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61-481: In 2011, 2012, 2013 and 2014 Vupen won first prize in the hacking contest Pwn2Own , most notably in 2012 by exploiting a bug in Google Chrome . Their decision not to reveal the details of the vulnerability to Google , but rather to sell them, was controversial. Unlike in 2012, during Pwn2Own 2014, Vupen decided to reveal to the affected vendors, including Google, all its exploits and technical details regarding

122-483: A nuclear attack was taking place. During these incidents, Pacific Air Forces (PACAF) properly had their planes loaded with nuclear bombs in the air. Strategic Air Command (SAC) did not and received criticism, because they did not follow procedure, even though the SAC command knew these were almost certainly false alarms , as did PACAF. Both command posts had recently begun receiving and processing direct reports from

183-636: A SAGE AN/FSQ-7 Combat Direction Central computer was constructed from 1959 to 1963. Each of the USAF's eight smaller AN/FSQ-8 Combat Control Central systems provided NORAD with data and could command the entire United States air defense. The RCAF's 1950 "ground observer system, the Long Range Air Raid Warning System ", was discontinued. In January 1959, the United States Ground Observer Corps

244-417: A client, or while working for a security company that makes security software. The term is generally synonymous with ethical hacker , and certifications, courseware, classes, and online training covering the diverse arena of ethical hacking have been developed. A black hat hacker is a hacker who "violates computer security for little reason beyond maliciousness or for personal gain" (Moore, 2005). The term

305-491: A continuum of aerospace control missions, which include daily air sovereignty in peacetime, contingency and deterrence in time of tension, and active air defense against manned and unmanned air-breathing atmospheric vehicles in times of crisis. ANR is supported by both active duty and reserve units. Active duty forces are provided by 11 AF and the Canadian Armed Forces (CAF), and reserve forces provided by

366-423: A hacker is someone who focuses on the security mechanisms of computer and network systems. Hackers can include someone who endeavors to strengthen security mechanisms by exploring their weaknesses and also those who seek to access secure, unauthorized information despite security measures. Nevertheless, parts of the subculture see their aim in correcting security problems and use the word in a positive sense. White hat

427-430: A kind of credibility on their members. A script kiddie (also known as a skid or skiddie ) is an unskilled hacker who breaks into computer systems by using automated tools written by others (usually by other black hat hackers), hence the term script (i.e. a computer script that automates the hacking) kiddie (i.e. kid, child an individual lacking knowledge and experience, immature), usually with little understanding of

488-414: A series of security briefing events. A hacktivist is a hacker who utilizes technology to publicize a social, ideological, religious or political message. Hacktivism can be divided into two main groups: Intelligence agencies and cyberwarfare operatives of nation states. Groups of hackers that carry out organized criminal activities for profit. Modern-day computer hackers have been compared to

549-528: A team to a prominent convention to compete in group pentesting, exploit and forensics on a larger scale. Hacker groups became popular in the early 1980s, providing access to hacking information and resources and a place to learn from other members. Computer bulletin board systems (BBSs), such as the Utopias, provided platforms for information-sharing via dial-up modem. Hackers could also gain credibility by being affiliated with elite groups. Maximum imprisonment

610-463: A technician in NORAD loaded a test tape, but failed to switch the system status to "test", causing a stream of constant false warnings to spread to two " continuity of government " bunkers as well as command posts worldwide. On 3 June 1980, and again on 6 June 1980, a computer communications device failure caused warning messages to sporadically flash in U.S. Air Force command posts around the world that

671-584: Is a setting of the 1983 film WarGames and the television series Jeremiah and Stargate SG-1 . In the 2014 film Interstellar , NORAD dissolves and its headquarters is converted for NASA . In season 25 episode 4 of the TV series South Park , NORAD is hacked into by Mr Mackey using late 1980s computer hardware. As a publicity move on 24 December 1955, NORAD's predecessor, the Continental Air Defense Command (CONAD), informed

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732-680: Is at McChord Field , Washington. Both maintain continuous surveillance of CONUS airspace. In its role as the CONUS NORAD Region, 1 AF/CONR-AFNORTH also performs counter-drug surveillance operations. The North American Air Defense Command was recommended by the Joint Canadian–U.S. Military Group in late 1956, approved by the U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff in February 1957, and announced in August 1957. NORAD's command headquarters

793-702: Is divided into two sectors, the Canada East Sector and Canada West Sector. Both Sector Operations Control Centers (SOCCs) are co-located at CFB North Bay , Ontario. The routine operation of the SOCCs includes reporting track data, sensor status and aircraft alert status to NORAD headquarters. In 1996, CANR was renamed 1 Canadian Air Division and moved to CFB Winnipeg . Canadian air defense forces assigned to NORAD include 409 Tactical Fighter Squadron at CFB Cold Lake , Alberta and 425 Tactical Fighter Squadron at CFB Bagotville , Quebec. All squadrons fly

854-653: Is headed by its commander , who is a four-star general or admiral in the United States Armed Forces . The deputy commander is a Royal Canadian Air Force lieutenant general . Prior to the 1968 unification of the Canadian Forces , the deputy commander was an RCAF air marshal . The commander is responsible to the Government of Canada (the Crown - in-Council ), through the chief of

915-597: Is located at Tyndall Air Force Base , Florida. The First Air Force (1 AF) became responsible for the USAF air defense mission in September 1990. AFNORTH is the United States Air Force component of United States Northern Command (NORTHCOM). 1 AF/CONR-AFNORTH comprises Air National Guard Fighter Wings assigned an air defense mission to 1 AF/CONR-AFNORTH on federal orders, made up primarily of citizen Airmen. The primary weapons systems are

976-477: Is often referred to as the "computer underground". The subculture around such hackers is termed network hacker subculture, hacker scene, or computer underground. It initially developed in the context of phreaking during the 1960s and the microcomputer BBS scene of the 1980s. It is implicated with 2600: The Hacker Quarterly and the alt.2600 newsgroup. In 1980, an article in the August issue of Psychology Today (with commentary by Philip Zimbardo ) used

1037-468: Is one year or a fine of the fourth category. 18 U.S.C.   § 1030 , more commonly known as the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act , prohibits unauthorized access or damage of "protected computers". "Protected computers" are defined in 18 U.S.C.   § 1030(e)(2) as: The maximum imprisonment or fine for violations of the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act depends on the severity of

1098-720: Is referred to as hacktivism . Some consider illegal cracking ethically justified for these goals; a common form is website defacement . The computer underground is frequently compared to the Wild West. It is common for hackers to use aliases to conceal their identities. The computer underground is supported by regular real-world gatherings called hacker conventions or "hacker cons". These events include SummerCon (Summer), DEF CON , HoHoCon (Christmas), ShmooCon (February), Black Hat Conference , Chaos Communication Congress , AthCon, Hacker Halted, and H.O.P.E. Local Hackfest groups organize and compete to develop their skills to send

1159-468: Is someone who explores methods for breaching defenses and exploiting weaknesses in a computer system or network . Hackers may be motivated by a multitude of reasons, such as profit, protest, information gathering, challenge, recreation, or evaluation of a system weaknesses to assist in formulating defenses against potential hackers. Longstanding controversy surrounds the meaning of the term " hacker ". In this controversy, computer programmers reclaim

1220-632: Is the component of NORAD that provides airspace surveillance and control and directs air sovereignty activities for the Contiguous United States (CONUS). Since the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001 , CONR has been the lead agency for Operation Noble Eagle , an ongoing mission to protect the continental United States from airborne attacks. CONR is the NORAD designation of the United States Air Force First Air Force /AFNORTH. Its headquarters

1281-429: Is the name given to ethical computer hackers, who utilize hacking in a helpful way. White hats are becoming a necessary part of the information security field. They operate under a code, which acknowledges that breaking into other people's computers is bad, but that discovering and exploiting security mechanisms and breaking into computers is still an interesting activity that can be done ethically and legally. Accordingly,

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1342-557: Is very common. NORAD Turquoise North American Aerospace Defense Command ( NORAD / ˈ n ɔːr æ d / ), known until March 1981 as the North American Air Defense Command , is a combined organization of the United States and Canada that provides aerospace warning, air sovereignty, and protection for Canada and the continental United States . Headquarters for NORAD and

1403-591: The Alaska Air National Guard . Both 11 AF and the CAF provide active duty personnel to the ROCC to maintain continuous surveillance of Alaskan airspace. Canadian NORAD Region Headquarters is at CFB Winnipeg , Manitoba. It was established on 22 April 1983. It is responsible for providing surveillance and control of Canadian airspace. The Royal Canadian Air Force provides alert assets to NORAD. CANR

1464-695: The Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) placed the Ent Air Force Base Space Detection and Tracking System (496L System with Philco 2000 Model 212 computer) "under the operational control of CINCNORAD ", during the Cheyenne Mountain nuclear bunker excavation, and the joint SAC-NORAD exercise " Sky Shield II". In September 1962—"Sky Shield III" were conducted for mock penetration of NORAD sectors. In 1963, NORAD command center operations moved from Ent Air Force Base to

1525-759: The McDonnell Douglas CF-18 Hornet fighter aircraft. To monitor for drug trafficking, the Canadian NORAD Region monitors all air traffic approaching the coast of Canada, in cooperation with the Royal Canadian Mounted Police and the United States drug law enforcement agencies. Any aircraft that has not filed a flight plan may be directed to land and be inspected by RCMP and Canada Border Services Agency . The Continental NORAD Region (CONR)

1586-550: The McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle and General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon aircraft. It plans, conducts, controls, coordinates and ensures air sovereignty and provides for the unilateral defense of the United States. A combined First Air Force command post is at Tyndall Air Force Base. The US East ROCC ( Eastern Air Defense Sector ), Sector Operations Control Center (SOCC) is at Rome, New York . The US West ROCC ( Western Air Defense Sector ) control center

1647-466: The United States and Canada , including those of Los Alamos National Laboratory , Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center and Security Pacific Bank . The case quickly grew media attention, and 17-year-old Neal Patrick emerged as the spokesman for the gang, including a cover story in Newsweek entitled "Beware: Hackers at play", with Patrick's photograph on the cover. The Newsweek article appears to be

1708-456: The privateers of by-gone days. These criminals hold computer systems hostage, demanding large payments from victims to restore access to their own computer systems and data. Furthermore, recent ransomware attacks on industries, including energy, food, and transportation, have been blamed on criminal organizations based in or near a state actor – possibly with the country's knowledge and approval. Cyber theft and ransomware attacks are now

1769-717: The "ADCOM" specified command under the same commander as NORAD, e.g., HQ NORAD/ADCOM J31 manned the Space Surveillance Center. In 1982, a NORAD Off-site Test Facility was located at Peterson AFB. The DEW Line was to be replaced with the North Warning System (NWS), the Over-the-Horizon Backscatter (OTH-B) radar was to be deployed, more advanced fighters were deployed, and E-3 Sentry AWACS aircraft were planned for greater use. These recommendations were accepted by

1830-623: The Defence Staff , and to the Government of the United States , via the chairman of the joint chiefs of staff . The commander and deputy are each subject to their respective country's laws, policies, and directives. Per the Canadian National Defence Act , the chief of the Defence Staff relays orders from the Crown-in-Council, collectively, or guidance from the minister of national defence , alone, to

1891-578: The House that year. As a result of these laws against computer criminality, white hat, grey hat and black hat hackers try to distinguish themselves from each other, depending on the legality of their activities. These moral conflicts are expressed in The Mentor 's " The Hacker Manifesto ", published 1986 in Phrack . Use of the term hacker meaning computer criminal was also advanced by the title "Stalking

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1952-697: The NORAD/ United States Northern Command (USNORTHCOM) center are located at Peterson Space Force Base in El Paso County , near Colorado Springs, Colorado . The nearby Cheyenne Mountain Complex has the Alternate Command Center. The NORAD commander and deputy commander are, respectively, a United States four-star general or equivalent and a Canadian lieutenant-general or equivalent. NORAD

2013-529: The North American landmass into three regions: Both the CONR and CANR regions are divided into eastern and western sectors. The Alaskan NORAD Region (ANR) maintains continuous capability to detect, validate and warn off any atmospheric threat in its area of operations from its Regional Operations Control Center (ROCC) at Joint Base Elmendorf–Richardson , Alaska. ANR maintains the readiness to conduct

2074-864: The North Warning System. The Cheyenne Mountain site was upgraded, but none of the proposed OTH-B radars are currently in operation. After the September 11 attacks , the NORAD Air Warning Center's mission included the interior airspace of North America. The Cheyenne Mountain Realignment was announced in July 2006, to consolidate NORAD's day-to-day operations at Peterson Air Force Base . Cheyenne Mountain remains on "warm standby", staffed with support personnel. The NORAD command center located under Cheyenne Mountain , Colorado

2135-768: The United States started the Continental Air Defense Integration North (CADIN) for the Semi-Automatic Ground Environment air defense network. The initial CADIN cost-sharing agreement between the two countries was signed in January 1959. Two December 1958 plans submitted by NORAD had "average yearly expenditure of around five and one half billions", including "cost of the accelerated Nike Zeus program" and three Ballistic Missile Early Warning System (BMEWS) sites. Canada's NORAD bunker at CFB North Bay with

2196-630: The Wily Hacker", an article by Clifford Stoll in the May 1988 issue of the Communications of the ACM . Later that year, the release by Robert Tappan Morris, Jr. of the so-called Morris worm provoked the popular media to spread this usage. The popularity of Stoll's book The Cuckoo's Egg , published one year later, further entrenched the term in the public's consciousness. In computer security,

2257-952: The attacks. A typical approach in an attack on Internet-connected system is: In order to do so, there are several recurring tools of the trade and techniques used by computer criminals and security experts. A security exploit is a prepared application that takes advantage of a known weakness. Common examples of security exploits are SQL injection , cross-site scripting and cross-site request forgery which abuse security holes that may result from substandard programming practice. Other exploits would be able to be used through File Transfer Protocol (FTP), Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), PHP , SSH , Telnet and some Web pages. These are very common in Web site and Web domain hacking. Tools and Procedures The computer underground has produced its own specialized slang, such as 1337speak . Writing software and performing other activities to support these views

2318-530: The company and moved to the US to start a new cybersecurity startup named Zerodium. On 23 July 2015, Vupen's founders launched their new cybersecurity company Zerodium in the US. The company has a different business model as it acquires zero-day capabilities from independent researchers and reports them, along with protective measures and security recommendations, to its government clients. Hacker (computer security) A security hacker or security researcher

2379-427: The computer underground should be called crackers. Yet, those people see themselves as hackers and even try to include the views of Raymond in what they see as a wider hacker culture, a view that Raymond has harshly rejected. Instead of a hacker/cracker dichotomy, they emphasize a spectrum of different categories, such as white hat , grey hat , black hat and script kiddie . In contrast to Raymond, they usually reserve

2440-446: The defect in a system and publish the facts to the world instead of a group of people. Even though grey hat hackers may not necessarily perform hacking for their personal gain, unauthorized access to a system can be considered illegal and unethical. A social status among hackers, elite is used to describe the most skilled. Newly discovered exploits circulate among these hackers. Elite groups such as Masters of Deception conferred

2501-533: The discovered vulnerabilities, which led to the release of various security updates from Adobe , Microsoft , Apple , Mozilla , and Google to address the reported flaws. Some years ago, Vupen was still providing information about vulnerabilities in software for free but then decided to monetize its services. "The software companies had their chance", said Vupen-founder Chaouki Bekrar according to an article in Die Ziet , "now it's too late". On 15 September 2013, it

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2562-416: The fastest-growing crimes in the United States. Bitcoin and other cryptocurrencies facilitate the extortion of huge ransoms from large companies, hospitals and city governments with little or no chance of being caught. Hackers can usually be sorted into two types of attacks: mass attacks and targeted attacks. They are sorted into the groups in terms of how they choose their victims and how they act on

2623-411: The first use of the word hacker by the mainstream media in the pejorative sense. Pressured by media coverage, congressman Dan Glickman called for an investigation and began work on new laws against computer hacking. Neal Patrick testified before the U.S. House of Representatives on September 26, 1983, about the dangers of computer hacking, and six bills concerning computer crime were introduced in

2684-487: The governments in 1985. The United States Space Command was formed in September 1985 as an adjunct, but not a component of NORAD. NORAD was renamed North American Aerospace Defense Command in March 1981. In 1989, NORAD operations expanded to cover counter-drug operations, for example, tracking of small aircraft entering and operating within the United States and Canada. DEW line sites were replaced between 1986 and 1995 by

2745-467: The officers of the Canadian Armed Forces . NORAD maintains a headquarters at Peterson Space Force Base near Colorado Springs, Colorado . The NORAD and USNORTHCOM Command Center at Peterson SFB serves as a central collection and coordination facility for a worldwide system of sensors designed to provide the commander and the leadership of Canada and the U.S. with an accurate picture of any aerospace or maritime threat. NORAD has administratively divided

2806-735: The operation of NORAD, On 1 January 1966, Air Force Systems Command turned the COC over to NORAD. The NORAD Cheyenne Mountain Complex was accepted on 8 February 1966. United States Department of Defense realignments for the NORAD command organization began on 15 November 1968 (e.g., Army Air Defense Command (ARADCOM)). By 1972, there were eight NORAD "regional areas ... for all air defense". The NORAD Cheyenne Mountain Complex Improvements Program (427M System) became operational in 1979. On at least three occasions, NORAD systems failed, such as on 9 November 1979, when

2867-659: The partially underground "Combined Operations Center" for Aerospace Defense Command and NORAD at the Chidlaw Building . President John F. Kennedy visited "NORAD headquarters" after the 5 June 1963 United States Air Force Academy graduation. On 30 October 1964, "NORAD began manning" the Combat Operations Center in the Cheyenne Mountain Complex . In 1965, about 250,000 United States and Canadian personnel were involved in

2928-508: The press that CONAD was tracking Santa Claus 's sleigh , adding that "CONAD, Army , Navy and Marine Air Forces will continue to track and guard Santa and his sleigh on his trip to and from the U.S. against possible attack from those who do not believe in Christmas". A Christmas Eve tradition was born, known as the " NORAD Tracks Santa " program. Every year on Christmas Eve , "NORAD Tracks Santa" purports to track Santa Claus as he leaves

2989-465: The public fears in a computer criminal". A grey hat hacker lies between a black hat and a white hat hacker, hacking for ideological reasons. A grey hat hacker may surf the Internet and hack into a computer system for the sole purpose of notifying the administrator that their system has a security defect, for example. They may then offer to correct the defect for a fee. Grey hat hackers sometimes find

3050-494: The term cracker for more malicious activity. According to Ralph D. Clifford, a cracker or cracking is to "gain unauthorized access to a computer in order to commit another crime such as destroying information contained in that system." These subgroups may also be defined by the legal status of their activities. A white hat hacker breaks security for non-malicious reasons, either to test their own security system, perform penetration tests or vulnerability assessments for

3111-441: The term hacker , arguing that it refers simply to someone with an advanced understanding of computers and computer networks, and that cracker is the more appropriate term for those who break into computers, whether computer criminals ( black hats ) or computer security experts ( white hats ). A 2014 article noted that "the black-hat meaning still prevails among the general public". The subculture that has evolved around hackers

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3172-580: The term "hacker" in its title: "The Hacker Papers." It was an excerpt from a Stanford Bulletin Board discussion on the addictive nature of computer use. In the 1982 film Tron , Kevin Flynn ( Jeff Bridges ) describes his intentions to break into ENCOM's computer system, saying "I've been doing a little hacking here." CLU is the software he uses for this. By 1983, hacking in the sense of breaking computer security had already been in use as computer jargon, but there

3233-414: The term bears strong connotations that are favorable or pejorative, depending on the context. Subgroups of the computer underground with different attitudes and motives use different terms to demarcate themselves from each other. These classifications are also used to exclude specific groups with whom they do not agree. Eric S. Raymond , author of The New Hacker's Dictionary , advocates that members of

3294-420: The underlying concept. A neophyte (" newbie ", or "noob") is someone who is new to hacking or phreaking and has almost no knowledge or experience of the workings of technology and hacking. A blue hat hacker is someone outside computer security consulting firms who is used to bug-test a system prior to its launch, looking for exploits so they can be closed. Microsoft also uses the term BlueHat to represent

3355-510: The various radar, satellite, and other missile attack detection systems, and those direct reports simply did not match the erroneous data received from NORAD. Following the 1979 Joint US-Canada Air Defense Study, the command structure for aerospace defense was changed, e.g., "SAC assumed control of ballistic missile warning and space surveillance facilities " on 1 December 1979 from ADCOM. The Aerospace Defense Command major command ended 31 March 1980. Its organizations in Cheyenne Mountain became

3416-734: The violation and the offender's history of violations under the Act . The FBI has demonstrated its ability to recover ransoms paid in cryptocurrency by victims of cybertheft. The most notable hacker-oriented print publications are Phrack , Hakin9 and 2600: The Hacker Quarterly . While the information contained in hacker magazines and ezines was often outdated by the time they were published, they enhanced their contributors' reputations by documenting their successes. Hackers often show an interest in fictional cyberpunk and cyberculture literature and movies. The adoption of fictional pseudonyms , symbols, values and metaphors from these works

3477-425: Was coined by Richard Stallman , to contrast the maliciousness of a criminal hacker versus the spirit of playfulness and exploration in hacker culture , or the ethos of the white hat hacker who performs hacking duties to identify places to repair or as a means of legitimate employment. Black hat hackers form the stereotypical, illegal hacking groups often portrayed in popular culture, and are "the epitome of all that

3538-527: Was deactivated. The Cheyenne Mountain nuclear bunker's planned mission was expanded in August 1960 to "a hardened center from which CINCNORAD would supervise and direct operations against space attack as well as air attack". In October 1960, the Secretary of Defense assigned, "operational command of all space surveillance to Continental Air Defense Command (CONAD) and operational control to North American Air Defense Command (NORAD)". In December 1960,

3599-472: Was established on 12 September 1957 at Ent Air Force Base 's 1954 blockhouse. In 1958, Canada and the United States agreed that the NORAD commander would always be a United States officer, with a Canadian vice commander. Canada "agreed the command's primary purpose would be ... early warning and defense for the Strategic Air Command 's (SAC)'s retaliatory forces". In late 1958, Canada and

3660-486: Was no public awareness about such activities. However, the release of the film WarGames that year, featuring a computer intrusion into NORAD , raised the public belief that computer security hackers (especially teenagers) could be a threat to national security. This concern became real when, in the same year, a gang of teenage hackers in Milwaukee, Wisconsin , known as The 414s , broke into computer systems throughout

3721-635: Was revealed that the NSA was a client of Vupen and had a subscription to its exploit service. On 9 November 2014, the German magazine Der Spiegel reported that the German information security agency BSI, tasked with the protection of federal government networks, was also a client of Vupen. On 22 July 2015, it was revealed that Vupen provided exploits to the Italian company Hacking Team between 2010 and 2011. On 5 May 2015, Vupen's founders filed documents to close

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