroy being presented with a succession of different offer letters. The final, which was rejected, was a one-year contract that could be terminated at any time. Her potential hiring was heavily criticized by conservative groups and alumni, as the offer was made to a black woman who had previously worked at The New York Times and studied how to improve diversity, equity, and inclusion in newsrooms. Shortly thereafter,

2145-479: A nonbinding resolution in the 1950s to encourage A&M to admit women. The school newspaper, The Battalion began writing editorials to encourage coeducation, causing the Student Senate to demand the editor of the paper resign. Later in the year students defeated 2–1 a campus resolution on coeducation. On March 26, 1959, retired Major General James Earl Rudder , who (outside of Sul Ross) arguably had

2288-471: A number of factors led to the Bonfire collapse, including "excessive internal stresses" on the logs and "inadequate containment strength", where the wiring used to tie the logs together was not strong enough. The wiring broke after logs from upper tiers were "wedged" into lower tiers. Texas A&M officials, Bonfire student leaders, and the university itself were the subject of several lawsuits by parents of

2431-424: A portfolio of over 2,600 inventions. On average, Texas A&M files over 50 patents and closes 25 license agreements per year. Texas A&M has led the world in several fields of cloning research. Scientists at the university's College of Veterinary Medicine created the first cloned pet, a cat named 'cc', on December 22, 2001. Texas A&M was also the first academic institution to clone six species; cattle,

2574-548: A return on investment. As of 2015, Texas A&M was rated the second-best university for veterans in USA Today and ninth for "business schools for veterans" by the Military Times . The Texas A&M University System has an endowment valued at more than $ 19.2 billion; the second highest among U.S. public universities and seventh overall. Apart from revenue received from tuition and research grants, as part of

2717-434: A separate school within the university in 1999. At 2:42 a.m. on November 18, 1999, the partially completed Aggie Bonfire , standing 40 feet (12 m) tall and consisting of about 5000 logs , collapsed during construction. Of the 58 students and former students working on the stack, 12 were killed and 27 others were injured. The incident received nationwide attention, with over 50 satellite trucks broadcasting from

2860-529: A student-run safe ride program , has provided over 250,000 free rides (as of 2016 ) to students who are unable to transport themselves home. Its organizers help other universities establish similar programs. In 2009, GLBT Aggies , formerly Gay Student Services (GSS), successfully sued the university for official recognition and the Fifth U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals ruled the U.S. Constitution requires public universities to allow such student organizations under

3003-466: Is appointed to a one-year term. The Chancellor of the Texas A&M University System is responsible for day-to-day operations and is answerable to the Board of Regents. The university is led by the university president, who has executive responsibility, and is selected by and reports to the chancellor. The provost is responsible for all educational and service activities of the university, and reports to

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3146-477: Is credited for saving the school from closure and transforming it into a respected military institution. Ross, the immediate past governor of Texas , had been a well-respected Confederate Brigadier General and enjoyed a good reputation among state residents. When Ross arrived at the school, he found no running water, a housing shortage, a disgruntled faculty, and many students running wild. As Ross began to make improvements, parents began to send their children to

3289-678: Is dedicated to engineering disciplines. Texas A&M Health maintains several other Health Science Centers and campuses away from the Bryan-College Station campus. The School of Engineering Medicine (EnMed), at the Houston Methodist Hospital , and the Texas A&M Institute of Biosciences and Technology , are both located in the Texas Medical Center in Houston . The School of Dentistry

3432-638: Is located in Dallas , and the institution has a presence in Corpus Christi , Kingsville , Lufkin , McAllen, Round Rock , and Temple . Texas A&M School of Law, formerly Texas Wesleyan University School of Law, is located in Fort Worth . Texas A&M maintains the RELLIS Campus , formerly the Texas A&M University-Riverside Campus and Bryan Air Force Base, which was transferred from

3575-493: Is located in the Brazos Valley (Southeast Central Texas) region, an area often referred to as "Aggieland". Brazos Valley is centrally located within 200 miles (320 km) of three of the ten largest cities in the U.S. and 75% of the population of Texas and Louisiana —approximately 13 million people. The area's major roadway is State Highway 6 , and several smaller state highways and Farm to Market Roads connect

3718-483: Is scheduled for 2025—it will be the largest optical telescope ever constructed with seven mirrors, each with a diameter of 8.4 meters (9.2 yd), the equivalent of a mirror 24.5 meters (26.8 yd) across and ten times more powerful than the Hubble Space Telescope . As part of a collaboration with the U.S. Department of Energy 's National Nuclear Security Administration , Texas A&M completed

3861-698: Is the UPE NewsBrief . Upsilon Pi Epsilon holds an annual convention. The society gives out several scholarships for its members and those who are active student members. It also cosponsores the International Collegiate Programming Contest with the Association of Computing Machinery . Membership is available to undergraduate and graduate students in computer science who have a high grade point average . Eligible undergraduates must complete 48 credits, rank in

4004-590: Is the mother of the current emir Sheikha Moza bint Nasser , Texas A&M University at Qatar was set up through an agreement between Texas A&M and the Qatar Foundation for Education, Science, and Community Development and continues its part of Qatar's efforts to expand higher education with the assistance of elite institutions from the United States. All degrees at the Qatar campus are granted by

4147-435: Is wearing an Aggie Ring , whose design has been relatively unchanged since its introduction in 1894. Although not sanctioned by the university, many students "dunk" their newly acquired Aggie Rings into a pitcher of beer and drink the entire pitcher in seconds. Texas A&M students have created two major traditions to honor deceased former students. The Aggie Muster is a ceremony of remembrance held annually on April 21,

4290-464: The Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas (A.M.C.) under the provisions of the 1862 Morrill Land-Grant Act . In the following decades, the college grew in size and scope, expanding to its largest enrollment during WWII before its first significant stagnation in enrollment post-war. Enrollment grew again in the 1960s under the leadership of President James Earl Rudder , during whose tenure,

4433-495: The First Amendment 's "freedom to assemble" clause. The university newspaper The Battalion has been in production since 1893. The ''Aggieland'' , formerly known as ''The Olio'' and ''The Longhorn'' , is one of America 's largest college yearbooks in number of pages and copies sold. As of 2007, the university houses three public broadcasting stations: KAMU-TV , a PBS member station since 1970; KAMU-FM ,

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4576-475: The G.I. Bill to fund their education; however, enrollment stagnated in the following decade. In 1948, the state legislature established the Texas A&M College Station campus as the flagship of a new system of universities, the Texas A&M University System. Its goal was to serve as the lead institution to foster the evolution of a statewide educational, research and service system. On July 1, 1959, Major General James Earl Rudder , class of 1932, became

4719-474: The George H. W. Bush Presidential Library and Museum . The university offers degrees in more than 130 courses of study through 18 colleges, and houses 21 research institutes. As a senior military college , Texas A&M is one of six American universities classed as a senior military college and has a full-time, volunteer Cadet Corps whose members study alongside civilian undergraduate students. About one-fifth of

4862-576: The Land-Grant College Act in gold frontier defense bonds, creating a permanent endowment for the college. A committee tasked with finding a home for the new college chose Brazos County , which agreed to donate 2,416 acres (10 km ) of land. Jefferson Davis , former President of the Confederate States of America , was offered the presidency of the college but turned it down. He recommended Thomas S. Gathright , who

5005-541: The Medal of Honor during the worldwide conflict, tying with Virginia Tech as the most of any school outside of the military academies at West Point and Annapolis, and 29 former students reached the rank of general. In addition, the college received nationwide exposure during the war when a reporter wrote a widely distributed story about the Aggie Muster on the island of Corregidor . The intense interest resulted in

5148-513: The Morrill Act , which auctioned land grants of public lands to establish endowments for colleges at which the "leading object shall be, without excluding other scientific and classical studies and including military tactics, to teach such branches of learning as are related to agriculture and mechanical arts ... to promote the liberal and practical education of the industrial classes in the several pursuits and professions in life". In 1871,

5291-686: The National Institutes of Health (NIH) and the Muscular Dystrophy Association . The university is also engaged in significant scientific exploration projects. In 2004, as part of its responsibilities under the space grant program, it joined a consortium of universities and countries to build the Giant Magellan Telescope in Chile. Construction began in November 2015; on its completion—which

5434-722: The Texas Transportation Institute , the Cyclotron Institute, the Institute of Biosciences and Technology, and the Institute for Plant Genomics and Biotechnology. Texas A&M University is a member of the SEC Academic Consortium . Texas A&M works with state and university agencies on local and international research projects to develop innovations in science and technology that can have commercial applications. In 2006,

5577-560: The United States Armed Forces upon graduation. Members of the Corps have served in every armed conflict fought by the United States since 1876, and over 285 alumni have served as generals or flag officers as of 2021. Until 1965, Corps membership was mandatory. The Corps began accepting female members in the fall semester of 1974. The Corps of Cadets is composed of four major units, the Air Force Wing,

5720-548: The 'other education' of A&M and bring high caliber students and speakers from across Texas and the nation together to discuss issues of national importance. The keynote speaker at SCONA 1 in 1955 was United States Army Major General William J. Donovan , founder of the WWII-era Office of Strategic Services that later became the Central Intelligence Agency . The Texas Legislature defeated

5863-399: The 16th president of the college. In 1963, with the backing of State Senator William T. "Bill" Moore , the 58th Legislature of Texas approved Rudder's proposal for a substantial expansion of the college. Over the coming years, Texas A&M augmented and upgraded its physical plant and facilities, and diversified and expanded its student body by admitting women and minorities. Membership in

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6006-442: The 17th-best public university in the country and 50th overall. After conducting a survey of leading employment recruiters, The Wall Street Journal ranked Texas A&M second nationally as "most likely to help students land a job in key careers and professions" and the 83rd-best college overall. As of 2017, according to Best Value Schools , Texas A&M graded first in nation as the best college for military veterans, based on

6149-555: The 35 years following his death, Texas A&M more than tripled its enrollment from 14,000 students to more than 45,000. Texas A&M became one of the first four universities given the designation sea-grant for its achievements in oceanography and marine resources development in 1971. In 1989, the university earned the title space-grant from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) to recognize its commitment to space research and participation in

6292-790: The Academic Building, Harrington Hall, the Memorial Student Center, the Administration Building, Rudder Tower, Albritton Bell Tower, and the Bonfire Memorial . To the west of the railroad tracks lies West Campus, which includes most of the sports facilities, the business school, agricultural programs, life sciences, the veterinary college, the political science and economics school, George Bush School of Government & Public Service , George Bush Presidential Library , and two schools within

6435-484: The Aggie Spirit, a strong sense of loyalty and respect for the university. They dictate many aspects of student life, including greeting others using the official school greeting of "Howdy!", personal conduct at university sporting events, and students' word choices in conversation. A visible designation tradition among senior undergraduates, graduate students nearing the end of their programs, and former students

6578-786: The Army Brigade, the Navy/Marine Regiment, and the Fightin' Texas Aggie Band , whose members may be affiliated with any military branch. Parson's Mounted Cavalry is the only mounted ROTC unit in the United States. The Ross Volunteer Company, one of the oldest student-run organizations in the state, is the official honor guard for the Governor of Texas. The Fish Drill Team , a precision, close-order rifle drill team composed entirely of Corps freshmen, represents Texas A&M in local and national competitions. The team have won

6721-446: The Corps of Cadets also became voluntary from the start of the fall semester of 1963. Initially, the decision to admit women made the student body very unhappy. The change was initially resisted and some minor efforts to reverse it persisted for several decades. The positive impact of these changes was rapid. By 1972, on-campus housing was dedicated for women and in 1976, the student body elected its first Black student-body president. In

6864-641: The Corps of Cadets and receive military training. The campus bore minimal resemblance to its modern counterpart. Wild animals roamed freely around the campus, and the area served as a meeting point for the Great Western Cattle Trail . Despite its name, the college taught no classes in agriculture, instead concentrating on classical studies, languages, literature, and applied mathematics. After four years, students could attain degrees in scientific agriculture, civil and mining engineering, and language and literature. Local farmers complained that

7007-474: The Corps of Cadets. The following year the college was officially integrated as A&M welcomed its first African-American student. More change ensued, as, in 1965, the board of directors voted to make membership in the Corps of Cadets voluntary. The same year the board voted to allow any woman, not just those connected to students and professors, to attend the university. The board required that Rudder approve each female applicant; he accepted any woman who met

7150-593: The International Federation of Engineering Education Societies. In 2012, Upsilon Pi Epsilon had 247 active collegiate chapters and 235 active alumni chapters. That same year, its annual initiations totaled 2,138 and its total membership was 229,800. The Greek name Upsilon Pi Epsilon was selected for the first letters of the Greek words for computer, information, and science. The UPE emblem or key features three symbols that are important historically to

7293-515: The Quadrangle, known as "The Quad" , an area consisting of dormitories, Duncan Dining Hall, and the Corps training fields. The Corps Arches, a series of twelve arches that allude to the spirit of the 12th Man , mark the entrance to the Quadrangle. All cadets, except those who are married or who have had previous military service, must live in the Quad with assigned roommates from the same unit and graduating class. The Aggie mascot Reveille ,

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7436-623: The Texas A&M Health Science Center. Outside the main campus, the institution formally includes three branch campuses : Texas A&M University at Galveston is dedicated to marine research and hosts the Texas A&;M Maritime Academy ; Texas A&M University Higher Education Center at McAllen is dedicated to engineering, biomedical science, public health, and food systems industry management; and Texas A&M University at Qatar (TAMUQ) in Education City , Al Rayyan , Qatar ,

7579-493: The Texas A&M University System was the first to explicitly state in its policy technology commercialization could be used for tenure . Passage of this policy was intended to give faculty more academic freedom and strengthen the university's industry partnerships. The efforts of system-wide faculty and research departments have yielded millions of dollars for Texas A&M in royalty-bearing license agreements through more than 900 patents and 1,500 patent applications relating to

7722-482: The Texas A&M campus within hours. On November 25, 1999, the date that Bonfire would have burned, Aggies instead held a vigil and remembrance ceremony on site. Over 40,000 people , including former President George H.W. Bush and his wife Barbara and then-Texas governor George W. Bush and his wife Laura , lit candles and observed up to two hours of silence at the site of the Bonfire collapse. A commission put together by Texas A&M University discovered that

7865-573: The Texas Legislature never gave the university any authority over Texas A&M. In 1875, the Legislature separated the administrations of A&M and the University of Texas, which still existed only on paper. For much of its first century, enrollment at Texas A&M was restricted to men who were willing to participate in the Corps of Cadets and receive military training . During this time,

8008-400: The Texas Legislature redefined Texas A&M as a university and the flagship school of the Texas A&M University System , making official the school's status as a clear and separate institution from the University of Texas. In the 1960s, the state legislature renamed the school Texas A&M University, with the "A&M" becoming purely symbolic. Under the leadership of James Earl Rudder ,

8151-545: The Texas Legislature used these funds to establish the state's first public institution of higher education, the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas, (Texas A.M.C.). Brazos County donated 2,416 acres (10 km ) near Bryan, Texas , for the college's campus. From its beginning until the late 1920s, students were officially nicknamed "Farmers" but the moniker "Aggies"—a common nickname for students at schools focused heavily on agriculture—gained favor and became

8294-608: The Texas Space Grant Consortium. In 1997, the university opened the Bush School of Government and Public Service and the George H.W. Bush Presidential Library and Museum —one of fifteen American presidential libraries operated by the National Archives and Records Administration . Former U.S. President George H.W. Bush remained actively involved with the university, frequently visiting

8437-406: The United States , and is the only university in Texas to hold simultaneous designations as a land-, sea- , and space-grant institution. It is classified among "R1: Doctoral Universities – Very high research activity" and a member of the Association of American Universities . The university was the first public higher education institution in Texas; it opened for classes on October 4, 1876, as

8580-469: The United States and abroad, becoming the first international honor society for the computer and information disciplines. Upsilon Pi Epsilon became a member of the Association of College Honor Societies in 1997. Upsilon Pi Epsilon is endorsed by the Association for Computing Machinery and the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Computer Society (IEEE-CS). It was also a founding member of

8723-474: The United States and overseas. Texas A%26M University Texas A&M University ( Texas A&M , A&M , or TAMU ) is a public , land-grant , research university in College Station, Texas , United States. It was founded in 1876 and became the flagship institution of the Texas A&M University System in 1948. Since 2021, Texas A&M has enrolled the largest student body in

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8866-583: The University and its branch campus in Qatar and shared accurate information. In 2013, Texas A&M signed an agreement to open a $ 200 million campus in Nazareth , Israel, as a "peace campus" for Arabs and Israelis. The agreement led to protests from students at the Qatari campus, who called it "an insult to [their] people". The planned campus in Nazareth was never opened; instead, Texas A&M opened

9009-504: The University of Texas at Austin, the Association of American Universities inducted Texas A&M in May 2001, based on the depth of the university's research and academic programs. Furthermore, in 2004, the honors organization Phi Beta Kappa opened its 265th chapter at Texas A&M. Following Hurricane Katrina in 2005, Texas A&M opened Reed Arena as a temporary shelter to house over 200 evacuees from New Orleans . Although school

9152-447: The academic requirements. During Rudder's tenure, African-American students were also welcomed, and in 1967, James L. Courtney of Dallas became the first African American to receive an undergraduate degree from Texas A&M University. He remained at Texas A&M and, in 1970, became the first African American to receive a D.V.M. degree from the College of Veterinary Medicine. When Rudder died in 1970, after 11 years as president of

9295-520: The agreement with the Qatar Foundation, TAMU agreed 70% of its undergraduates at its Qatar campus would be Qatari citizens. The curriculum is designed to emulate the academic rigors of the facility at College Station but critics question whether this is possible due to Qatar's strict stance on some of the freedoms granted to U.S. students. TAMU has also been criticized over its Qatari campus due to Qatar's alleged ties to Islamic terrorism and

9438-523: The anniversary of the Battle of San Jacinto , to honor current and former students who died the previous year. Alumni also typically socialize and remember their time at the university. Over 300 Musters are held around the world, the largest taking place at Reed Arena on the university's main campus. All Muster ceremonies feature the Roll Call for the Absent, in which names of deceased alumni are called,

9581-496: The area to larger highways such as Interstate 45 . The College Station campus is bisected by a railroad track operated by Union Pacific . The area east of the tracks, known as main campus, includes buildings for the colleges of engineering, architecture, geosciences, science, education, and liberal arts. Dormitories, the main dining centers, and many campus support facilities are also on the main campus. Notable buildings on main campus include Kyle Field , Sterling C. Evans Library,

9724-460: The campus and participating in special events until his death in 2018. He was buried on campus. With strong support from Rice University and the University of Texas, in May 2001, the Association of American Universities inducted Texas A&M on the basis of the depth of its research and academic programs. As the student population increased, so did the university's diverse academic offerings. On July 12, 2013, Texas A&M Health Science Center

9867-608: The campus. The United States Congress laid the groundwork for the establishment of Texas A&M with their proposal of the Morrill Act . The Morrill Act, signed into law July 2, 1862, was created to enable states to establish colleges with the following tenet which may be found in Section 5 of the legislation: ...leading object shall be, without excluding other scientific and classical studies and including military tactics, to teach such branches of learning as are related to agriculture and mechanical arts ... in order to promote

10010-795: The campus. This tenth presidential library was built between 1995 and 1997 and contains the presidential and vice-presidential papers of George H. W. Bush and the vice-presidential papers of Dan Quayle . To coincide with the opening of the George Bush Presidential Library, Texas A&M established the George Bush School of Government and Public Service . The school, which offers a master's degree in Public Service and Administration (MPSA) and one in policy and international affairs (MPIA) as well as two research degrees, officially launched in 1997. It became

10153-504: The college desegregated, became coeducational, and ended the requirement for participation in the Corps of Cadets . In 1963, to reflect the institution's expanded roles and academic offerings, the Texas Legislature renamed the college Texas A&M University; the letters "A&M" were retained as a tribute to the university's former designation. The university's main campus spans over 5,500 acres (22 km ), and includes

10296-528: The college likewise began offering doctoral degrees throughout the next few decades. During World War II, Texas A&M produced 20,229 soldiers, sailors, and marines for the United States' war effort; of these, 14,123 were officers, more than the combined total of the United States Naval Academy and the United States Military Academy and more than three times the totals of any other Senior Military College . Seven Aggies received

10439-679: The college was abusing its mission, and, in November 1879, the president and faculty were replaced and given a mandated curriculum in agriculture and engineering. During these early years, student life was molded by the Corps of Cadets. The Corps was divided into a battalion of three companies, and rivalry among the companies was strong, giving birth to the Aggie spirit and future traditions . No bonfires, yell practices , or athletics teams existed as yet, and social clubs and fraternities were discouraged. Enrollment, which had climbed as high as 500 students, declined to only 80 students in 1883,

10582-464: The college were in military service, a larger percentage than any other college or university. In early September 1918, the entire senior class was mustered into military service, with plans to send the younger students at staggered dates throughout the next year. Many of the seniors were fighting in France when the war ended two months later. In total, over 1,200 former students served as commissioned officers during World War I. Texas A&M Hillel ,

10725-606: The combined total of the United States Naval Academy and the United States Military Academy . At the start of World War II, Texas A&M was selected as one of six engineering colleges to participate in the Electronics Training Program , which would train Navy personnel to maintain new radar systems. During the war, 29 Texas A&M graduates reached the rank of general . After the end of World War II, enrollment rapidly grew as many former soldiers used

10868-421: The computing and information disciplines: the zero, the one, and the abacus. The numbers are arranged as eleven binary bits. During the society's initiation ceremony, inductees sit in front of a table that features nine lit candles and two unlit candles that are arranged as the eleven binary bits of its key. The colors of Upsilon Pi Epsilon are maroon and white. Its symbol is the abacus . Its quarterly publication

11011-482: The country's human rights record. In 2016, Texas A&M Aggie Conservatives, a campus activism group, criticized the campus and called for its immediate closure on the grounds it violated a commitment to educating Texans and diminished the credibility of engineering degrees of students at College Station. On 7 January 2024, Mark A. Welsh III , President of TAMU, addressed inaccuracies and misconceptions circulating on various websites and social media platforms regarding

11154-442: The courts; although the trial court ruled in favor of Texas A&M several times, the 5th Circuit Court of Appeals repeatedly overturned the verdict. The U.S. Supreme Court declined to review the case, letting stand the circuit court ruling that the students' free speech rights had been compromised. The case set a national precedent by removing legal restrictions on gay rights groups on campuses. The subsequent recognition of

11297-497: The elimination of Texas A.M.C. In 1891, the college was saved from closure by its new president Lawrence Sullivan Ross , former Governor of Texas and former Confederate Brigadier General , by demonstrating the college could function and excel in its established form under proper leadership. Ross made many improvements to the campus, installing running water and permanent dormitories. Enrollment doubled under his tenure to 467 cadets as parents sent their sons to Texas A.M.C. to emulate

11440-474: The fall semester in 2021, Texas A&M was the largest American university with an enrollment of 72,982 students who were pursuing degrees in 17 academic colleges. The student body originates from all 50 U.S. states and over 120 other countries. Texas residents account for 86.27% of the student population and 7.42% are of international origin. The demographics of the student body are 52.9% male and 47.1% female. Members of ethnic minority groups make up 42.2% of

11583-478: The field of computer science and the advancement of the art and profession of computer science and related endeavors." It al recognized talent and sought to maintain high standards in the field. It was the first society developed for computer science in the United States. A second chapter, Alpha of Pennsylvania , was formed at Pennsylvania State University in December 1969. The group expanded to other colleges in

11726-523: The first Aggie Ring , the first yearbook, and the formation of the Aggie Band . Ross's tenure also saw the college's first intercollegiate football game, played against the University of Texas. By 1910, the school listed eight degree programs , including agriculture , architecture , agricultural engineering , chemical engineering , civil engineering , electrical engineering , mechanical engineering , and textile engineering . Five years later

11869-417: The first conversion of a nuclear research reactor from using highly enriched uranium fuel (70%) to use low-enriched uranium (20%). The eighteen-month project ended on October 13, 2006, after the first-ever refueling of the reactor, thus fulfilling a portion of the United States' Global Nuclear Threat Reduction Initiative. In 2013, geography researchers named the largest volcano on Earth, Tamu Massif , after

12012-403: The first female to receive a diploma from Texas A&M, although she was not allowed to participate in the graduation ceremony. The following month the board of directors officially prohibited all women from enrolling. In 1926, they codified that women in summer school had an unofficial status and could not pursue a degree. By 1930, however, over 1800 women had attended classes at A&M. In

12155-617: The first four administrations with the presence of four alumnus of the Virginia Military Institute ; Robert Page Waller Morris , John Garland James , Hardaway Hunt Dinwiddie and John Waller Clark. States were granted public lands be sold at auctions to establish a permanent fund to support the schools. Both the Republic of Texas and the Texas State Legislature also set aside public lands for

12298-641: The first public institution of higher education in Texas , began in 1871, when the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas was established as a land-grant college by the Reconstruction-era Texas Legislature . Classes began on October 4, 1876. Although Texas A&M was originally scheduled to be established under the Texas Constitution as a branch of the yet-to-be-created University of Texas , subsequent acts of

12441-432: The flagship school of the newly created Texas A&M University System, a clear and separate institution from the University of Texas System. A&M's board of directors continued to oversee the system. It is of note that the state constitution never was amended to confirm the separation between the university systems. Enrollment soared as many former soldiers used the G.I. Bill to further their education. Unprepared for

12584-479: The grounds that homosexuality was illegal in Texas, and the group's stated goals—offering referral services and providing educational information to students—were actually the responsibility of university staff. The students sued the university for violation of their First Amendment right to freedom of speech in February 1977. For six years, Gay Student Services v. Texas A&M University wound its way through

12727-409: The group provided a university precedent for allowing social organizations. In 1977, the university had also denied recognition to Sigma Phi Epsilon , a national social fraternity , because its presence on campus might result in "a social caste system". The George Bush Presidential Library was established in 1997 on 90 acres (364,220 m ) of land donated by Texas A&M at the western edge of

12870-585: The growth, between 1949 and 1953 Texas A&M used the former Bryan Air Force Base as an extension of the campus. An estimated 5,500 men lived, studied, ate, showered, and attended classes at the base, which became known as the Annex (and later as Riverside Campus ). In 1955, senior cadets at Texas A&M created the MSC Student Conference on National Affairs after attending SCUSA at the United States Military Academy at West Point to further

13013-410: The hall. Northside consists of seventeen student residence halls, including two dedicated to honors students . Approximately half of the residence halls on campus are reserved for members of the Corps of Cadets. The university also has four major apartment complexes for both staff and students, which are located both on and adjacent to the campus. Facilities for the Corps of Cadets are located in

13156-550: The institution has over 11,750 acres (50 km ), which includes 3,000,000 square feet (279,000 m ) of dedicated research space. The Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education classifies Texas A&M among "R1: Doctoral Universities – Very high research activity" as of 2021. Its research entities include the Hagler Institute for Advanced Study , the Texas Institute for Genomic Medicine ,

13299-543: The late 1920s, following the discovery of oil on university lands, Texas A&M and the University of Texas negotiated a settlement for the division of the Permanent University Fund which enabled A&M to receive one-third of the revenue. This guaranteed wealth enabled A&M to expand. Enrollment increased even during the Great Depression , as student cooperative housing projects enabled

13442-402: The liberal and practical education of the industrial classes in the several pursuits and professions in life... The Morrill Act did not specify the extent of military training, leading many land-grant schools to provide only minimal training, Texas A&M was an exception. The only mention of military training is in Section 5. The military tradition of Texas A&M was greatly influenced during

13585-489: The maneuvers. Membership of the Corps of Cadets is a requirement for joining the Aggie Band, whose members live by the same standards, schedules, and regimens as the rest of the Corps. Texas A&M has over 1,000 student organizations, including academic, service, religious, social, and common interest organizations, and hosts 58 nationally or internationally recognized Greek Letter Organizations (GLOs). About 10% of

13728-553: The more elite Corps units such as the Fish Drill Team, the band, and Ross Volunteers. These groups were opened to female participation in 1985, following a federal court decision in a class-action lawsuit filed by a female cadet. Two years later, in 1990, female-only units were eliminated. In November 1976, the university denied official recognition to the Gay Student Services Organization on

13871-510: The most significant effect on the campus (and especially in terms of transforming it into the modern university of today), became the 16th president of the college, his alma mater. At the time, the college was still an all-male military school with a 7,500 student enrollment. Within several years of his arrival, the 58th Legislature of Texas officially changed the name of the school from the Agricultural & Mechanical College of Texas to Texas A&M University. The Legislature specified that in

14014-506: The national championship almost every year since their creation in 1946, and have appeared in several Hollywood films, including A Few Good Men and Courage Under Fire , in which they had prominent roles. The Fightin' Texas Aggie Band, the nation's largest precision military marching band , provides music for university functions and presents halftime performances at football games. Some band drills are so complicated they require band members to step between each other's feet to complete

14157-485: The new name of the school, the A and the M were purely symbolic, reflecting the school's past, and no longer stood for "Agricultural and Mechanical". With Rudder's strong encouragement, in 1963, the A&M Board of Directors officially reversed their stance on admitting women. The wives and daughters of faculty, staff and students as well as female staff members were finally allowed to officially participate in undergraduate programs, although they were not permitted to join

14300-417: The official student-body nickname in 1949. The first day of classes was set for October 2, 1876, but only six students enrolled on the first day. Classes were delayed and officially began on October 4 with six faculty members and forty students at the military school. During the first semester, enrollment increased to 48 students and by the end of the 1877 spring semester, 106 students had enrolled. Admission

14443-501: The oldest Hillel organization in the United States, was founded in 1920. The organization occurred three years before the national Hillel Foundation was organized at the University of Illinois . After the war, Texas A&M grew rapidly and became nationally recognized for its programs in agriculture, engineering, and military science. The first graduate school was organized in 1924, and, in 1925, Mary Evelyn Crawford Locke became

14586-534: The president. The cabinet, as the institution's administrative arm, and the deans of the respective colleges, also report to the president. The university and colleges are accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools and associated professional organizations offering degrees in 130 courses of study, over 260 professional and graduate degrees via its 17 colleges, and further opportunities in 21 research centers and institutes. As of

14729-426: The same series of actions, the Texas legislature officially renamed the school "Texas A&M University", specifying the symbolic nature of the letters "A" and "M", which reflect the institution's past, and no longer denote "Agricultural and Mechanical". By the time of his death in 1970, Rudder had overseen the growth of the college from 7,500 to 14,000 students from all 50 U.S. states and from 75 other nations. In

14872-548: The same year the University of Texas opened in Austin . Although originally envisioned and annotated in the Texas Constitution as a branch of the soon-to-begin University of Texas, Texas A.M.C. had a separate Board of Directors from the University of Texas and was never incorporated into the University of Texas System . In the late 1880s, many Texas residents saw no need for two colleges in Texas and advocated for

15015-496: The school and surrounding community have grown and military training is no longer mandated, the university's history has instilled in students, according to Paul Burka, "the idealized elements of a small-town life: community, tradition, loyalty, optimism, and unabashed sentimentality". Texas Monthly posits that Texas A&M students' respect for school traditions and values is the university's greatest strength. These traditions enable and encourage students and alumni to cultivate

15158-588: The school awarded its first PhD in 1940. In 1925, Mary Evelyn Crawford Locke became the first female student to receive a diploma from Texas A&M but she was not allowed to participate in the graduation ceremony. The following month, the Board of Directors officially prohibited all women from enrolling. Many Texas A&M alumni served in the military during World War II ; the college's educational and technical training resulted in 20,229 trained combat troops for U.S. military efforts. Of those, 14,123 alumni served as officers, more than any other school, and more than

15301-486: The school became racially integrated and coeducational. Membership in the Corps of Cadets became voluntary. In the second half of the 20th century, the university was recognized for its research with the designations sea-grant university and space-grant university . The school was further honored in 1997 with the establishment of the George Bush Presidential Library on the western edge of

15444-602: The school in the hopes that they would learn from Ross's example. Although enrollment had always been limited to men, in 1893, Ethel Hudson, the daughter of an A&M professor, became the first woman to attend classes at the school and helped edit the annual yearbook. She was made an honorary member of the class of 1895. Several years later her twin sisters became honorary members of the class of 1903, and slowly other daughters of Aggie professors were allowed to attend classes. Under Ross's seven and one-half year tenure, many enduring Aggie traditions formed. These traditions include

15587-495: The school the largest university in Texas. By 2020, this number swelled even further to over 71,000 students enrolled making it the largest public university in the nation. Texas A&M has several branch campuses. Texas A&M University at Galveston was formed in 1962, in Galveston, Texas . This campus is home to the Texas A&M Maritime Academy and focuses on marine biology, marine sciences and oceanography . In 2003,

15730-487: The school, Texas A&M University had grown to more than 14,000 students from all 50 states and 75 nations . The school had become coeducational and had even begun construction of an all-female dormitory. The curriculum had been broadened, with upgraded academic and faculty standards, and the school had initiated a multimillion-dollar building program. Texas A&M's would continue its growth spurt after Rudder's death. On September 17, 1971, Texas A&M University

15873-515: The state legislature made available for higher education. In 1887, the Texas Agricultural Experiment Station was established at Texas A.M.C., enabling the college to gain more funding. Many residents of the state saw little need for two colleges in Texas, and some wanted to close the agricultural and mechanical school. Texas A.M.C. president Lawrence Sullivan Ross , known affectionately to students as "Sully",

16016-679: The state legislature, in cooperation with the United States Department of Agriculture , established the Texas Agricultural Extension Service, organized the Texas Forest Service, and authorized a School of Veterinary Medicine at the college. The college was unprepared for the growth, and for the next ten years several hundred students lived in tents in a field in the middle of campus. During this time, women were also given

16159-535: The statue would remain on campus because it is not based upon his service in the Confederate Army. Amid the Black Lives Matter movement and vandalism of the statue, attempts in 2020 by a group of students and activists to secure its removal were rebuffed by the university's administration, other students and alumni, and counter-protestors. The university also confirmed that the removal of

16302-489: The statue would require Texas Congressional approval. In 2022, university president M. Katherine Banks implemented university-wide administrative restructuring that involved several changes to academic unit names and branding. The College of Science , the College of Geosciences , and the College of Liberal Arts, were merged to form the Texas A&M University College of Arts & Sciences. Several academic units underwent

16445-499: The student body lives on campus. Texas A&M has more than 1,000 officially recognized student organizations. Many students observe university traditions that govern conduct in daily life and sporting events. The university's students, alumni, and sports teams are known as Aggies , and its athletes compete in eighteen varsity sports as a member of the Southeastern Conference . In 1862, the U.S. Congress passed

16588-758: The student body receives about $ 810 million in financial aid annually. The admission rate of students who applied as undergraduates in 2020 was 63%. The school is rated as "more selective" by U.S. News & World Report . In a comparison of educational quality, faculty quality, and research output, the Center for World-Class Universities placed Texas A&M 57th nationally and 151st internationally in its 2021 Academic Ranking of World Universities (ARWU) rankings. In its 2021–2022 rankings, The Times Higher Education Supplement listed Texas A&M 61st among North America's universities and 193rd among world universities. The 2021–2022 QS World University Rankings placed

16731-450: The student body, respectively. The School of Education and Human Development and Mays Business School each enrolled 9%. The remaining schools enrolled less than 6% each. In addition, slightly more than 3% of the student body had not declared a major. As of 2019, the university enrolled the seventh-highest total of National Merit scholars in the United States and the third-highest among all public universities. As of 2021, about 72% of

16874-493: The student government for Texas A&M University's graduate and professional students. Student organizations have had a nationwide impact. Texas A&M students founded the largest one-day, student-run service project in America known as The Big Event . The annual service project allows students to serve the community by assisting local residents. Such events are now also held at other universities. The organization CARPOOL,

17017-465: The student population. According to U.S. News & World Report , Texas A&M has a student-to-teacher ratio of 19:1 and an average-freshman-retention rate of 92%. According to the institution, in 2019, it had a four-year-graduation rate of 59% and a six-year-graduation of 81.7%. College of Engineering had the largest enrollment of 29.6%. The College of Liberal Arts and the College of Agriculture and Life Sciences followed, enrolling 12% and 11% of

17160-506: The students injured or killed in the collapse. On May 21, 2004, Federal Judge Samuel B. Kent dismissed all claims against the Texas A&M officials, and, in 2005, 36 of the 64 original defendants, including all of the student leaders, settled their portion of the case for an estimated US$ 4.25 million , paid by their insurance companies. A federal appeals court dismissed the remaining lawsuits against Texas A&M and its officials in 2007. With strong support from Rice University and

17303-515: The students to attend the school at low costs. During the Depression, as professors were forced to accept a 25% pay cut, the board of directors partially rescinded its order against female enrollment, allowing no more than 20 females at a time to enroll in the school, and further restricting the group to daughters of professors. Texas A&M expanded its degree offerings in the late 1930s and awarded its first Ph.D. in 1940. Other programs at

17446-461: The summer semester. A.M.C. expanded its academic offerings with the establishment of the School of Veterinary Medicine in 1915. Many Texas A&M alumni served during World War I and by 1918, 49% of all Aggies were in military service, a higher proportion than that of any other American college or university. In early September 1918, the entire senior class enlisted, and there were plans to send

17589-453: The traits of Ross. Many college traditions began under Ross's presidency, including the creation of the first Aggie Ring , the senior class ring . Ross served until his death in 1898; to honor his contributions to the college, a statue of him was erected in 1918 in front of modern-day Academic Plaza. Initially, women were permitted to attend classes only as "special students" but were not permitted to seek degrees. In 1893, Ethel Hudson,

17732-694: The undergraduate population is affiliated with a GLO fraternity or sorority. One of the oldest student organizations is the Singing Cadets , an all-male choral group not affiliated with the Corps of Cadets with about 70 members that was founded in 1893. Texas A&M Hillel , the oldest Hillel organization in the United States , was founded in 1920 at the original college. Since 1955, the MSC Student Conference on National Affairs has held conferences, lectures, and other programs to discuss national and international issues with speakers. The Department of Recreational Sports provides athletic activities to

17875-530: The university 168th in the world. In its 2022 edition, the Center for World University Rankings placed Texas A&M as the 74th-best university globally and 41st nationally. In the 2022 edition of the U.S. News & World Report ranking of universities, Texas A&M was placed 68th nationally and 130th globally. In 2021, The Washington Monthly assessed Texas A&M 21st nationally based on their criteria that weigh research, community service, and social mobility. In 2021, Forbes rated Texas A&M as

18018-681: The university community; sports facilities include the Student Recreation Center, a natatorium ; the Penberthy Rec Sports Complex; and the Omar Smith Instructional Tennis Center. The Student Government Association (SGA), one of A&M's largest organizations, has over 1,300 student members in three branches, fifteen committees, and four commissions. The Graduate Student Council, which was founded in 1995, serves as

18161-622: The university in honor of their research contributions. Of the university's numerous agreements and joint facilities of international cooperation, Texas A&M owns a multipurpose center in Mexico City, Soltis Research and Education Center near San Isidro, Costa Rica, and Santa Chiara Study Abroad Center in Castiglion Fiorentino , Italy. During the 2018 academic year, over 5,600 Texas A&M students—primarily undergraduates—studied in 110 countries. Marine research occurs on

18304-592: The university opened an international branch in the West Asian country of Qatar . Texas A&M University at Qatar had the distinction in 2011 of being the first school outside the U.S. recognizing engineers as members of Tau Beta Pi , the Engineering Honor Society. The university opened a higher education center in 2018 in McAllen, Texas. In 2013, Texas A&M Health Science Center

18447-532: The university paid McElroy $ 1 million to settle her legal claims. After Banks resigned, Mark A. Welsh III , the dean of the Bush School of Government and Public Service , was appointed interim president. April 2024, students at Texas A&M University joined other college students across the USA in protesting against the Israel-Hamas war . They demanded that A&M divest funds from companies supporting

18590-783: The university system, Texas A&M is partially funded from two endowments. The smaller endowment and investment assets, totaling $ 2.6 billion as of 2021, is run by the private Texas A&M Foundation. A larger sum is distributed from the Texas Permanent University Fund (PUF), in which the system holds a one-third stake. As of 2021 , the PUF ending net-asset value was approximately $ 30 billion. The National Science Foundation ranked Texas A&M 16th among American universities for research and development expenditures in 2021 with $ 1.14 billion. Concentrated in two primary areas, Research Valley and Research Park,

18733-543: The university to become a separate entity within the Texas A&M University System in September 2015. Texas A&M is part of the Texas A&M University System, which consists of eleven universities, eight state agencies, and the RELLIS Campus. The system is governed by a ten-member Board of Regents , nine of whom are appointed by the Governor of Texas to six-year terms, and one non-voting Student Regent who

18876-411: The university's TAMU College of Engineering. TAMUQ was opened in 2003, and the current contract extends through 2023. The campus offers undergraduate degrees in chemical, electrical, mechanical and petroleum engineering, and a graduate degree in chemical engineering. TAMUQ has received awards for its research. Texas A&M receives $ 76.2 million per year from the Qatar Foundation for the campus. In

19019-977: The university's branch campus, Texas A&M University at Galveston . It also has collaborations with international facilities such as Hacienda Santa Clara in San Miguel de Allende, Guanajuato , Mexico. The university is one of two American universities in partnership with CONACyT , Mexico's equivalent of the National Science Foundation , to support research in areas including biotechnology, telecommunications, energy, and urban development. The university also hosts Las Americas Digital Research Network, an online architecture network for 26 universities in 12 nations, primarily in Central and South America. Founded in 1995 by then-emir Sheikh Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani and his wife, who

19162-486: The upper third of their class, and have a 3.25 GPA overall. Graduate students must have completed 15 units of graduate coursework in computing and must be in the top third of their class. Alumni who majored in computer science can also be offered membership into the fraternity, along with faculty members. Faculty must have taught in field for one year. Membership in UPE is lifetime. Upsilon Pi Epsilon has more than 300 chapters in

19305-529: The war. The protests continued in into the next academic year with the students alleging that Israel was carrying out a genocide and the administration cracking down on protests and further limiting free speech . Texas A&M's College Station campus spans 5,200 acres (21 km ) and Research Park covers an additional 350 acres (1 km ). The university is part of the Bryan-College Station metropolitan area of Brazos County , which

19448-472: The year the University of Texas opened in Austin , Texas. Although the Texas Constitution specified that the Agricultural and Mechanical College was to be a branch of a proposed University of Texas, the Austin school was established with a separate board of regents. Texas A.M.C. continued to be governed by its own board of directors. The two Texas schools quickly began to battle over the limited funds that

19591-399: The younger students at staggered dates throughout the next year. Many of the seniors were fighting in France when the war ended two months later. More than 1,200 alumni served as commissioned officers. After the war, Texas A&M grew rapidly and became nationally recognized for its programs in agriculture, engineering, and military science. The first graduate school was organized in 1924 and

19734-417: Was again opened as a temporary shelter for people fleeing Hurricane Rita . On December 18, 2006, former Texas A&M University president Robert M. Gates was sworn in as the 22nd U.S. Secretary of Defense . Gates's successor, Elsa Murano , on January 3, 2008, became both the university's first female and first Hispanic president . As of 2012, the university had an enrollment of more than 50,000, making

19877-482: Was barely in session and there was minimal notice, the students and staff of A&M prepared the facility, setting up several hundred beds on the arena floor and making arrangements for the evacuees to get new clothes and have medical checks. Aggie students organized a child care facility, and Aggie athletes escorted teenagers to the Aggie Rec Center to play basketball. Less than three weeks later, Reed Arena

20020-548: Was formally merged into the university. On August 12, 2013, the university acquired the Texas Wesleyan University School of Law and renamed it the Texas A&M University School of Law . In 2017, the retention of the statue of Lawrence Sullivan "Sul" Ross was in question after other institutions removed statues of former Confederate officers . The Texas A&M University System Chancellor, John Sharp , and President, Michael Young , announced

20163-487: Was limited to white males, who were required to participate in the Corps of Cadets and receive military training. Originally, the college taught no classes in agriculture or engineering, instead concentrating on classical studies, languages, literature, and applied mathematics. After initial resistance from faculty, the college began to focus on degrees in scientific agriculture, and civil and mechanical engineering. In 1881, enrollment grew to 258 but declined to 108 in 1883,

20306-412: Was one of the first four institutions to be designated a sea-grant college in recognition of oceanographic development and research. A third designation was added on August 31, 1989, when Texas A&M was named a space-grant college . The university remains one of few institutions nationwide to hold designations as a land- , sea- , and space-grant college . In 1986, Texas A&M made plans to open

20449-485: Was the Mississippi Superintendent of Public Instruction , instead. Gathright was the first president of the college. The college officially opened on October 4, 1876, with six professors. Forty students were present on the first day of classes, but by the end of the school year the number had grown to 106 students. Only men were admitted, and all students were required to participate in

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