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143-558: The descent of Urus, according to the genealogical information of the Jāmiʿ al-tawārīkh , the Muʿizz al-ansāb and the Tawārīḫ-i guzīdah-i nuṣrat-nāmah was as follows: Genghis Khan - Jochi - Tuqa-Timur - Uz-Timur/Urung-Timur - Achiq - Taqtaq - Timur Khwaja - Badiq - Urus. However, the fictional descent from Jochi's son Orda found in older literature continues to be cited in many works. Urus Khan

286-531: A decisive victory for Temüjin. Toghrul and Senggum were both forced to flee, and while the latter escaped to Tibet , Toghrul was killed by a Naiman who did not recognise him. Temüjin sealed his victory by absorbing the Kereit elite into his own tribe: he took the princess Ibaqa as a wife, and married her sister Sorghaghtani and niece Doquz to his youngest son Tolui. The ranks of the Naimans had swelled due to

429-574: A phobia of dogs , the Secret History also recounts taboo events such as his fratricide and the possibility of his son Jochi's illegitimacy. Multiple chronicles in Persian have also survived, which display a mix of positive and negative attitudes towards Genghis Khan and the Mongols. Both Minhaj-i Siraj Juzjani and Ata-Malik Juvayni completed their respective histories in 1260. Juzjani

572-601: A 15th-century map from the Franciscan monastery of Lesina ( Hvar ), which places Saray (apparently "New Sarai" at Selitrennoe gorodishche) on the Volga, above Dolatcana (Dawlat-Khan, at Aksarayskoe gorodishche/Lapas), above Eschisari (Eski Saray, i.e., "Old Sarai"). One interpretation of the evidence would place Batu's original camp on the Akhtuba across from modern Seitovka (and just south from modern Aksaraysky), "Old Sarai"

715-573: A Jin princess, and massive amounts of gold and silk, before lifting the siege and setting off homewards in May 1214. As the northern Jin lands had been ravaged by plague and war, Xuanzong moved the capital and imperial court 600 kilometres (370 mi) southwards to Kaifeng . Interpreting this as an attempt to regroup in the south and then restart the war, Genghis concluded the terms of the peace treaty had been broken. He immediately prepared to return and capture Zhongdu. According to Christopher Atwood, it

858-509: A brother (Qutluq Khwaja). Urus had somehow escaped the wrath of Tingiz-Buqa, and survived the short reigns of his distant cousins. In 1368/1369, he seized the throne of the Ulus of Orda from Qutluq Khwaja and made himself khan. To secure his position and increase his authority, he eliminated those princes and emirs whom he considered his opponents. One of these victims was his cousin Tuy Khwaja,

1001-453: A captive named Temüchin-uge, after whom he named the newborn in celebration of his victory, while later traditions highlight the root temür (meaning 'iron') and connect to theories that "Temüjin" means 'blacksmith'. Several legends surround Temüjin's birth. The most prominent is that he was born clutching a blood clot in his hand, a motif in Asian folklore indicating the child would be

1144-575: A challenge from the shaman Kokechu, whose father Münglig had been allowed to marry Hö'elün after he defected to Temüjin. Kokechu, who had proclaimed Temüjin as Genghis Khan and taken the Tengrist title "Teb Tenggeri" ( lit. "Wholly Heavenly") on account of his sorcery, was very influential among the Mongol commoners and sought to divide the imperial family. Genghis's brother Qasar was the first of Kokechu's targets—always distrusted by his brother, Qasar

1287-521: A clear defeat. Later chroniclers including Rashid al-Din instead state that he was victorious but their accounts contradict themselves and each other. Modern historians such as Ratchnevsky and Timothy May consider it very likely that Temüjin spent a large portion of the decade following the clash at Dalan Baljut as a servant of the Jurchen Jin dynasty in North China . Zhao Hong recorded that

1430-526: A close friendship with Jamukha , another boy of aristocratic descent; the Secret History notes that they exchanged knucklebones and arrows as gifts and swore the anda pact—the traditional oath of Mongol blood brothers –at eleven. As the family lacked allies, Temüjin was taken prisoner on multiple occasions. Captured by the Tayichiuds, he escaped during a feast and hid first in the Onon and then in

1573-408: A controversial figure. He was generous and intensely loyal to his followers, but ruthless towards his enemies. He welcomed advice from diverse sources in his quest for world domination, for which he believed the shamanic supreme deity Tengri had destined him. The Mongol army under Genghis killed millions of people, yet his conquests also facilitated unprecedented commercial and cultural exchange over

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1716-575: A counterattack ordered by Ivan III of Russia in retaliation for the advance of Khan Aḥmad against Moscow. The decisive blow seems to have been the sacking and burning of Sarai by Khan Meñli I Giray of the Crimea in June 1502. The forces of Ivan IV of Russia passed through and destroyed what was left of Sarai while conquering the Astrakhan Khanate in 1556. After it expanded its control over

1859-615: A coup in Zhongdu, killing Yongji and installing his own puppet ruler, Xuanzong . This governmental breakdown was fortunate for Genghis's forces; emboldened by their victories, they had seriously overreached and lost the initiative. Unable to do more than camp before Zhongdu's fortifications while his army suffered from an epidemic and famine—they resorted to cannibalism according to Carpini , who may have been exaggerating—Genghis opened peace negotiations despite his commanders' militance. He secured tribute, including 3,000 horses, 500 slaves,

2002-609: A cryptic remark made by Jamukha on the subject of camping; in any case, Temüjin followed the advice of Hö'elün and Börte and began to build an independent following. The major tribal rulers remained with Jamukha, but forty-one leaders gave their support to Temüjin along with many commoners: these included Subutai and others of the Uriankhai , the Barulas , the Olkhonuds, and many more. Many were attracted by Temüjin's reputation as

2145-451: A fair and generous lord who could offer better lives, while his shamans prophesied that heaven had allocated him a great destiny. Temüjin was soon acclaimed by his close followers as khan of the Mongols. Toghrul was pleased at his vassal's elevation but Jamukha was resentful. Tensions escalated into open hostility, and in around 1187 the two leaders clashed in battle at Dalan Baljut : the two forces were evenly matched but Temüjin suffered

2288-419: A following, as nökod such as Jelme entered into his service. Temüjin and Börte had their first child, a daughter named Qojin, around this time. Soon afterwards, seeking revenge for Yesügei's abduction of Hö'elün, around 300 Merkits raided Temüjin's camp. While Temüjin and his brothers were able to hide on Burkhan Khaldun mountain , Börte and Sochigel were abducted. In accordance with levirate law, Börte

2431-587: A large-scale raid into the neighbouring Western Xia , who agreed to Mongol terms the following year. He then launched a campaign against the Jin dynasty , which lasted for four years and ended in 1215 with the capture of the Jin capital Zhongdu . His general Jebe annexed the Central Asian state of Qara Khitai in 1218. Genghis was provoked to invade the Khwarazmian Empire the following year by

2574-487: A leading warrior. Temüjin called in every possible ally and swore a famous oath of loyalty , later known as the Baljuna Covenant , to his faithful followers, which subsequently granted them great prestige. The oath-takers of Baljuna were a very heterogeneous group—men from nine different tribes who included Christians, Muslims, and Buddhists, united only by loyalty to Temüjin and to each other. This group became

2717-533: A little upstram at medieval Ak-Saray (Akhtubinskoe gorodishche, Komsomol'skiy), the major royal necropolis a little upstream at medieval Dawlat-Khan (Aksarayskoe gorodishche, Lapas), and "New Sarai" a little upstream at Selitrennoe gorodishche. Sarai Juk ( Sarāyjūq or Sarāyčūq in Perso-Arabic texts, Sarayçık in Turkic ones, "Little Sarai") was a city on the lower Ural River . It is sometimes conflated with

2860-644: A local ruler, Ḥājjī Cherkes of Astrakhan, and then the Shibanid Īl Beg . When Mamai recovered Sarai for Muḥammad-Sulṭān again in 1374, Urus made another successful attempt on the city. Nevertheless, he did not manage to hold it long, losing it to Īl Beg's son Qāghān Beg in 1375. During Urus' campaigns on the Lower Volga, his alienated and vengeful cousin Tokhtamysh made his way to Timur (Tamerlane) and sought his assistance against Urus and his family. Timur

3003-552: A man named Qorchi as governor of the subdued Hoi-yin Irgen tribes in Siberia. Appointed not for his talents but for prior services rendered, Qorchi's tendency to abduct women as concubines for his harem caused the tribes to rebel and take him prisoner in early 1216. The following year, they ambushed and killed Boroqul , one of Genghis's highest-ranking nökod . The khan was livid at the loss of his close friend and prepared to lead

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3146-493: A model for the later empire, termed a "proto-government of a proto-nation" by historian John Man . The Baljuna Covenant was omitted from the Secret History —as the group was predominantly non-Mongol, the author presumably wished to downplay the role of other tribes. A ruse de guerre involving Qasar allowed the Mongols to ambush the Kereit at the Jej'er Heights, but though the ensuing battle still lasted three days, it ended in

3289-435: A modification of the reconstruction: "New Sarai" was built by Öz Beg, and both "Sarai Batu" and "Sarai Berke" referred to "Old Sarai". Second, the analysis of the archaeological remains and distribution of found coins led to the realization that, while Selitrennoe gorodishche matched Sarai (or more specifically "New Sarai"), Tsarevskoe gorodishche did not, and was likely to represent the hitherto unlocated city of Gülistan, which

3432-510: A much harsher life. Taking up a hunter-gatherer lifestyle, they collected roots and nuts, hunted for small animals, and caught fish. Tensions developed as the children grew older. Both Temüjin and Behter had claims to be their father's heir: although Temüjin was the child of Yesügei's chief wife, Behter was at least two years his senior. There was even the possibility that, as permitted under levirate law, Behter could marry Hö'elün upon attaining his majority and become Temüjin's stepfather. As

3575-468: A patron, Temüjin chose to regift the cloak to Toghrul , khan (ruler) of the Kerait tribe, who had fought alongside Yesügei and sworn the anda pact with him. Toghrul ruled a vast territory in central Mongolia but distrusted many of his followers. In need of loyal replacements, he was delighted with the valuable gift and welcomed Temüjin into his protection. The two grew close, and Temüjin began to build

3718-448: A plain, choked with the throng of its inhabitants, and possessing good bazaars and broad streets. We rode out one day with one of its principal men, intending to make a circuit of the city and find out its extent. Our lodging place was at one end of it and we set out from it in the early morning, and it was after midday when we reached the other end. We then prayed the noon prayer and ate some food, and we did not get back to our lodging until

3861-482: A puppet ruler of his lineage. Genghis's senior nökod were appointed to the highest ranks and received the greatest honours. Bo'orchu and Muqali were each given ten thousand men to lead as commanders of the right and left wings of the army respectively. The other nökod were each given commands of one of the ninety-five minkad . In a display of Genghis' meritocratic ideals, many of these men were born to low social status: Ratchnevsky cited Jelme and Subutai,

4004-514: A quarter which is surrounded by a wall for the protection of the properties of the merchants. The sultan's palace in it is called Alṭūn Tāsh , alṭūn meaning 'gold', and tāsh , 'head'. The Damascene historian Aḥmad ibn Faḍlallāh al-ʿUmarī , who died in 1349, has also left a description of Sarai, based on the account of a traveler; once again, it is not entirely clear whether the information refers to Old Sarai or New Sarai, given its date, and references to both Berke and Öz Beg: The city of Sarai

4147-568: A retaliatory campaign; eventually dissuaded from this course, he dispatched his eldest son Jochi and a Dörbet commander. They managed to surprise and defeat the rebels, securing control over this economically important region. Kuchlug , the Naiman prince who had been defeated in 1204, had usurped the throne of the Central Asian Qara Khitai dynasty between 1211 and 1213. He was a greedy and arbitrary ruler who probably earned

4290-471: A reverse against a Xia army. After a two-month stalemate, Genghis broke the deadlock with a feigned retreat ; the Xia forces were deceived out of their defensive positions and overpowered. Although Zhongxing was now mostly undefended, the Mongols lacked any siege equipment better than crude battering rams and were unable to progress the siege. The Xia requested aid from the Jin, but Emperor Zhangzong rejected

4433-509: A reward, the Jin awarded him the honorific cha-ut kuri , the meaning of which probably approximated "commander of hundreds" in Jurchen . At around the same time, he assisted Toghrul with reclaiming the lordship of the Kereit, which had been usurped by one of Toghrul's relatives with the support of the powerful Naiman tribe . The actions of 1196 fundamentally changed Temüjin's position in the steppe—although nominally still Toghrul's vassal, he

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4576-504: A series of defections, the most prominent of which led directly to Muqali's victory at the Battle of Huan'erzhui in autumn 1211. The campaign was halted in 1212 when Genghis was wounded by an arrow during the unsuccessful siege of Xijing (modern Datong ). Following this failure, Genghis set up a corps of siege engineers , which recruited 500 Jin experts over the next two years. The defences of Juyong Pass had been strongly reinforced by

4719-473: A single day's journey between Sarai and Astrakhan, while the Nikon Chronicle cites 2 days for the same journey. Only the account of William of Rubruck refers without any doubt to "Old Sarai", since it dates to the reign of Batu. If "Old Sarai" and "New Sarai" coexisted for some time at some distance from each other, "Old Sarai" ought to be sought downstream of "New Sarai". This might be confirmed by

4862-663: A small force in North China and invade Khwarazmia with most of his army. Sarai (city) Sarai ( Turki / Kypchak and Persian : سرای; also transcribed as Saraj or Saray ; "mansion" or "court") was the name of possibly two cities near the lower Volga , that served successively as the effective capitals of the Cuman–Kipchak Confederation and the Golden Horde , a Turco-Mongol kingdom which ruled much of Northwestern Asia and Eastern Europe , from

5005-469: A tentative suggestion for Vol'noe 15 km downstream from Selitrennoe, Akhtubinskoe gorodishche at Komsomol'skiy has also been suggested, and a case has been made for Krasnoyarskoe gorodishche in Krasny Yar , where the necropolis on the neighboring Mayachny hill has yielded some coins from the 13th century. The question remains open. The account of William of Rubruck (1254) ensures a location for

5148-675: A vast geographical area. He is remembered as a backwards, savage tyrant in Russia and the Arab world , while recent Western scholarship has begun to reassess its previous view of him as a barbarian warlord. He was posthumously deified in Mongolia ; modern Mongolians recognise him as the founding father of their nation. There is no universal romanisation system used for Mongolian ; as a result, modern spellings of Mongolian names vary greatly and may result in considerably different pronunciations from

5291-432: A warrior. Others claimed that Hö'elün was impregnated by a ray of light which announced the child's destiny, a legend which echoed that of the mythical Borjigin ancestor Alan Gua . Yesügei and Hö'elün had three younger sons after Temüjin: Qasar , Hachiun , and Temüge , as well as one daughter, Temülün . Temüjin also had two half-brothers, Behter and Belgutei , from Yesügei's secondary wife Sochigel , whose identity

5434-455: A year and a half, during which their leaders reforged their anda pact and slept together under one blanket, according to the Secret History . The source presents this period as close friends bonding, but Ratchnevsky questioned if Temüjin actually entered into Jamukha's service in return for the assistance with the Merkits. Tensions arose and the two leaders parted, ostensibly on account of

5577-665: Is Gülistan. There is currently no consensus on the location and identification of "Old Sarai". Some scholars suppose that it was a less impressive settlement whose ruins are yet unnoticed or obscured under those of "New Sarai" at Selitrennoe gorodishche, or were destroyed by changing water courses and levels. Others have sought a suitable archaeological site downstream of Selitrennoe gorodishche to identify with "Old Sarai". Here there are extensive remains of Golden Horde settlements, especially at Aksarayskoe gorodishche (at modern Lapas, medieval Dawlat-Khan), and at Akhtubinskoe gorodishche (at modern Komsomol'skiy , medieval Ak-Saray). Apart from

5720-399: Is narrated in the Secret History and contrasts with Rashid al-Din's account, which protects the family's reputation by removing any hint of illegitimacy. Over the next decade and a half, Temüjin and Börte had three more sons ( Chagatai , Ögedei , and Tolui ) and four more daughters ( Checheyigen , Alaqa , Tümelün, and Al-Altan ). The followers of Temüjin and Jamukha camped together for

5863-413: Is not entirely clear which Sarai was described by Ibn Baṭṭūṭa; the stated distance of 3 days upstream from Astrakhan (al-Ḥājj Tarkhān) is possibly consistent with the site at Selitrennoe Gorodišče, traditionally identified as "Old Sarai", but the archaeological excavations of that site might not support this identification. The city of al-Sarā is one of the finest of cities, of boundless size, situated in

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6006-546: Is said to have been founded or formally inaugurated by Öz Beg Khan in the first half of the 14th century. The earliest explicit reference to a city bearing this name is the notice of the death of Öz Beg in "New Sarai" in March–April 1341 by a nearly contemporary Mamluk author. A statement of the Timurid historian Ibn ʿArabshāh that "between the building of Sarāy and its devastation there passed sixty-three years" would place

6149-591: Is the date accepted by most historians; the historian Paul Ratchnevsky noted that Temüjin himself may not have known the truth. The location of Temüjin's birth, which the Secret History records as Delüün Boldog on the Onon River , is similarly debated: it has been placed at either Dadal in Khentii Province or in southern Agin-Buryat Okrug , Russia. Temüjin was born into the Borjigin clan of

6292-439: Is uncertain. The siblings grew up at Yesugei's main camp on the banks of the Onon, where they learned how to ride a horse and shoot a bow. When Temüjin was eight years old, his father decided to betroth him to a suitable girl. Yesügei took his heir to the pastures of Hö'elün's prestigious Onggirat tribe, which had intermarried with the Mongols on many previous occasions. There, he arranged a betrothal between Temüjin and Börte ,

6435-450: The keshig nevertheless received special privileges and direct access to the khan, whom they served and who in return evaluated their capabilities and their potential to govern or command. Commanders such as Subutai, Chormaqan , and Baiju all started out in the keshig , before being given command of their own force. From 1204 to 1209, Genghis Khan was predominantly focused on consolidating and maintaining his new nation. He faced

6578-574: The Georgian Chronicles , and works by European travellers such as Carpini and Marco Polo . The year of Temüjin's birth is disputed, as historians favour different dates: 1155, 1162 or 1167. Some traditions place his birth in the Year of the Pig , which was either 1155 or 1167. While a dating to 1155 is supported by the writings of both Zhao Hong and Rashid al-Din, other major sources such as

6721-560: The Shengwu qinzheng lu ( Campaigns of Genghis Khan ). The History of Yuan , while poorly edited, provides a large amount of detail on individual campaigns and people; the Shengwu is more disciplined in its chronology, but does not criticise Genghis and occasionally contains errors. The Secret History survived through being transliterated into Chinese characters during the 14th and 15th centuries. Its historicity has been disputed:

6864-751: The Franciscan William of Rubruck , who visited Batu in 1253 or 1254, on his way to the court of the Great Khan Möngke at Qaraqorum . William's statement, "Sarai, the new town that Baatu is making on the Etilia" is considered the first historical reference to the city; a few passages later he refers to the same settlement as "Sarai and the palace of Baatu". The slightly later Persian historian ʿAṭā Malik Juwaynī describes this settlement as both "camp" ( muḫayyam ) and "city" ( šahr ), reflecting its dual function, gradual development, and perhaps

7007-525: The History of Yuan and the Shengwu favour the year 1162. The 1167 dating, favoured by the sinologist Paul Pelliot , is derived from a minor source—a text of the Yuan artist Yang Weizhen —but is more compatible with the events of Genghis Khan's life than a 1155 placement, which implies that he did not have children until after the age of thirty and continued actively campaigning into his seventh decade. 1162

7150-514: The Mongol Empire . After spending most of his life uniting the Mongol tribes , he launched a series of military campaigns , conquering large parts of China and Central Asia . Born between 1155 and 1167 and given the name Temüjin, he was the eldest child of Yesugei , a Mongol chieftain of the Borjigin clan , and his wife Hö'elün . When Temüjin was eight, his father died and his family

7293-513: The Mongol tribe to Yesügei , a chieftain who claimed descent from the legendary warlord Bodonchar Munkhag , and his principal wife Hö'elün , originally of the Olkhonud clan, whom Yesügei had abducted from her Merkit bridegroom Chiledu. The origin of his birth name is contested: the earliest traditions hold that his father had just returned from a successful campaign against the Tatars with

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7436-617: The Pamir Mountains , but was captured by local hunters. Jebe had him beheaded and paraded his corpse through Qara Khitai, proclaiming the end of religious persecution in the region. Genghis had now attained complete control of the eastern portion of the Silk Road , and his territory bordered that of the Khwarazmian Empire , which ruled over much of Central Asia, Persia and Afghanistan . Merchants from both sides were eager to restart trading, which had halted during Kuchlug's rule;

7579-415: The Secret History , are indicative of the emphasis its author put on Genghis' personal charisma. Temüjin returned to Dei Sechen to marry Börte when he reached the age of majority at fifteen. Delighted to see the son-in-law he feared had died, Dei Sechen consented to the marriage and accompanied the newlyweds back to Temüjin's camp; his wife Čotan presented Hö'elün with an expensive sable cloak. Seeking

7722-399: The Shengwu however imply that Yesügei's brothers stood by the widow. It is possible that Hö'elün may have refused to join in levirate marriage with one, resulting in later tensions, or that the author of the Secret History dramatised the situation. All the sources agree that most of Yesügei's people renounced his family in favour of the Tayichiuds and that Hö'elün's family were reduced to

7865-618: The Yuan dynasty in 1271, he bestowed the temple name Taizu ( 太祖 , meaning 'Supreme Progenitor') and the posthumous name Shengwu Huangdi ( 聖 武 皇帝 , meaning 'Holy-Martial Emperor') upon his grandfather. Kublai's great-grandson Külüg Khan later expanded this title into Fatian Qiyun Shengwu Huangdi ( 法 天 啟 運 聖 武 皇帝 , meaning 'Interpreter of the Heavenly Law, Initiator of the Good Fortune, Holy-Martial Emperor'). As

8008-532: The "Great Mongol State", and to commanders who had gained their rank through merit and loyalty to the khan. This particular reform proved extremely effective—even after the division of the Mongol Empire , fragmentation never happened along tribal lines. Instead, the descendants of Genghis continued to reign unchallenged, in some cases until as late as the 1700s, and even powerful non-imperial dynasts such as Timur and Edigu were compelled to rule from behind

8151-412: The 10th through the 14th century. There is considerable disagreement among scholars about the correspondence between specific archaeological sites. "Old Sarai" (سرای باتو, Sarāy-i Bātū ; or سرای برکه, Sarāy-i Barka ) was established by the Mongol ruler Batu Khan (1227-1255), as indicated by both occasional references to the "Sarai of Batu" ("Sarai Batu", Sarāy-i Bātū ) and an explicit statement of

8294-639: The 1420s minted coins again, although the Golden Horde did not completely stabilize. Shortly after the Russian traveler Afanasy Nikitin passed through in 1469, Sarai was plundered by the ushkuyniki , riverine pirates from Vyatka , in 1471. The Muscovite commander Vasily Ivanovich Nozdrovaty Zvenigorodsky and the Crimean prince in Muscovite exile Nur Devlet plundered the "Yurt of Batu" in 1480, in

8437-457: The 19th century, Sarai was being sought variously at the large ruin fields of Tsarevskoe gorodishche and Selitrennoe gorodishche, both located (some 250 km apart) on the left bank of the Akhtuba , a left distributary of the Volga, which remain the most impressive archaeological sites in the area. During the late 19th-late 20th century, the dominant view that resulted from earlier studies,

8580-462: The 20th-century sinologist Arthur Waley considered it a literary work with no historiographical value, but more recent historians have given the work much more credence. Although it is clear that the work's chronology is suspect and that some passages were removed or modified for better narration, the Secret History is valued highly because the anonymous author is often critical of Genghis Khan: in addition to presenting him as indecisive and as having

8723-427: The Jin throne in 1209. He had previously served on the steppe frontier and Genghis greatly disliked him. When asked to submit and pay the annual tribute to Yongji in 1210, Genghis instead mocked the emperor, spat, and rode away from the Jin envoy—a challenge that meant war. Despite the possibility of being outnumbered eight-to-one by 600,000 Jin soldiers, Genghis had prepared to invade the Jin since learning in 1206 that

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8866-484: The Khwarazmian border town of Otrar , decided to massacre the merchants on grounds of espionage and seize the goods; Muhammad had grown suspicious of Genghis's intentions and either supported Inalchuq or turned a blind eye. A Mongol ambassador was sent with two companions to avert war, but Muhammad killed him and humiliated his companions. The killing of an envoy infuriated Genghis, who resolved to leave Muqali with

9009-401: The Khwarazmian ruler Muhammad II dispatched an envoy shortly after the Mongol capture of Zhongdu, while Genghis instructed his merchants to obtain the high-quality textiles and steel of Central and Western Asia. Many members of the altan uruq invested in one particular caravan of 450 merchants which set off to Khwarazmia in 1218 with a large quantity of wares. Inalchuq , the governor of

9152-469: The Mongol social hierarchy in his favour. The highest tier was occupied solely by his and his brothers' families, who became known as the altan uruq ( lit. 'Golden Family') or chaghan yasun ( lit. 'white bone'); underneath them came the qara yasun ( lit. 'black bone'; sometimes qarachu ), composed of the surviving pre-empire aristocracy and the most important of the new families. To break any concept of tribal loyalty, Mongol society

9295-466: The Mongols, although their neutrality and reliability are often suspect. Additional Chinese sources include the chronicles of the dynasties conquered by the Mongols, and the Song diplomat Zhao Hong , who visited the Mongols in 1221. Arabic sources include a contemporary biography of the Khwarazmian prince Jalal al-Din by his companion al-Nasawi . There are also several later Christian chronicles, including

9438-487: The Mongols. The Mongols had started raiding the border settlements of the Tangut -led Western Xia kingdom in 1205, ostensibly in retaliation for allowing Senggum, Toghrul's son, refuge. More prosaic explanations include rejuvenating the depleted Mongol economy with an influx of fresh goods and livestock , or simply subjugating a semi-hostile state to protect the nascent Mongol nation. Most Xia troops were stationed along

9581-656: The Mughals, who are the dwellers in this country and its sultans, and some of whom are Muslims, then the Āṣ ( Alans ), who are Muslims, the Qifjaq ( Cumans ), the Jarkas ( Circassians ), the Rūs ( Rus' ), and the Rūm ( Romans ) – [all of] these are Christians. Each group lives in a separate quarter with its own bazaars. Merchants and strangers from the two ʿIrāqs, Egypt, Syria and elsewhere, live in

9724-491: The Naimans at Chakirmaut, was betrayed to Temüjin by companions who were executed for their lack of loyalty. According to the Secret History , Jamukha convinced his childhood anda to execute him honourably; other accounts state that he was killed by dismemberment . Now sole ruler of the steppe, Temüjin held a large assembly called a kurultai at the source of the Onon River in 1206. Here, he formally adopted

9867-816: The Sarai of Batu at or slightly above the apex of the Volga Delta, on the left edge of the Volga-Akhtuba river sistem. This is something possibly compatible with Selitrennoe gorodishche, or perhaps rather with a site farther downstream, between it and the apex of the Delta. This is also consistent with the account of Abū al-Fidāʾ (1321), which places Sarai on the Volga only 2 days above the Caspian coast, and with that of Ibn Baṭṭūṭa, who reached Sarai 3 days after (Old) Astrakhan. Pegolotti (writing in 1335–1343) gives

10010-635: The Saray diocese of the Russian Church ( Krutitsy ), and in 1315 also of a Catholic diocese. It also served, at least occasionally, as the burial site of khans: when he died in 1266, Berke was buried at the "Sarai of Batu", according to the Ilkhanid vizier Rashīd ad-Dīn Faḍlullāh . Berke had presumably continued the development of the city, promoting the settlement of Muslims and attracting Muslim literati, leading later Muslim accounts to credit him with

10153-465: The Tatars left three military powers in the steppe: the Naimans in the west, the Mongols in the east, and the Kereit in between. Seeking to cement his position, Temüjin proposed that his son Jochi marry one of Toghrul's daughters. Led by Toghrul's son Senggum, the Kereit elite believed the proposal to be an attempt to gain control over their tribe, while the doubts over Jochi's parentage would have offended them further. In addition, Jamukha drew attention to

10296-457: The Volga region to the south-eastern part of the Golden Horde. This was the former Ulus of Orda , which had been suppressed by 1330 by Öz Beg Khan . It was governed on behalf of the khan from Sighnaq by a Kiyat governor, Jir-Qutluq , son of Isatay . He was killed in a skirmish by Urus, who was cossacking with a small group of his associates. Nevertheless, Jir-Qutluq was succeeded as governor by his son Tingiz-Buqa , who ruthlessly suppressed

10439-425: The archaeological site of Selitrennoe gorodishche (the medieval "New Sarai") is the "Sarai-Batu" open air museum and tourist center. This was originally built in 2011 as a set for the filming of the 2012 film The Horde , and it was also used as the setting for a few scenes in the 2016 series Sophia . The sets, built of wood covered with cement and then clay, were recovered with clay again in 2013 in preparation for

10582-566: The arrival of Jamukha and others defeated by the Mongols, and they prepared for war. Temüjin was informed of these events by Alaqush , the sympathetic ruler of the Ongud tribe. In May 1204, at the Battle of Chakirmaut in the Altai Mountains , the Naimans were decisively defeated: their leader Tayang Khan was killed, and his son Kuchlug was forced to flee west. The Merkits were decimated later that year, while Jamukha, who had abandoned

10725-586: The continued use of the structures. The sets represent several spaces within the Golden Horde city, combining both attention to reproducing genuine details uncovered by archaeologists and an element of fantasy inspired by medieval and pre-modern settlements in the Eurasian Steppes . They were converted into an open air museum and tourist center at the initiative of the governor of Astrakhan Oblast , Alexander Zhilkin , and opened to visitors in 2018. The center serves as an educational immersive environment, as

10868-420: The daughter of an Onggirat chieftain named Dei Sechen . As the betrothal meant Yesügei would gain a powerful ally and as Börte commanded a high bride price , Dei Sechen held the stronger negotiating position, and demanded that Temüjin remain in his household to work off his future debt. Accepting this condition, Yesügei requested a meal from a band of Tatars he encountered while riding homewards alone, relying on

11011-498: The disobedient Jurkin tribe that had previously offended him at a feast and refused to participate in the Tatar campaign. After executing their leaders, he had Belgutei symbolically break a leading Jurkin's back in a staged wrestling match in retribution. This latter incident, which contravened Mongol customs of justice, was only noted by the author of the Secret History , who openly disapproved. These events occurred c. 1197. During

11154-409: The enmity of the native Islamic populace whom he attempted to forcibly convert to Buddhism . Genghis reckoned that Kuchlug could be a threat to his empire, and Jebe was sent with an army of 20,000 cavalry to the city of Kashgar ; he undermined Kuchlug's rule by emphasising the Mongol policies of religious tolerance and gained the loyalty of the local elite. Kuchlug was forced to flee southwards to

11297-419: The execution of his envoys; the campaign toppled the Khwarazmian state and devastated the regions of Transoxiana and Khorasan , while Jebe and his colleague Subutai led an expedition that reached Georgia and Kievan Rus' . In 1227, Genghis died while subduing the rebellious Western Xia; following a two-year interregnum , his third son and heir Ögedei acceded to the throne in 1229. Genghis Khan remains

11440-487: The extent of the waterways in the Volga Delta . Sarai and the other major centers of the Golden Horde (like Gülistan, preferred by Jani Beg ) along the lower Volga benefited from trade and exhibited a significant degree of cultural prosperity. While the origin of coins simply labeled "Sarai" remains uncertain, coins labeled "New Sarai" started to be minted from 1342. An astrolabe was discovered during excavations at

11583-410: The father of the future Khan Tokhtamysh, which caused the implacable enmity of the latter toward Urus and his sons. Having established himself in the east, Urus attempted to take over the Golden Horde's traditional capital, Sarai on the Lower Volga. He chased out the beglerbeg Mamai 's protégé Muḥammad-Sulṭān in 1373 and appears to have briefly held the city, before losing it almost immediately to

11726-481: The following month. These border fortifications were guarded by Alaqush's Ongud, who allowed the Mongols to pass without difficulty. The three-pronged chevauchée aimed both to plunder and burn a vast area of Jin territory to deprive them of supplies and popular legitimacy, and to secure the mountain passes which allowed access to the North China Plain . The Jin lost numerous towns and were hindered by

11869-753: The following years, Temüjin and Toghrul campaigned against the Merkits, the Naimans, and the Tatars; sometimes separately and sometimes together. In around 1201, a collection of dissatisfied tribes including the Onggirat, the Tayichiud, and the Tatars swore to break the domination of the Borjigin-Kereit alliance, electing Jamukha as their leader and gurkhan ( lit.   ' "khan of the tribes" ' ). After some initial successes, Temüjin and Toghrul routed this loose confederation at Yedi Qunan , and Jamukha

12012-477: The formal founding of "New Saray" 63 lunar years before its sack by Timur in the winter of 1395–1396, and so in 1334–1335. The reasons for the relocation of the capital are unclear, as is how substantial such a relocation actually was (since identifications of sites of "Old Sarai" and "New Sarai" are debated), although it is sometimes assumed that the rationale was a change in the level of the Caspian Sea and

12155-487: The foundation of the city; this probably led to references to the "Sarai of Berke", although it is doubtful that there was ever an entirely separate city called "Sarai of Berke" ( two cities, Sarāy-i Bātū and Sarāy-i Barka , are only mentioned by the 15th-century Persian author Muʿīn-ad-Dīn Naṭanzī, who is often confused about the history of the Golden Horde); it certainly cannot be identified with "New Sarai", which

12298-401: The foundations for larger states and had been the downfall of previous steppe confederations. Genghis thus began a series of administrative reforms designed to suppress the power of tribal affiliations and to replace them with unconditional loyalty to the khan and the ruling family. As most of the traditional tribal leaders had been killed during his rise to power, Genghis was able to reconstruct

12441-482: The friction, exacerbated by frequent disputes over the division of hunting spoils, intensified, Temüjin and his younger brother Qasar ambushed and killed Behter. This taboo act was omitted from the official chronicles but not from the Secret History , which recounts that Hö'elün angrily reprimanded her sons. Behter's younger full-brother Belgutei did not seek vengeance, and became one of Temüjin's highest-ranking followers alongside Qasar. Around this time, Temüjin developed

12584-513: The future Genghis Khan spent several years as a slave of the Jin. Formerly seen as an expression of nationalistic arrogance, the statement is now thought to be based in fact, especially as no other source convincingly explains Temüjin's activities between Dalan Baljut and c.  1195 . Taking refuge across the border was a common practice both for disaffected steppe leaders and disgraced Chinese officials. Temüjin's reemergence having retained significant power indicates that he probably profited in

12727-480: The great-grandfather of the first Kazakh khans Jānī Beg and Giray , neighboring countries called the Kazakh Khanate "Urus Tsarev Yurt" or "Urus Khanov Yurt". Thus, it was his medieval contemporaries who considered the first khan of this state. Some historians, notably Radik Temirgaliev, identify Urus Khan with the legendary Alasha Khan , who, according to various sources, was called the first Kazakh khan and

12870-501: The hour of the sunset prayer. One day we went on foot across the breadth of the town, going and returning, in half a day, this too through a continuous line of houses, among which there were no ruins and no gardens. The city has thirteen mosques for the holding of Friday prayers, one of them being for the Shāfiʿites; as for the other mosques, they are exceedingly numerous. There are various groups of people among its inhabitants; these include

13013-426: The impending engagement and, despite some skirmishes (in which Urus' son Timur-Malik was wounded), no decisive battle ensued. Urus marched home. By the time hostilities resumed and Timur advanced beyond Otrar, he learned that Urus had died. Timur now declared Tokhtamysh khan of the Golden Horde, but returned home himself. Urus was actually succeeded by his sons, Toqtaqiya, who died after two months, and Timur-Malik, who

13156-403: The influential views that emerged was that "New Sarai" was an enhancement or expansion of "Old Sarai", rather than a separate settlement. The other view was that "Old Sarai" and "New Sarai" were two separate settlements after all, separated by some distance, with "New Sarai" possibly associated with a satellite settlement called Gülistan. Already in the second half of the 18th and first quarter of

13299-455: The lifestyle preferences of its various inhabitants. As the principal seat of Batu, Berke , and their successors, Sarai was effectively the capital of a great empire, although the khan and his court occasionally resided at other sites as well. Various Rus' princes came to Sarai to pledge allegiance to the Khan and receive his patent of authority ( yarlyk ). In 1261, the city became a seat of

13442-428: The lower Volga region, Russia established the new fortress cities of Astrakhan in 1558, and Tsaritsyn (now Volgograd) in 1589. The traveler Ibn Baṭṭūṭa , who visited in about 1332, has left a description of Sarai (or, as he called it, "the city of al-Sarā, known also as al-Sarā Baraka, which is the capital of the sultan Ūzbak"). Since the foundation of "New Saray" is estimated to have taken place about this time, it

13585-500: The middle of it, there is a pond, the water for which comes from this river ... Uzbek Khan has built here a madrassah for religious studies, as he is very devoted to knowledge and scholars. In 1623–1624, a Russian merchant, Fedot Kotov , traveled to Persia via the lower Volga. He described the site of Sarai: Here by the river Akhtuba stands the Golden Horde. The khan's court, palaces, and courts, and mosques are all made of stone. But now all these buildings are being dismantled and

13728-488: The name as J̌ingiz , while Syriac authors used Šīngīz . In addition to "Genghis", introduced into English during the 18th century based on a misreading of Persian sources, modern English spellings include "Chinggis", "Chingis", "Jinghis", and "Jengiz". His birth name "Temüjin" ( ᠲᠡᠮᠦᠵᠢᠨ ; 鐵木真 Tiěmùzhēn ) is sometimes also spelled "Temuchin" in English. When Genghis's grandson Kublai Khan established

13871-437: The opposition. When Khan Berdi Beg was dying, Tingiz-Buqa conspired to set up a khan of his own, but his choice, a descendant of Tuqa-Timur named Qara Nogai , betrayed and murdered him, in 1359/1360. Qara Nogai nevertheless did assume the throne of the former Ulus of Orda, but died after only three years, in 1363. He was succeeded by a nephew (Tughluq-Timur), a cousin ( Mubarak Khwaja , who began to strike his own coins), and

14014-523: The order of Genghis's descendant Ghazan in the early 14th century. Ghazan allowed Rashid privileged access to both confidential Mongol sources such as the Altan Debter and to experts on the Mongol oral tradition, including Kublai Khan's ambassador Bolad Chingsang . As he was writing an official chronicle, Rashid censored inconvenient or taboo details. There are many other contemporary histories which include additional information on Genghis Khan and

14157-467: The original. The honorific most commonly rendered as "Genghis" ultimately derives from the Mongolian ᠴᠢᠩᠭᠢᠰ , which may be romanised as Činggis . This was adapted into Chinese as 成吉思 Chéngjísī , and into Persian as چنگیز Čəngīz . As Arabic lacks a sound similar to [ tʃ ] , represented in the Mongolian and Persian romanisations by ⟨ č ⟩, writers transcribed

14300-524: The other Sarais in historical and modern accounts, and was once considered a possible location for the capital of the Golden Horde. This town did serve as the main city of the Nogai Horde , one of the successors of the Golden Horde. Although sacked by the Ural Cossacks in 1580, it was later used as the headquarters by some Kazakh khans. Located just under 5 km northwest of the border of

14443-562: The plea. Genghis's attempt to redirect the Yellow River into the city with a dam initially worked, but the poorly-constructed earthworks broke—possibly breached by the Xia—in January 1210 and the Mongol camp was flooded, forcing them to retreat. A peace treaty was soon formalised: the Xia emperor Xiangzong submitted and handed over tribute, including his daughter Chaka, in exchange for the Mongol withdrawal. Wanyan Yongji usurped

14586-650: The region's trade in grain and furs, as well as its gold mines . Mongol armies also rode westwards, defeating the Naiman-Merkit alliance on the River Irtysh in late 1208. Their khan was killed and Kuchlug fled into Central Asia . Led by Barchuk , the Uyghurs freed themselves from the suzerainty of the Qara Khitai and pledged themselves to Genghis in 1211 as the first sedentary society to submit to

14729-400: The service of the Jin. As he later overthrew that state, such an episode, detrimental to Mongol prestige, was omitted from all their sources. Zhao Hong was bound by no such taboos. The sources do not agree on the events of Temüjin's return to the steppe. In early summer 1196, he participated in a joint campaign with the Jin against the Tatars, who had begun to act contrary to Jin interests. As

14872-644: The shaman's position as the Mongols' highest spiritual authority. During these years, the Mongols imposed their control on surrounding areas. Genghis dispatched Jochi northwards in 1207 to subjugate the Hoi-yin Irgen  [ ja ] , a collection of tribes on the edge of the Siberian taiga . Having secured a marriage alliance with the Oirats and defeated the Yenisei Kyrgyz , he took control of

15015-400: The site, and the city was home to many poets, most of whom are known only by name. These included Hisām Kātib (c. 1375)and Sayf-i Sarāy, who died in 1396. This prosperity was rapidly threatened by the onset of chronic political and military instability alongside competition for the throne of the Golden Horde after 1361. As the traditional capital and a rich and prestigious prize, Sarai became

15158-452: The sole ruler on the Mongolian steppe. Temüjin formally adopted the title "Genghis Khan", the meaning of which is uncertain, at an assembly in 1206. Carrying out reforms designed to ensure long-term stability, he transformed the Mongols' tribal structure into an integrated meritocracy dedicated to the service of the ruling family. After thwarting a coup attempt from a powerful shaman , Genghis began to consolidate his power. In 1209, he led

15301-525: The sons of blacksmiths, in addition to a carpenter, a shepherd, and even the two herdsmen who had warned Temüjin of Toghrul's plans in 1203. As a special privilege, Genghis allowed certain loyal commanders to retain the tribal identities of their units. Alaqush of the Ongud was allowed to retain five thousand warriors of his tribe because his son had entered into an alliance pact with Genghis, marrying his daughter Alaqa. A key tool which underpinned these reforms

15444-579: The sources are written in more than a dozen languages from across Eurasia, modern historians have found it difficult to compile information on the life of Genghis Khan. All accounts of his adolescence and rise to power derive from two Mongolian-language sources—the Secret History of the Mongols , and the Altan Debter ( Golden Book ). The latter, now lost, served as inspiration for two Chinese chronicles—the 14th-century History of Yuan and

15587-549: The southern and eastern borders of the kingdom to guard against attacks from the Song and Jin dynasties respectively, while its northern border relied only on the Gobi desert for protection. After a raid in 1207 sacked the Xia fortress of Wulahai , Genghis decided to personally lead a full-scale invasion in 1209. Wulahai was captured again in May and the Mongols advanced on the capital Zhongxing (modern-day Yinchuan ) but suffered

15730-528: The state was wracked by internal instabilities. Genghis had two aims: to take vengeance for past wrongs committed by the Jin, foremost among which was the death of Ambaghai Khan in the mid-12th century, and to win the vast amounts of plunder his troops and vassals expected. After calling for a kurultai in March 1211, Genghis launched his invasion of Jin China in May, reaching the outer ring of Jin defences

15873-498: The steppe tradition of hospitality to strangers. However, the Tatars recognised their old enemy and slipped poison into his food. Yesügei gradually sickened but managed to return home; close to death, he requested a trusted retainer called Münglig to retrieve Temüjin from the Onggirat. He died soon after. Yesügei's death shattered the unity of his people, which included members of the Borjigin, Tayichiud , and other clans. As Temüjin

16016-507: The stone is being taken to Astrakhan. As so often the case, it is difficult to decide to which Sarai (or other center) this description applies. The location and identity of the settlement or settlements called Sarai (which means, after all, simply "palace" and moreover seems to function as a synonym of "horde" ) have been subject to scholarly disagreement. Arguments have centered on whether or not there were two (or more) capital cities named Sarai and what were their respective locations. One of

16159-545: The sweet and the bitter. If I break this word, may I be like the water of the River, drunk up by others." Among officers and men there was none who was not moved to tears. The History of Yuan , vol 120 (1370) Retreating southeast to Baljuna, an unidentified lake or river, Temüjin waited for his scattered forces to regroup: Bo'orchu had lost his horse and was forced to flee on foot, while Temüjin's badly wounded son Ögedei had been transported and tended to by Borokhula ,

16302-499: The target of most claimants to the throne. The beglerbeg Mamai , for example, took Sarai on behalf of his own puppet khans on four or five separate occasions between 1362 and 1375/1376, losing it to rivals each time. Intervening in the internal conflicts within the Golden Horde, the Central Asian conqueror Timur sacked, leveled, and set on fire Sarai in the winter of 1395–1396. The city had partially recovered by 1402, and by

16445-451: The tent of Sorkan-Shira , a man who had seen him in the river and not raised the alarm. Sorkan-Shira sheltered Temüjin for three days at great personal risk before helping him to escape. Temüjin was assisted on another occasion by Bo'orchu , an adolescent who aided him in retrieving stolen horses. Soon afterwards, Bo'orchu joined Temüjin's camp as his first nökor ('personal companion'; pl. nökod ). These incidents, related by

16588-543: The threat Temüjin posed to the traditional steppe aristocracy by his habit of promoting commoners to high positions, which subverted social norms. Yielding eventually to these demands, Toghrul attempted to lure his vassal into an ambush, but his plans were overheard by two herdsmen. Temüjin was able to gather some of his forces, but was soundly defeated at the Battle of Qalaqaljid Sands . "[Temüjin] raised his hands and looking up at Heaven swore, saying "If I am able to achieve my 'Great Work', I shall [always] share with you men

16731-465: The time the conflict resumed in 1213, but a Mongol detachment led by Jebe managed to infiltrate the pass and surprise the elite Jin defenders, opening the road to the Jin capital Zhongdu (modern-day Beijing ). The Jin administration began to disintegrate: after the Khitans , a tribe subject to the Jin, entered open rebellion, Hushahu, the commander of the forces at Xijing, abandoned his post and staged

16874-434: The title "Genghis Khan", the etymology and meaning of which have been much debated. Some commentators hold that the title had no meaning, simply representing Temüjin's eschewal of the traditional gurkhan title, which had been accorded to Jamukha and was thus of lesser worth. Another theory suggests that the word "Genghis" bears connotations of strength, firmness, hardness, or righteousness. A third hypothesis proposes that

17017-501: The title is related to the Turkic tängiz ('ocean'), the title "Genghis Khan" would mean "master of the ocean", and as the ocean was believed to surround the earth, the title thus ultimately implied "Universal Ruler". Having attained control over one million people, Genghis Khan began a "social revolution", in May's words. As traditional tribal systems had primarily evolved to benefit small clans and families, they were unsuitable as

17160-447: Was badly defeated in c.  1187 , and may have spent the following years as a subject of the Jin dynasty ; upon reemerging in 1196, he swiftly began gaining power. Toghrul came to view Temüjin as a threat and launched a surprise attack on him in 1203. Temüjin retreated, then regrouped and overpowered Toghrul; after defeating the Naiman tribe and executing Jamukha, he was left as

17303-400: Was de facto an equal ally. Jamukha behaved cruelly following his victory at Dalan Baljut—he allegedly boiled seventy prisoners alive and humiliated the corpses of leaders who had opposed him. A number of disaffected followers, including Yesügei's follower Münglig and his sons, defected to Temüjin as a consequence; they were also probably attracted by his newfound wealth. Temüjin subdued

17446-525: Was a descendant of Jochi 's thirteenth son Tuqa-Timur . In 1260, coins may have been minted in Tuqa-Timur's name in the Crimea . When Mengu-Timur ruled the Golden Horde, he gave Tuqa-Timur's son Urung-Timur (also called Uz-Timur and Urungbash) lands in the Crimea, which were retained by his descendants. The early years of Urus Khan are not recorded in the sources. In the 1350s Urus decided to move from

17589-475: Was abandoned by its tribe. Reduced to near-poverty, Temüjin killed his older half-brother to secure his familial position. His charismatic personality helped to attract his first followers and to form alliances with two prominent steppe leaders named Jamukha and Toghrul ; they worked together to retrieve Temüjin's newlywed wife Börte , who had been kidnapped by raiders. As his reputation grew, his relationship with Jamukha deteriorated into open warfare. Temüjin

17732-476: Was accommodating, and furnished Tokhtamysh with resources and forces, allowing him to establish himself at Otrar and Sayram . Urus' son Qutlu-Buqa, who was governing the east in his father's absence attacked and expelled Tokhtamysh, who sought refuge with Timur again. Qutlu-Buqa, however, was mortally wounded in the battle. Supplied with more wealth and a fresh army by Timur, Tokhtamysh tried his luck again, only to be defeated by Urus' next son, Toqtaqiya; Tokhtamysh

17875-531: Was an eyewitness to the brutality of the Mongol conquests, and the hostility of his chronicle reflects his experiences. His contemporary Juvayni, who had travelled twice to Mongolia and attained a high position in the administration of a Mongol successor state , was more sympathetic; his account is the most reliable for Genghis Khan's western campaigns. The most important Persian source is the Jami' al-tawarikh ( Compendium of Chronicles ) compiled by Rashid al-Din on

18018-519: Was built by Berke Khan on the banks of the Turanian river (Volga). It is on salty soil, without any walls. The place of residence of the king is a large palace, atop which a golden crescent ... The palace is surrounded by walls, towers and houses, in which live his emirs. In this palace are their winter lodgings ... Sarai is a grand city accommodating markets, baths and religious institutions, and storages for many goods and commodities ... In

18161-462: Was considered the ancestor of all Kazakh khans and sultans. The mausoleum of Alash Khan is located in Ulytau , not far from the mausoleum of Jochi , but some historians say that Alasha Khan may be Genghis Khan himself. Genghis Khan Genghis Khan (born Temüjin ; c.  1162  – August 1227), also known as Chinggis Khan , was the founder and first khan of

18304-456: Was defeated and killed by Tokhtamysh in 1379. Urus had reigned for nine years, but his attempts to hold Sarai and take over the western portions of the Golden Horde had met with failure. Urus had four sons who played a political role: Qutlu-Buqa , who governed in the east while Urus attempted to take over Sarai but predeceased his father; Toqtaqiya , who succeeded his father but died after two months; Timur-Malik , who succeeded his brother but

18447-528: Was described as "Gorodishche Selitrennoe ... remains of the Golden Horde capital Sarai-Batu" on the official sign in at the site, while the corresponding sign at the Tsarevskoe gorodishche archaeological site read "Ruins of Sarai-Berke (New Sarai)". This apparent certainty was eventually eroded by subsequent scholarship. First, it was noted that "New Sarai" could not be associated with Berke on historical, archaeological, and numismatic grounds, leading to

18590-526: Was developed by Jani Beg and rivaled Sarai as a khan's residence and mint in the 1350s and 1360s but then declined. This conclusion quickly gained support among the experts, and the present general consensus is that Selitrennoe gorodishche ( 47°10′53″N 47°26′04″E  /  47.1814°N 47.4345446°E  / 47.1814; 47.4345446 ) is "New Sarai", while Tsarevskoe gorodishche ( 48°40′58″N 45°20′37″E  /  48.6827442°N 45.3434944°E  / 48.6827442; 45.3434944 )

18733-496: Was forced to beg for Toghrul's clemency. Desiring complete supremacy in eastern Mongolia, Temüjin defeated first the Tayichiud and then, in 1202, the Tatars; after both campaigns, he executed the clan leaders and took the remaining warriors into his service. These included Sorkan-Shira, who had come to his aid previously, and a young warrior named Jebe , who, by killing Temüjin's horse and refusing to hide that fact, had displayed martial ability and personal courage. The absorption of

18876-468: Was founded later in the 13th century by Berke and made capital in the early 14th century by Öz Beg, and was located at Tsarevskoe gorodishche (previously also called Tsarevy Pady, 48°40′58″N 45°20′37″E  /  48.6827442°N 45.3434944°E  / 48.6827442; 45.3434944 , just northwest of modern Tsarev and farther west of Kolobovka , about 55 km east-southeast of Volzhsky ). The Selitrennoe gorodishche archaeological site

19019-411: Was founded more than six decades after Berke's death. The earliest coins struck at Sarai have been identified with issues of Berke from 1264/1265. During the reign of Mengu-Timur Khan silver coins ( dirhams ) were again struck with the label "Sarai" in 1272/1273; coins of more consistent standard and issue followed under Toqta Khan, especially after 1310. "New Sarai" (سرای الجدید, Sarāy al-Jadīd )

19162-577: Was given in marriage to the younger brother of the now-deceased Chiledu. Temüjin appealed for aid from Toghrul and his childhood anda Jamukha, who had risen to become chief of the Jadaran tribe. Both chiefs were willing to field armies of 20,000 warriors, and with Jamukha in command, the campaign was soon won. A now-pregnant Börte was recovered successfully and soon gave birth to a son, Jochi ; although Temüjin raised him as his own, questions over his true paternity followed Jochi throughout his life. This

19305-497: Was humiliated and almost imprisoned on false charges before Hö'elün intervened by publicly reprimanding Genghis. Nevertheless, Kokechu's power steadily increased, and he publicly shamed Temüge, Genghis's youngest brother, when he attempted to intervene. Börte saw that Kokechu was a threat to Genghis's power and warned her husband, who still superstitiously revered the shaman but now recognised the political threat he posed. Genghis allowed Temüge to arrange Kokechu's death, and then usurped

19448-411: Was not yet ten and Behter around two years older, neither was considered experienced enough to rule. The Tayichiud faction excluded Hö'elün from the ancestor worship ceremonies which followed a ruler's death and soon abandoned her camp. The Secret History relates that the entire Borjigin clan followed, despite Hö'elün's attempts to shame them into staying by appealing to their honour. Rashid al-Din and

19591-523: Was only at this juncture that Genghis decided to fully conquer northern China. Muqali captured numerous towns in Liaodong during winter 1214–15, and although the inhabitants of Zhongdu surrendered to Genghis on 31 May 1215, the city was sacked. When Genghis returned to Mongolia in early 1216, Muqali was left in command in China. He waged a brutal but effective campaign against the unstable Jin regime until his death in 1223. In 1207, Genghis had appointed

19734-520: Was overthrown by his cousin Tokhtamysh ; and Quyurchuq , who challenged Tokhtamysh for control of the Golden Horde in 1395–1397. Toqtaqiya's son Beg-Pulad and Quyurchuq's son Baraq also attempted to become khans of the Golden Horde, Baraq meeting with some success in 1423–1428. For the khans of the Kazakh Khanate , Urus Khan had a symbolic significance. In addition to the fact that he was

19877-404: Was reorganised into a military decimal system. Every man between the age of fifteen and seventy was conscripted into a minqan ( pl. minkad ), a unit of a thousand soldiers, which was further subdivided into units of hundreds ( jaghun , pl. jaghat ) and tens ( arban , pl. arbat ). The units also encompassed each man's household, meaning that each military minqan

20020-403: Was supported by a minqan of households in what May has termed "a military–industrial complex ". Each minqan operated as both a political and social unit, while the warriors of defeated tribes were dispersed to different minqad to make it difficult for them to rebel as a single body. This was intended to ensure the disappearance of old tribal identities, replacing them with loyalty to

20163-404: Was that "Old Sarai" was founded in the 13th century by Batu and located at Selitrennoe gorodishche (previously also called Dzhigit Hadzhi, 47°10′53″N 47°26′04″E  /  47.1814°N 47.4345446°E  / 47.1814; 47.4345446 just northwest of modern Selitrennoe , about 30 km southeast of Kharabali and about 120 km north from Astrakhan ), while "New Sarai"

20306-517: Was the expansion of the keshig ('bodyguard'). After Temüjin defeated Toghrul in 1203, he had appropriated this Kereit institution in a minor form, but at the 1206 kurultai its numbers were greatly expanded, from 1,150 to 10,000 men. The keshig was not only the khan's bodyguard, but his household staff, a military academy, and the centre of governmental administration. All the warriors in this elite corps were brothers or sons of military commanders and were essentially hostages. The members of

20449-459: Was wounded with an arrow in the arm, and only saved himself by swimming across the Seyhun ( Syr Darya ) river. The stage was now set for a major confrontation between Urus, who had temporarily given up on his ambition to hold Sarai, and Timur, who insisted on protecting and supporting Tokhtamysh. Urus and Timur advanced on each other in the space between Sighnaq and Otrar in 1376. Bad weather delayed

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