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58-654: Urburschenschaft was founded in 1815 at the University of Jena in Jena , Thuringia , in Germany . It formed when the university's existing Seniors' Convention of Landsmannschaft dissolved the convention and reformed as the first Burschenschaft . Its founders wanted to abolish regional student groups and organize all students ( Burschen ) into a unified Burschenschaft. The group supported liberal and nationalistic ideas such as abolishing Germany's small states and creating

116-457: A commitment to some version of the "transcendental method". In England, during the nineteenth century, philosopher Thomas Hill Green embraced German Idealism in order to support Christian monotheism as a basis for morality. His philosophy attempted to account for an eternal consciousness or mind that was similar to Berkeley 's concept of God . John Rodman, in the introduction to his book on Thomas Hill Green's political theory, wrote: "Green

174-457: A foothold open for skepticism within the framework of Kant’s own philosophy. For now the question arose how two such heterogeneous realms as the intellectual and the sensible could be known to correspond with one another. The problem was no longer how we know that our representations correspond with things in themselves but how we know that a priori concepts apply to a posteriori intuitions. Maimon attempted to resolve this problem by introducing

232-463: A philosophical position, idealism claims that the true objects of knowledge are "ideal," meaning mind-dependent, as opposed to material. The term stems from Plato's view that the " Ideas ," the categories or concepts which our mind abstracts from our empirical experience of particular things, are more real than the particulars themselves, which depend on the Ideas rather than the Ideas depending on them. In

290-610: A positive doctrine: " transcendental idealism ", which is distinct from classical idealism and subjective idealism . On this view, the world of appearances is "empirically real and transcendentally ideal." That is, the mind plays a central role in shaping our experience of the world: we perceive phenomena in time and space according to the categories of the understanding . The best-known German idealist thinkers, after Kant, are J. G. Fichte , F. W. J. Schelling , and G. W. F. Hegel . Critics of Kant's project such as F. H. Jacobi , Gottlob Ernst Schulze , and Salomon Maimon influenced

348-452: A result. Immanuel Kant 's work purports to bridge the two dominant philosophical schools in the 18th century: rationalism , which holds that knowledge could be attained by reason alone a priori (prior to experience), and empiricism , which holds that knowledge could be arrived at only through the senses a posteriori (after experience), as expressed by philosopher David Hume , whose skepticism Kant sought to rebut. Kant's solution

406-459: A similar function. Hegel claimed that "You are either a Spinozist or not a philosopher at all". Neo-Kantianism emphasizes the critical dimension of Kant's philosophy as against the perceived excesses of German Idealism. It was the dominant philosophy in Germany during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Although there was considerable disagreement among the neo-Kantians themselves, they shared

464-529: A stately house". A verse from the song is, "The ribbon was cut, it was black, red and gold, and God suffered it, who knows what he wanted!" This cemented the association of these colors with the fraternity and the German democracy movement. Later, the Urburschenschaft flag's colors were the basis of the national colours of Germany . One of its first members was Heinrich von Gagern , the president of

522-507: A united Germany. This was a concept promoted by Jakob Friedrich Fries , a lecturer at the University of Jena at the time. Urburschenschaft had 859 active student members, about sixty percent of all the students at the University of Jena from the summer of 1815 to the winter semester of 1819–1820. At other German universities, Burschenschaften were founded in the early 19th century as associations of university students were inspired by

580-568: Is a function of certain "regulative" ideals (such as the drive to reduce our experience of external plurality and multiplicity to a minimum of fundamental laws, forces, and beings). For the critical idealist, it is simply not possible to know whether living things are ultimately teleological or mechanical, or something else entirely. Kant's successors agreed with Kant that the subject in its ordinary state lacks immediate knowledge of external reality (as in naive realism ), and that empirical knowledge based on sense data ultimately tells us only about

638-454: Is a real object in the external world that is related to its subjective representation. This belief is a result of revelation or immediately known, but logically unproved, truth. The real existence of a thing-in-itself is revealed or disclosed to the observing subject. In this way, the subject directly knows the ideal, subjective representations that appear in the mind, and strongly believes in the real, objective thing-in-itself that exists outside

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696-477: Is a university association with the Martin Luther University of Halle-Wittenberg and the University of Leipzig . The aim is firstly to give the students the opportunity to visit with relatively few problems at the partner universities and events in order to broaden the range of subjects and topics. Currently e. g. has joined a cooperation in teaching in the field of bioinformatics. In addition,

754-522: Is affiliated with six Nobel Prize winners, most recently in 2000 when Jena graduate Herbert Kroemer won the Nobel Prize for physics. It was renamed after the poet Friedrich Schiller who was teaching as professor of philosophy when Jena attracted some of the most influential minds at the turn of the 19th century. With Karl Leonhard Reinhold , Johann Gottlieb Fichte , G. W. F. Hegel , F. W. J. Schelling and Friedrich Schlegel on its teaching staff,

812-402: Is best seen as an exponent of German idealism as an answer to the dilemma posed by the discrediting of Christianity...." "German idealism was initially introduced to the broader community of American literati through a Vermont intellectual, James Marsh . Studying theology with Moses Stuart at Andover Seminary in the early 1820s, Marsh sought a Christian theology that would 'keep alive

870-497: Is distinguished in consciousness by the subject from the subject and object, and is referred to both." He thereby started, not from definitions, but, from a principle that referred to representations in a conscious mind. In this way, he analyzed knowledge into (1) the knowing subject, or observer, (2) the known object, and (3) the image or representation in the subject's mind. Gottlob Ernst Schulze objected to Kant's critical philosophy as self-contradictory. According to Kant himself,

928-457: Is ideal or mental, as in Platonism. They often viewed Kant's transcendental or critical idealism as a necessary and admirable critique of philosophical "dogmatism," but as leaving the critique of knowledge unfinished, in an intolerable state of dualism, agnosticism, and even nihilism. The post-Kantian German idealists have often been described as monists , emanationists , and nondualists as

986-634: Is recognized in several university ranking systems. As per the QS World University Rankings for 2024, the university is ranked 461st in the world and 26th nationally. In the Times Higher Education World University Rankings of 2024, it is placed at 201-250th globally and 22-24th within the country. The Academic Ranking of World Universities (ARWU) for 2022 places it within the 401-500 bracket globally, and between 25th and 31st in

1044-603: The Frankfurt Parliament from 1848 to 1849. University of Jena The University of Jena , officially the Friedrich Schiller University Jena ( German : Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena , abbreviated FSU , shortened form Uni Jena ), is a public research university located in Jena , Thuringia , Germany . The university was established in 1558 and is counted among the ten oldest universities in Germany . It

1102-456: The 20th century the university was promoted through cooperation with Carl Zeiss (company) and thereby enabling it to increase the student population as a mass university. In 1905 the university had 1,100 students and 112 university teachers, so this figure has since been almost twenty-fold. The Friedrich-Schiller University is the only comprehensive university in Thuringia. Since 1995, there

1160-436: The 20th century, university enrollment peaked in the 18th century. The university's reputation reached its zenith under the auspices of Duke Charles Augustus , Goethe 's patron (1787–1806), when Gottlieb Fichte , G. W. F. Hegel , Friedrich Schelling , Friedrich von Schlegel and Friedrich Schiller were on its teaching staff. Founded as a home for the new religious opinions of the sixteenth century, it has since been one of

1218-636: The Bachstraße received total or significant physical damage. Completely destroyed were the Botanical Garden, the psychological and the physiological institute and three chemical Institutes. An important event for the National Socialist period was the investigation of the pediatrician Yusuf Ibrahim . A Senate Commission noted the participation of the physician to the "euthanasia" murders of physically or mentally disabled children. In

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1276-634: The Enlightenment were developed as research institutions. 2014 the "Center of Advanced Research" (ZAF) was established. Jena University is one of the founder of The German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research (iDiv) Halle-Jena-Leipzig, that was founded in 2013. It is a research centre of the German Research Foundation (DFG). Friedrich Schiller University is the only German university with chairs for either gravitational theory or Caucasus Studies. The University of Jena

1334-526: The Fichte's "I" needs the Not-I, because there is no subject without object, and vice versa. So subjective representations are identical to the extended objects which are external to the mind. According to Schelling's "absolute identity" or "indifferentism", there is no difference between the subjective and the objective, that is, the ideal and the real. Friedrich Schleiermacher was a theologian who asserted that

1392-570: The Goethe Memorial at the Botanical Garden are reminders of the two towering geniuses of Jena . Both buildings are also open to the public. Oriental Collections/ Papyrus Collection Archaeological Collections Mineralogy & Geology History of Sciences Medicine German idealism German idealism is a philosophical movement that emerged in Germany in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. It developed out of

1450-676: The Jena Burschenschaft had been fighting in the Lützow Free Corps during the Wars of Liberation ; uniforms of the Royal Prussian Free Corps von Lützow were black, with red trim, and golden-colored brass buttons. Its flag was Red-Black-Red with a gold oak leaf in its center and gold fringe on its edges. When Urburschenschaft became defunct in 1819, Daniel August von Binzer wrote the song "We had built

1508-478: The Jena Landsmannschaft reformed in 1820, including Corps Franconia-Jena zu Regensburg, Corps Saxonia Jena, and Corps Thuringia Jena. Originally, Urburschenschaft's couleurs were from the state flag by the elder Reuss noble line in 1778 , because the group used that flag. Having no known connections to that event, Urburschenschaft changed its couleurs to Black-Red-Gold. Many founding members of

1566-479: The absolute transcendental entity which is God. Salomon Maimon influenced German idealism by criticizing Kant's dichotomies, claiming that Kant did not explain how opposites such as sensibility and understanding could relate to each other. As he clearly saw, this presented a serious skeptical objection to the Kantian project: By thus pointing out these problematic dualisms, Maimon and the neo- Humean critics left

1624-443: The awakening of self-consciousness. Thus Hegel introduced two important ideas to metaphysics and philosophy: the integral importance of history and intersubjectivity . Hegel also claims to sublate the traditional concept of God with his concept of absolute spirit . Baruch Spinoza , who changed the anthropomorphic concept of God into that of an underlying substance, was praised by Hegel whose concept of absolute knowing fulfilled

1682-412: The case of "spiritual" insights that cannot be observed, shared, and tested reliably and repeatably, and thus cannot form the basis of abstract laws about regularities in nature. In developing these claims, philosophers like Fichte, Schelling, and Hegel further argued that the mind-dependence of all possible experience entails a form of absolute idealism , the position that the ultimate nature of reality

1740-436: The categorial or conceptual scheme which our own mind necessarily supplies to all our experience. We do not peer into the structure of external reality itself, as Plato believed. It remains forever inaccessible to us. Kant's idealism is therefore "transcendental" or "critical," in that it examines the categorial (transcendental) structure of possible knowledge in order to trace all knowledge claims back to their foundations in

1798-441: The concept of "infinite mind". For this reason, Maimon can be said to have returned to pre-Kantian transcendent speculation. In the words of Frederick C. Beiser , "by reviving metaphysical ideas from within the problematic of the critical philosophy, he gave them a new legitimacy and opened up the possibility for a critical resurrection of metaphysics. Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel responded to Kant's philosophy by suggesting that

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1856-578: The context of German idealism, the term is ambiguous because it was used in different ways by Kant and his successors, chief among them Fichte, Schelling, and Hegel. For Kant, our knowledge of external reality must conform to how our experience of this reality is structured by our own minds in the very act of receiving information or stimuli from it (e.g., sense data). When we abstract from the particulars, for example to discover physical forces underlying them or logical laws without which speech and thought would be contradictory or impossible, we merely "discover"

1914-572: The cooperation provides the university management the opportunity to share experiences with their regular meetings and initiate common projects. So z. B. went from the successful bid to the German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research (iDiv) from the university network. The co-operation continues at other levels: for example in a joint mentoring program for female postdocs or in the central German archives network. And last but not least, there are common sports activities. Since October 2014,

1972-490: The direction the movement would take in the philosophies of his would-be successors. According to Immanuel Kant , the human mind is not capable of directly experiencing the external world as it is in itself. Instead, our experience of the world is mediated by the a priori categories and concepts that are inherent in the human mind. These categories and concepts, which Kant calls "transcendental" because they are necessary for any experience, structure and organize our experience of

2030-586: The heart in the head.' " Some American theologians and churchmen found value in German Idealism's theological concept of the infinite Absolute Ideal or Geist [Spirit]. It provided a religious alternative to the traditional Christian concept of the Deity . The Absolute Ideal Weltgeist [World Spirit] was invoked by American ministers as they "turned to German idealism in the hope of finding comfort against English positivism and empiricism." German idealism

2088-461: The ideal and the real are united in God. He understood the ideal as the subjective mental activities of thought, intellect, and reason. The real was, for him, the objective area of nature and physical being. Schleiermacher declared that the unity of the ideal and the real is manifested in God. The two divisions do not have a productive or causal effect on each other. Rather, they are both equally existent in

2146-413: The ideals of the liberal and nationalistic ideas of Urburschenschaft. Its motto was Ehre, Freiheit, Vaterland or “Honor, Freedom, Fatherland”. Despite its success at Jena, the group was unsuccessful in achieving its goal of establishing a single student fraternity for all universities. In 1819, Urburschenschaft split into three fraternities: Arminia Jena, Germania Jena, and Teutonia Jena. In addition,

2204-513: The latter 19th century, the department of zoology taught evolutionary theory , with Carl Gegenbaur , Ernst Haeckel and others publishing detailed theories at the time of Darwin 's " Origin of Species " (1858). The later fame of Ernst Haeckel eclipsed Darwin in some European countries, as the term "Haeckelism" was more common than Darwinism . In 1905, Jena had 1,100 students enrolled and its teaching staff (including Privatdozenten ) numbered 112. Amongst its numerous auxiliaries then were

2262-400: The law of cause and effect only applies to the phenomena, not between phenomena and things-in-themselves. Yet, Kant directly claims that the thing-in-itself is the cause of phenomena. After Schulze had seriously criticized the notion of a thing-in-itself, Johann Gottlieb Fichte produced a philosophy similar to Kant's, but without a thing-in-itself. Fichte asserted that our representations are

2320-665: The library, with 200,000 volumes; the observatory; the meteorological institute; the botanical garden; the seminaries of theology, philology, and education; and the well-equipped clinical, anatomical, and physical institutes. After the end of the Saxon duchies in 1918, and their merger with further principalities into the Free State of Thuringia in 1920, the university was renamed as the Thuringian State University (Thüringische Landesuniversität) in 1921. In 1934

2378-621: The mind. By presenting the external world as an object of belief, Jacobi aimed to legitimize belief – or faith – in general. Karl Leonhard Reinhold published two volumes of Letters Concerning the Kantian Philosophy in 1790 and 1792. He tried to prove Kant's assertion that humans and other animals can know only phenomena, never things-in-themselves. In order to establish his proof, Reinhold stated an axiom that could not possibly be doubted. From this axiom, all knowledge of consciousness could be deduced. His axiom was: "Representation

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2436-466: The most politically radical universities in Germany. Jena was noted among other German universities at the time for allowing students to duel and to have a passion for Freiheit , which were popularly regarded as the necessary characteristics of German student life. The University of Jena has preserved a historical detention room or Karzer with famous caricatures by Swiss painter Martin Disteli . In

2494-730: The national context. Among the collections which are open to the public are the Jena Phyletisches Museum , an institution which is unique in Europe for illustrating the history of evolution, the Ernst-Haeckel-Memorial Museum , the Mineralogical Collection which traces its roots back to Goethe and the second oldest Botanical Garden of Middle Europe . The Schiller Gardenhouse  [ de ] ( Schillers Gartenhaus ) and

2552-419: The pharmacologist Walter Rosenthal is the president of the university; Chancellor is since 2007 the mathematician Klaus Bartholmé. The university is organized in 10 schools: Research at Friedrich Schiller University traditionally focusses on both humanities and sciences. In addition to the faculties the following "Collaborative Research Centers" ( German "Sonderforschungsbereich", short: "SFB") operate at

2610-418: The productions of the "transcendental ego", that is, the knowing subject. For him, there is no external thing-in-itself. On the contrary, the subject is the source of the external thing, object, or non-ego. Fichte claimed that this truth was apparent by means of intellectual intuition. That is, the truth can be immediately seen by the use of reason. Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling (1775–1854) claimed that

2668-429: The subject's own categorial framework. For example, Kant argues that teleological interpretations of homeostasis and autopoiesis in living things, though seemingly observable and thus empirically provable (or at least probable), are a function of our own subjective constitution projecting certain of its notions onto organized matter. Conversely, Kant makes the same critical claim about materialist reductionism, as it too

2726-405: The subject's own categorial organization of this data. But they often interpreted this Kantian limitation on ordinary knowledge as a challenge, to be met by a more complete theory of knowledge. Attempts at such a theory often centered on special forms of intuition which Kant either deemed impossible or denied as appropriate foundations for knowledge in the strict and systematic sense, for example in

2784-758: The transfer of power and won great support among the student body elections in January 1933, achieving 49.3% of the vote, which represents the second best result. Between the Jena connections and the NS students wide-ranging human and ideological connections were recorded. When the Allied air raids to Jena in February and March struck in 1945, the University Library, the university main building and several clinics in

2842-435: The university was at the centre of the emergence of German idealism and early Romanticism . As of 2014 , the university has around 19,000 students enrolled and 375 professors. Its current president, Walter Rosenthal , has held the role since 2014. Elector John Frederick of Saxony first thought of a plan to establish a university at Jena upon Saale in 1547 while he was being held captive by emperor Charles V . The plan

2900-500: The university was renamed again, receiving its present name of Friedrich Schiller University . During the 20th century, the cooperation between Zeiss corporation and the university brought new prosperity and attention to Jena, resulting in a dramatic increase in funding and enrollment. During the Third Reich, staunch Nazis moved into leading positions at the university. The racial researcher and SS-Hauptscharführer Karl Astel

2958-662: The university: Participations in DFG-Collaborative Research Centres: In 2006 the research center, Jena Center – History of the 20th century, was founded. In 2007 the graduate school "Jena School for Microbial Communication" (JSMC) was established within the German Universities Excellence Initiative . In 2008 the Center for Molecular Biomedicine (CMB) and the interdisciplinary research center Laboratory of

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3016-416: The unsolvable contradictions given by Kant in his Antinomies of Pure Reason applied more broadly to reality as such. Given that abstract thought is thus limited, he went on to consider how historical formations give rise to different philosophies and ways of thinking. In The Phenomenology of Spirit , he went on to trace formations of self-consciousness through history and the importance of other people in

3074-499: The work of Immanuel Kant in the 1780s and 1790s, and was closely linked both with Romanticism and the revolutionary politics of the Enlightenment . The period of German idealism after Kant is also known as post-Kantian idealism or simply post-Kantianism . One scheme divides German idealists into transcendental idealists , associated with Kant and Fichte, and absolute idealists , associated with Schelling and Hegel. As

3132-515: The world is mediated by the structures of our own minds. Kant restricted the domain of knowledge to objects of possible experience. His three most notable successors, however, would react against such stringent limits. In 1787, Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi addressed, in his book On Faith, or Idealism and Realism , Kant's concept of "thing-in-itself". Jacobi agreed that the objective thing-in-itself cannot be directly known. However, he stated, it must be taken on belief. A subject must believe that there

3190-435: The world, but they do not provide us with direct access to the thing-in-itself, which is the ultimate reality. Kant's transcendental idealism has two main components. The first is the idea that the human mind is not a passive recipient of sensory information, but is actively involved in shaping our experience of the world. The second is the idea that the nature of reality is ultimately unknowable to us, because our experience of

3248-751: Was appointed professor in 1933, bypassing traditional qualifications and process; he later became rector of the university in 1939. Also in 1933, many professors had to leave the university as a consequence of the Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service . Student fraternities – in particular the Burschenschaften – were dissolved and incorporated into the Nazi student federation. The Nazi student federation enjoyed before

3306-553: Was put into motion by his three sons and, after having obtained a charter from the Emperor Ferdinand I , the university was established on 2 February 1558. The university, jointly maintained by the Saxon Duchies derived from the partitioning of John Frederick's duchy, was thus named Ducal Pan-Saxon University ( German : Herzoglich Sächsische Gesamtuniversität ) or Salana (after the river Saale ). Prior to

3364-407: Was to propose that, while we depend on objects of experience to know anything about the world, we can investigate a priori the form that our thoughts can take, determining the boundaries of possible experience. Kant calls this approach " critical philosophy ". It is less concerned with setting out positive doctrine than with critiquing the limits to the theories we can set out. There is, however,

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