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76-502: First attested in the 9th century BCE , Urartian ceased to be written after the fall of the Urartian state in 585 BCE and presumably became extinct due to the fall of Urartu. It must have had long contact with, and been gradually totally replaced by, an early form of Armenian , although it is only in the 5th century CE that the first written examples of Armenian appear. Urartian is an ergative , agglutinative language , which belongs to

152-518: A genetic relationship to other language families , e.g. Northeast Caucasian languages , Indo-European languages , or Kartvelian languages , but none of these are generally accepted. Indo-European, namely Armenian and Anatolian , as well as Iranian and possibly Paleo-Balkan , etymologies have been proposed for many Urartian personal and topographic names, such as the names of kings Arame and Argishti , regions such as Diauehi and Uelikulqi , cities such as Arzashkun , geographical features like

228-596: A slippery slope scenario in his style guide that, "if we do end by casting aside the AD/BC convention, almost certainly some will argue that we ought to cast aside as well the conventional numbering system [that is, the method of numbering years] itself, given its Christian basis." Some Christians are offended by the removal of the reference to Jesus, including the Southern Baptist Convention . The abbreviation BCE, just as with BC, always follows

304-541: A year zero . In 1422, Portugal became the last Western European country to switch to the system begun by Dionysius. The term "Common Era" is traced back in English to its appearance as " Vulgar Era" to distinguish years of the Anno Domini era, which was in popular use, from dates of the regnal year (the year of the reign of a sovereign) typically used in national law. (The word 'vulgar' originally meant 'of

380-492: A certain confidence are two symbols or "hieroglyphs" found on vessels, representing certain units of measurement: [REDACTED] for aqarqi and [REDACTED] for ṭerusi . This is known because some vessels were labelled both in cuneiform and with these symbols. Hachikian (2010) gives the following consonants for Urartian inferred both from Urartian writing as well as loans into neighboring languages, mainly Armenian: The three-way laryngeal contrast for stops and affricates

456-433: A derivational suffix. Notable derivational suffixes are -ḫə , forming adjectives of belonging (e.g. Abiliane-ḫə "of the tribe Abiliani", Argište-ḫə "son of Argišti ") and -šə , forming abstract nouns (e.g. alsui-šə "greatness", ardi-šə "order", arniu-šə "deed"). The forms of the so-called "article" are -nə (non-reduced form -ne- ) for the singular, -ne-lə for the plural in the absolutive case and -na- for

532-641: A few documents have survived on lead strips. The first inscriptions confirmed as Luwian date to the Late Bronze Age , ca. 14th to 13th centuries BC. After some two centuries of sparse material, the hieroglyphs resume in the Early Iron Age , ca. 10th to 8th centuries BC. In the early 7th century BC, the Luwian hieroglyphic script, by then aged some 700 years, was marginalized by competing alphabetic scripts and fell into oblivion. While almost all

608-542: A foot, is transcribed as PES when used logographically, and with its phonemic value ti when used as a syllabogram. In the rare cases where the logogram cannot be transliterated into Latin, it is rendered through its approximate Hittite equivalent, recorded in Italic capitals, e.g. *216 ARHA . The most up-to-date sign list was compiled by Massimiliano Marazzi in 1998. Hawkins, Morpurgo-Davies and Neumann corrected some previous errors about sign values, in particular emending

684-632: A line, signs are usually written in vertical columns, but as in Egyptian hieroglyphs , aesthetic considerations take precedence over correct reading order. Anatolian hieroglyphs first came to Western attention in the nineteenth century, when European explorers such as Johann Ludwig Burckhardt and Richard Francis Burton described pictographic inscriptions on walls in the city of Hama , Syria . The same characters were recorded in Boğazköy , and presumed by A. H. Sayce to be Hittite in origin. By 1915, with

760-626: A matter of convenience. There is so much interaction between people of different faiths and cultures – different civilizations, if you like – that some shared way of reckoning time is a necessity. And so the Christian Era has become the Common Era. Adena K. Berkowitz, in her application to argue before the United States Supreme Court , opted to use BCE and CE because, "Given the multicultural society that we live in,

836-715: A period of 138 years in which the traditional BC/AD dating notation was used. BCE/CE is used by the College Board in its history tests, and by the Norton Anthology of English Literature . Others have taken a different approach. The US-based History Channel uses BCE/CE notation in articles on non-Christian religious topics such as Jerusalem and Judaism . The 2006 style guide for the Episcopal Diocese Maryland Church News says that BCE and CE should be used. In June 2006, in

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912-571: A phonemic /ɣ/ distinct from /x/, there is limited evidence from the Greek rendering of the toponym Κομμαγηνή Kommagēnḗ ‘ Commagene ’ for Urartian qu-ma-ḫa- ; thus, /x/ and /ɣ/ were not orthograpically distinguished. The script distinguishes the vowels a , e , i and u . Hachikian believes that there was an /o/ as well, as reflected in loans such as the rendition of Urartian ṭu-uš-pa- ‘ Tushpa (toponym) ’ as Armenian Տոսպ Tosp and Greek Θοσπ- Thosp- . There may have been phonemic vowel length, but it

988-437: A verb action within the verb is treated in the section on Verbal morphology below. Demonstrative pronouns are i-nə (plural base i- , followed by article and case forms) and ina-nə (plural base ina- , followed by article and case forms). A relative pronoun is alə . The paradigm of the verb is only partially known. As with the noun, the morphemes that a verb may contain come in a certain sequence that can be formalized as

1064-464: Is Suffixaufnahme - a process in which dependent modifiers of a noun (including genitive case modifiers) agree with the head noun by absorbing its case suffixes. The copied suffixes must be preceded by the article (also agreeing in number with the head). Examples: Ḫaldi-i-na-wə šešti-na-wə "for the gates (dative) of [god] Ḫaldi (dative)", Argište-šə Menua-ḫi-ne-šə "Argišti (ergative), son of Menua (ergative)". The known personal pronouns are those of

1140-480: Is a direct reference to Jesus as Lord . Proponents of the Common Era notation assert that the use of BCE/CE shows sensitivity to those who use the same year numbering system as the one that originated with and is currently used by Christians , but who are not themselves Christian. Former United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan has argued: [T]he Christian calendar no longer belongs exclusively to Christians. People of all faiths have taken to using it simply as

1216-533: Is a standardized simplification of Neo-Assyrian cuneiform. Unlike in Assyrian, each sign only expresses a single sound value. The sign gi 𒄀 has the special function of expressing a hiatus, e.g. u-gi-iš-ti for Uīšdi . A variant script with non-overlapping wedges was in use for rock inscriptions. Urartian was also rarely written in the " Anatolian hieroglyphs " used for the Luwian language . Evidence for this

1292-486: Is added, the third-person singular absolutive suffix -nə is dropped. The encoding of the person of the absolutive subject/object is present, even though it is also explicitly mentioned in the sentence: e.g. argište-šə inə arə šu-nə "Argišti established(-it) this granary". An exceptional verb is man- "to be", in that it has a transitive valency vowel, and takes no absolutive suffix for the third person singular: man-u "it was" vs man-u-lə "they were". The imperative

1368-605: Is conventionally the term represented in Latin, in capital letters (e.g. PES for the logogram for "foot"). The syllabograms are transliterated, disambiguating homophonic signs analogously to cuneiform transliteration , e.g. ta=ta 1 , tá=ta 2 , and ta 6 transliterate three distinct ways of representing phonemic /ta/. Some of the homophonic signs have received further attention and new phonetic interpretation in recent years, e.g. tà has been argued to stand for /da/, and á seems to have stood for /ʔa/ (distinct from /a/), representing

1444-496: Is expressed by a graphically similar form, which is interpreted by Wilhelm (2008) as -l- followed by -(e)yə : an example of its use is alu-šə tu-l-(e)yə "whoever destroys it". 3. A desiderative , which may express the wish of either the speaker or the agent, is expressed by -l- followed by a suffix -anə . The valency marker is replaced by -i- : e.g. ard-i-l-anə "I want him to give …", ḫa-i-l-anə "it wants to take/conquer …". BCE Common Era ( CE ) and Before

1520-401: Is formed by the addition of the suffix -ə to the root: e.g. ar-ə "give!". The jussive or third person imperative is formed by the addition of the suffix -in- in the slot of the valency vowel, whereas the persons are marked in the usual way, following an epenthetic vowel -[i]- :e.g. ar-in-[i]-nə "may he give it", ḫa-it-in-nə "may they take it". The modal suffix -l- , added between

1596-485: Is in particularly common use in Nepal in order to disambiguate dates from the local calendar, Bikram or Vikram Sambat. Disambiguation is needed because the era of the local calendar is quite close to the Common Era. In 2002, an advisory panel for the religious education syllabus for England and Wales recommended introducing BCE/CE dates to schools, and by 2018 some local education authorities were using them. In 2018,

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1672-573: Is la-. There was occasionally some use of Anatolian hieroglyphs to write foreign material like Hurrian theonyms , or glosses in Urartian (such as [REDACTED] á – ḫá+ra – ku for [REDACTED] aqarqi or [REDACTED] tu – ru – za for [REDACTED] ṭerusi , two units of measurement). As in Egyptian, characters may be logographic or phonographic—that is, they may be used to represent words or sounds. The number of phonographic signs

1748-409: Is limited. Most represent CV syllables, though there are a few disyllabic signs. A large number of these are ambiguous as to whether the vowel is a or i. Some signs are dedicated to one use or another, but many are flexible. Words may be written logographically, phonetically, mixed (that is, a logogram with a phonetic complement ), and may be preceded by a determinative . Other than the fact that

1824-506: Is not a direct continuation of any of the attested dialects of Hurrian, many of its features are best explained as innovative developments with respect to Hurrian as it is known from the preceding millennium. The closeness holds especially true of the so-called Old Hurrian dialect, known above all from Hurro-Hittite bilingual texts. The external connections of the Hurro-Urartian languages are disputed. There exist various proposals for

1900-497: Is not consistently expressed in the script. Word-finally, the distinction between e and i is not maintained, so many scholars transcribe the graphically vacillating vowel as a schwa : ə , while some preserve a non-reduced vowel (usually opting for i ). The full form of the vowel appears when suffixes are added to the word and the vowel is no longer in the last syllable: Argištə " Argišti " - Argištešə "by Argišti ( ergative case )". This vowel reduction also suggests that stress

1976-431: Is restricted to Altıntepe . There are suggestions that besides the Luwian hieroglyphic inscriptions, Urartu also had a native hieroglyphic script. The inscription corpus is too sparse to substantiate the hypothesis. It remains unclear whether the symbols in question form a coherent writing system, or represent just a multiplicity of uncoordinated expressions of proto-writing or ad-hoc drawings. What can be identified with

2052-410: Is usually transitive can be converted to intransitivity with the suffix -ul- before the intransitive valency marker: aš-ul-a-bə "was occupied" (vs aš-u-bə "I put in [a garrison]"). The person suffixes express the persons of the absolutive subject/object and the ergative subject. When both subject and object are present, a single transitive suffix may expresses a unique combination of persons (e.g.

2128-655: The Gregorian calendar without the AD prefix. As early as 1825, the abbreviation VE (for Vulgar Era) was in use among Jews to denote years in the Western calendar. As of 2005 , Common Era notation has also been in use for Hebrew lessons for more than a century. Jews have also used the term Current Era . Some academics in the fields of theology , education , archaeology and history have adopted CE and BCE notation despite some disagreement. A study conducted in 2014 found that

2204-733: The Hurro-Urartian family , whose only other known member is Hurrian . It survives in many cuneiform inscriptions found in the territory of the Kingdom of Urartu. There have been claims of a separate autochthonous script of "Urartian hieroglyphs" but they remain unsubstantiated. Urartian is closely related to Hurrian, a somewhat better documented language attested for an earlier, non-overlapping period, approximately from 2000 BCE to 1200 BCE, written by native speakers until about 1350 BCE. The two languages must have developed quite independently from approximately 2000 BCE onwards. Although Urartian

2280-575: The Incarnation of Jesus. Dionysius labeled the column of the table in which he introduced the new era as " Anni Domini Nostri Jesu Christi " (Of the year of our Lord Jesus Christ]. This way of numbering years became more widespread in Europe with its use by Bede in England in 731. Bede also introduced the practice of dating years before what he supposed was the year of birth of Jesus, without

2356-476: The Journal Asiatique , were crucial in forwarding the decipherment of Mesopotamian cuneiform by Edward Hincks. After the decipherment of Assyrian cuneiform in the 1850s, Schulz's drawings became the basis of the decipherment of the Urartian language. It soon became clear that it was unrelated to any known language, and attempts at decipherment based on known languages of the region failed. The script

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2432-723: The National Trust said it would continue to use BC/AD as its house style. English Heritage explains its era policy thus: "It might seem strange to use a Christian calendar system when referring to British prehistory, but the BC/AD labels are widely used and understood." Some parts of the BBC use BCE/CE, but some presenters have said they will not. As of October 2019, the BBC News style guide has entries for AD and BC, but not for CE or BCE. The style guide for The Guardian says, under

2508-614: The date of birth of Jesus . Since the year numbers are the same, BCE and CE dates should be equally offensive to other religions as BC and AD. Roman Catholic priest and writer on interfaith issues Raimon Panikkar argued that the BCE/CE usage is the less inclusive option since they are still using the Christian calendar numbers and forcing it on other nations. In 1993, the English-language expert Kenneth G. Wilson speculated

2584-554: The Arșania River , as well as some Urartian vocabulary and grammar. Surviving texts of the language are written in a variant of the cuneiform script called Neo-Assyrian. The German scholar Friedrich Eduard Schulz , who discovered the Urartian inscriptions of the Lake Van region in 1826, made copies of several cuneiform inscriptions at Tushpa , but made no attempt at decipherment. Schulz's drawings, published posthumously in 1840 in

2660-596: The BCE/CE notation is not growing at the expense of BC and AD notation in the scholarly literature, and that both notations are used in a relatively stable fashion. In 2011, media reports suggested that the BC/AD notation in Australian school textbooks would be replaced by BCE/CE notation. The change drew opposition from some politicians and church leaders. Weeks after the story broke, the Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority denied

2736-579: The Christian Era, it was sometimes qualified, e.g., "common era of the Incarnation", "common era of the Nativity", or "common era of the birth of Christ". An adapted translation of Common Era into Latin as Era Vulgaris was adopted in the 20th century by some followers of Aleister Crowley , and thus the abbreviation "e.v." or "EV" may sometimes be seen as a replacement for AD. Although Jews have their own Hebrew calendar , they often use

2812-461: The Common Era ( BCE ) are year notations for the Gregorian calendar (and its predecessor, the Julian calendar ), the world's most widely used calendar era . Common Era and Before the Common Era are alternatives to the original Anno Domini (AD) and Before Christ (BC) notations used for the same calendar era. The two notation systems are numerically equivalent: "2024 CE" and "AD 2024" each describe

2888-495: The Gregorian Calendar as BCE and CE without compromising their own beliefs about the divinity of Jesus of Nazareth." In History Today , Michael Ostling wrote: "BC/AD Dating: In the year of whose Lord? The continuing use of AD and BC is not only factually wrong but also offensive to many who are not Christians." Critics note the fact that there is no difference in the epoch of the two systems—chosen to be close to

2964-479: The Luwian language known from cuneiform, and a substantial quantity of Anatolian hieroglyphs transcribed and published, linguists started to make real progress in reading the script. In the 1930s, it was partially deciphered by Ignace Gelb , Piero Meriggi, Emil Forrer , and Bedřich Hrozný . Its language was confirmed as Luwian in 1973 by J.D. Hawkins, Anna Morpurgo Davies and Günther Neumann, who corrected some previous errors about sign values, in particular emending

3040-625: The United States, the Kentucky State School Board reversed its decision to use BCE and CE in the state's new Program of Studies, leaving education of students about these concepts a matter of local discretion. The use of CE in Jewish scholarship was historically motivated by the desire to avoid the implicit "Our Lord" in the abbreviation AD . Although other aspects of dating systems are based in Christian origins, AD

3116-529: The case suffix in the oblique cases), but some of the case suffixes also differ in form between the singular and the plural. Therefore, separate plural version of the case suffixes are indicated below separately. The nature of the absolutive and ergative cases is as in other ergative languages (more details in the section Syntax below). Since the "complete" plural forms also include the plural definite article, they appear as -ne-lə , -na-šə , -na-wə , na-(e)də or na-š-tə , etc. A phenomenon typical of Urartian

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3192-452: The combination of ergative 3rd singular and absolutive 3rd singular is marked with the suffix -nə ). The following chart lists the currently ascertained endings, along with gaps for those not yet ascertained (the ellipsis marks the place of the valency vowel): Examples: ušt-a-də "I marched forth"; nun-a-bə "he came"; aš-u-bə "I put-it in"; šidišt-u-nə "he built-it"; ar-u-mə "he gave [it] to me", kuy-it-u-nə "they dedicated-it". As

3268-488: The current year; "400 BCE" and "400 BC" are the same year. The expression can be traced back to 1615, when it first appears in a book by Johannes Kepler as the Latin : annus aerae nostrae vulgaris ( year of our common era ), and to 1635 in English as " Vulgar Era". The term "Common Era" can be found in English as early as 1708, and became more widely used in the mid-19th century by Jewish religious scholars. Since

3344-417: The deeds". The well-attested possessive suffixes are the ones of the first person singular -ukə (in non-reduced form sometimes -uka- ) and of the 3rd person singular -i(yə)- (in non-reduced form sometimes -iya- ): e.g. ebani-uka-nə "from my country", ebani-yə "his country". The plural is expressed, above all, through the use of the plural "article" ( -ne-lə in the absolutive case, -na- preceding

3420-543: The descendant of Proto-Indo-European */h₁/ . One of the latest confirmed discoveries pertaining to the decipherment of Anatolian Hieroglyphs is the re-interpretation of the signs ta 4 and ta 5 as ⟨la/i⟩ and ⟨lá/í⟩ respectively Anatolian hieroglyphs were added to the Unicode Standard in June, 2015 with the release of version 8.0. The Unicode block for Anatolian Hieroglyphs

3496-519: The early 20th century. The phrase "common era", in lower case , also appeared in the 19th century in a "generic" sense, not necessarily to refer to the Christian Era, but to any system of dates in common use throughout a civilization. Thus, "the common era of the Jews", "the common era of the Mahometans", "common era of the world", "the common era of the foundation of Rome". When it did refer to

3572-428: The entry for CE/BCE: "some people prefer CE (common era, current era, or Christian era) and BCE (before common era, etc.) to AD and BC, which, however, remain our style". In the United States, the use of the BCE/CE notation in textbooks was reported in 2005 to be growing. Some publications have transitioned to using it exclusively. For example, the 2007 World Almanac was the first edition to switch to BCE/CE, ending

3648-409: The first and third person singular. possessive The first person singular has two different forms for the absolutive case: ištidə as the absolutive subject of an intransitive verb, and šukə as the absolutive object of a transitive verb. The ergative form is iešə . Judging from correspondences with Hurrian, šu- should be the base for the "regular" case forms. An enclitic dative case suffix for

3724-453: The first of which was but eight days", and also refers to the common era as a synonym for vulgar era with "the fact that our Lord was born on the 4th year before the vulgar era, called Anno Domini, thus making (for example) the 42d year from his birth to correspond with the 38th of the common era". The Catholic Encyclopedia (1909) in at least one article reports all three terms (Christian, Vulgar, Common Era) being commonly understood by

3800-435: The first person singular is attested as -mə . The third person singular has the absolutive form manə . As for possessive pronouns, besides the possessive suffixes (1st singular -uka- and 3rd singular -iya- ) that were adduced above, Urartian also makes use of possessive adjectives formed with the suffix -(u)sə : 1st singular šusə , 3rd singular masə . The encoding of pronominal ergative and absolutive participants in

3876-584: The following "verb chain": morphemes (-ul)-i-, -u- -in- The meaning of the root complements is unclear. The valency markers express whether the verb is intransitive or transitive . The modal suffix appears in several marked moods (but not in the indicative). The other person suffixes express mostly the absolutive subject or object. It is not clear if and how tense or aspect were signalled. The valency markers are -a- (rarely -i- ) for intransitivity and -u- for transitivity: for example nun-a-də "I came" vs šidišt-u-nə "he built". A verb that

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3952-437: The genetic relation with Hurrian was established by I. M. Diakonoff . The oldest recorded texts originate from the reign of Sarduri I , from the late 9th century BCE. Texts were produced until the fall of the realm of Urartu, approximately 200 years later. Approximately two hundred inscriptions written in the Urartian language, which adopted and modified the cuneiform script, have been discovered to date. Urartian cuneiform

4028-482: The language they encode proved to be Luwian , not Hittite , and the term Luwian hieroglyphs is used in English publications. They are typologically similar to Egyptian hieroglyphs , but do not derive graphically from that script, and they are not known to have played the sacred role of hieroglyphs in Egypt. There is no demonstrable connection to Hittite cuneiform . Individual Anatolian hieroglyphs are attested from

4104-503: The last example with Urartian ṭu-uš-pa- ‘ Tushpa (toponym) ’ ↦ Armenian Տոսպ Tosp , Hachikian (2010) reconstructs an “emphasis” distinction in the bilabial position. The cuneiform signs usually transliterated with ‹s, z, ṣ› were not fricatives, but affricates, as again shown by loans in Armenian. E.g., Urartian ṣa-ri ‘orchard’ ↦ Armenian ծառ caṙ ‘tree’, Urartian al-zi- ‘ Arzanene (toponym) ’ ↦ Armenian Աղձնի- Ałʒni- . Urartian ‹š›

4180-428: The late 20th century, BCE and CE have become popular in academic and scientific publications on the grounds that BCE and CE are religiously neutral terms. They have been promoted as more sensitive to non-Christians by not referring to Jesus , the central figure of Christianity , especially via the religious terms " Christ " and Dominus ("Lord") used by the other abbreviations. Nevertheless, its epoch remains

4256-492: The ordinary people', with no derogatory associations. ) The first use of the Latin term anno aerae nostrae vulgaris may be that in a 1615 book by Johannes Kepler . Kepler uses it again, as ab Anno vulgaris aerae , in a 1616 table of ephemerides , and again, as ab anno vulgaris aerae , in 1617. A 1635 English edition of that book has the title page in English that may be the earliest-found use of Vulgar Era in English. A 1701 book edited by John Le Clerc includes

4332-459: The other forms of the plural. They are referred to as " anaphoric suffixes" and can be compared to definite articles , although their use does not always seem to match that description exactly. They also obligatorily precede agreement suffixes added through Suffixaufnahme: e.g. Argište-šə Menua-ḫi-ne-šə "Argišti (ergative), son of Menua (ergative)". The plural form can also serve as a general plural marker in non-absolutive cases: arniuši-na-nə "by

4408-443: The paradigm shows, the person suffixes added after the valency vowel express mostly the person of absolutive subject/object, both in intransitive and in transitive verbs. The picture is complicated by the fact that the absolutive third person singular is expressed by a different suffix depending on whether the ergative subject is in the first or third person. An additional detail is that when the first-person singular dative suffix -mə

4484-476: The phonetic glyphs form a syllabary rather than indicating only consonants, this system is analogous to the system of Egyptian hieroglyphs. A more elaborate monumental style is distinguished from more abstract linear or cursive forms of the script. In general, relief inscriptions prefer monumental forms, and incised ones prefer the linear form, but the styles are in principle interchangeable. Texts of several lines are usually written in boustrophedon style. Within

4560-496: The phrase "Before Christ according to the Vulgar Æra,   6". The Merriam Webster Dictionary gives 1716 as the date of first use of the term "vulgar era" (which it defines as Christian era). The first published use of "Christian Era" may be the Latin phrase annus aerae christianae on the title page of a 1584 theology book, De Eucharistica controuersia . In 1649, the Latin phrase annus æræ Christianæ appeared in

4636-553: The phrase "before the common era" may be that in a 1770 work that also uses common era and vulgar era as synonyms, in a translation of a book originally written in German. The 1797 edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica uses the terms vulgar era and common era synonymously. In 1835, in his book Living Oracles , Alexander Campbell , wrote: "The vulgar Era, or Anno Domini; the fourth year of Jesus Christ,

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4712-516: The preserved texts employing Anatolian hieroglyphs are written in the Luwian language , some features of the script suggest its earliest development within a bilingual Hittite-Luwian environment. For example, the sign which has the form of a "taking" or "grasping" hand has the value /ta/, which is precisely the Hittite word ta-/da- "to take," in contrast with the Luwian cognate of the same meaning which

4788-2570: The reading of symbols *376 and *377 from i, ī to zi, za . á = 𔐓 ‎ aₓ  ? = 𔗨 ‎ í = 𔕐 ‎ ha  ? = 𔔁 ‎ há = 𔓟 ‎ haₓ = 𔕡 ‎ hí = 𔕘 ‎ hú = 𔖈 ‎ hwiₓ = 𔓎 ‎ ká = 𔐾 ‎ ki₄ = 𔔓 ‎ kiₓ = 𔔓 ‎ la = 𔗲 ‎ laₓ = 𔗽 ‎ li = 𔗲 ‎ lí = 𔒖 ‎ lì = 𔕇 ‎ má = 𔖘 ‎ mà = 𔕖 ‎ maₓ = 𔕖 ‎ , 𔘅 ‎ mí = 𔗘 ‎ mì = 𔖷 ‎ ná = 𔕵 ‎ ní = 𔓵 ‎ nì = 𔐽 ‎ niₓ = 𔗴 ‎ nú = 𔖿 ‎ pá = 𔘅 ‎ paₓ = 𔓐 ‎ pú = 𔗣 ‎ rú = 𔑳 ‎ , 𔑵 ‎ sá = 𔗦 ‎ sà = 𔑷 ‎ sa₄ = 𔗆 ‎ sa₅ = 𔕮 ‎ sa₆ = 𔔀 ‎ sa₇ = 𔕣 ‎ sa₈ = 𔖭 ‎ sí  ? = 𔗾 ‎ sú = 𔒂 ‎ sù = 𔗵 ‎ tá = 𔐞 ‎ tà = 𔐬 ‎ ta₄ = 𔕦 ‎ ta₅ = 𔓇 ‎ ta₆ = 𔑛 ‎ taₓ = 𔐭 ‎ tí = 𔘟 ‎ tì  ? = 𔕦 ‎ ti₄  ? = 𔓇 ‎ tú = 𔕬 ‎ tù = 𔕭 ‎ tu₄ = 𔔈 ‎ wá = 𔓁 ‎ wà = 𔓀 ‎ wa₄ = 𔓬 ‎ wa₅ = 𔓩 ‎ wa₆ = 𔓤 ‎ wa₇ = 𔕁 ‎ wa₉ = 𔔻 ‎ wi = 𔗬 ‎ wí = 𔓁 ‎ wì = 𔓀 ‎ wi₄ = 𔓬 ‎ wi₅ = 𔓩 ‎ wi₆ = 𔓤 ‎ wi₇ = 𔕁 ‎ wi₉ = 𔔻 ‎ iá = 𔕑 ‎ ià = 𔖬 ‎ zá = 𔕹 ‎ zà = 𔕼 ‎ za₄ = 𔒈 ‎ zaₓ = 𔕽 ‎ zí = 𔕠 ‎ zì = 𔕻 ‎ zi₄ = 𔒚 ‎ zú = 𔗵 ‎ Transliteration of logograms

4864-427: The reading of symbols *376 and *377 from i, ī to zi, za . The script consists of on the order of 500 unique signs, some with multiple values; a given sign may function as a logogram, a determinative or a syllabogram , or a combination thereof. The signs are numbered according to Laroche 's sign list, with a prefix of 'L.' or '*'. Logograms are transcribed in Latin in capital letters. For example, *90, an image of

4940-418: The respective aspirated /pʰ, tʰ, t͡sʰ, kʰ/ and voiced /b, d, d͡z, g/ series. Near front vowels, /g/ was palatalized and probably merged with, or at least became perceptibly close to, /j/. A distinct /v/ is suggested by variant spellings alternating between ‹ú› and ‹b› and by the toponym rendered in Armenian as Վան Van ‘ Van ’ and written bi-a-i-ni- in Urartian. Hachikian (2010) also suggests /f/ and /z/. For

5016-595: The rumours and stated that the BC/AD notation would remain, with CE and BCE as an optional suggested learning activity. In 2013, the Canadian Museum of Civilization (now the Canadian Museum of History) in Gatineau (opposite Ottawa ), which had previously switched to BCE/CE, decided to change back to BC/AD in material intended for the public while retaining BCE/CE in academic content. The notation

5092-475: The same as that used for the Anno Domini era. The idea of numbering years beginning from the date that he believed to be the date of birth of Jesus , was conceived around the year 525 by the Christian monk Dionysius Exiguus . He did this to replace the then dominant Era of Martyrs system, because he did not wish to continue the memory of a tyrant who persecuted Christians. He numbered years from an initial reference date (" epoch "), an event he referred to as

5168-509: The second and early first millennia BC across Anatolia and into modern Syria. A biconvex bronze personal seal was found in the Troy VIIb level (later half of the 12th century BC) inscribed with Luwian Hieroglyphs. The earliest examples occur on personal seals , but these consist only of names, titles, and auspicious signs, and it is not certain that they represent language. Most actual texts are found as monumental inscriptions in stone, though

5244-417: The title of an English almanac. A 1652 ephemeris may be the first instance found so far of the English use of "Christian Era". The English phrase "Common Era" appears at least as early as 1708, and in a 1715 book on astronomy it is used interchangeably with "Christian Era" and "Vulgar Era". A 1759 history book uses common æra in a generic sense, to refer to "the common era of the Jews". The first use of

5320-497: The traditional Jewish designations – B.C.E. and C.E. – cast a wider net of inclusion." In the World History Encyclopedia , Joshua J. Mark wrote "Non-Christian scholars, especially, embraced [CE and BCE] because they could now communicate more easily with the Christian community. Jewish, Islamic, Hindu and Buddhist scholars could retain their [own] calendar but refer to events using

5396-500: The valency vowel and the person suffixes, participates in the construction of several modal forms: 1. An optative form, also regularly used in clauses introduced with ašə "when", is constructed by -l- followed by -ə ( -i in non-reduced form) - the following absolutive person suffix is optional, and the ergative subject is apparently not signalled at all: e.g. qapqar-u-l-i-nə "I wanted to besiege-it [the city]", urp-u-l-i-nə or urp-u-l-ə "he shall slaughter". 2. A conditional

5472-855: The year number. Unlike AD, which still often precedes the year number, CE always follows the year number (if context requires that it be written at all). Thus, the current year is written as 2024 in both notations (or, if further clarity is needed, as 2024 CE, or as AD 2024), and the year that Socrates died is represented as 399 BCE (the same year that is represented by 399 BC in the BC/AD notation). The abbreviations are sometimes written with small capital letters, or with periods (e.g., " B.C.E. " or "C.E."). The US-based Society of Biblical Literature style guide for academic texts on religion prefers BCE/CE to BC/AD. Anatolian hieroglyphs Anatolian hieroglyphs are an indigenous logographic script native to central Anatolia , consisting of some 500 signs. They were once commonly known as Hittite hieroglyphs , but

5548-431: Was commonly on the next-to-the-last syllable. In the morphonology , various morpheme combinations trigger syncope : * ar-it-u-mə → artumə , * zaditumə → zatumə , * ebani-ne-lə → ebanelə , * turul(e)yə → tul(e)yə . The morphemes which may occur in a noun follow a strict order: All nouns appear to end in a so-called thematic vowel - most frequently -i or -e , but -a and -u also occur. They may also end in

5624-508: Was deciphered in 1882 by A. H. Sayce . The oldest of these inscriptions is from the time of Sarduri I of Urartu. Decipherment only made progress after World War I , with the discovery of Urartian-Assyrian bilingual inscriptions at Kelišin and Topzawä. In 1963, a grammar of Urartian was published by G. A. Melikishvili in Russian , appearing in German translation in 1971. In the 1970s,

5700-584: Was faithfully represented in Urartian writing, except for the “emphatic” /pʼ/ which the Semitic-based cuneiform writing system did not have a distinct symbol for. Their values are confirmed by loans in Armenian. Urartian voiceless stops and affricates were loaned as voiceless aspirates in Armenian, while Urartian “emphatic” stops are found as unaspirated voiceless stops in Armenian. E.g., Urartian ul-ṭu ‘camel’ ↦ Armenian ուղտ ułt , Urartian ṣu-(ú-)pa- ‘ Sophene (toponym) ’ ↦ Armenian Ծոփ- Copʰ- . Contrasting

5776-570: Was loaned into Armenian as /s/: Urartian ša-ni ‘kettle’ ↦ Armenian սան san ( ultimately from Sumerian via Akkadian ). The precise phonetics of “emphasis” is not recoverable. It possibly may have been ejectivization or glottalization /pʼ, tʼ, t͡sʼ, kʼ/ as in Semitic languages of the time and the nearby endemic languages of the Caucasus, or just plain unaspirated (and unvoiced) /p⁼, t⁼, t͡s⁼, k⁼/ as in Armenian, in either case, contrasting fully with

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