121-517: The Vox Continental is a transistorised combo organ that was manufactured between 1962 and 1971 by the British musical equipment manufacturer Vox . It was designed for touring musicians and as an alternative to the heavy Hammond organ . It supports drawbars in a similar manner to the Hammond, and has distinctive reverse-coloured keys. The sound is generated by a series of oscillators , using
242-593: A Farfisa organ to a Vox, and became endorsed by the company. John Cale used the organ with distortion on The Velvet Underground 's " Sister Ray ". Other hit singles released in the 1960s and featuring the Vox Continental include the Monkees ' " I'm a Believer ", Van Morrison 's " Brown Eyed Girl ", ? and the Mysterians ' " 96 Tears " and Iron Butterfly 's " In-A-Gadda-Da-Vida ". Augie Meyers ' use of
363-501: A field-effect transistor , or may have two kinds of charge carriers in bipolar junction transistor devices. Compared with the vacuum tube , transistors are generally smaller and require less power to operate. Certain vacuum tubes have advantages over transistors at very high operating frequencies or high operating voltages, such as Traveling-wave tubes and Gyrotrons . Many types of transistors are made to standardized specifications by multiple manufacturers. The thermionic triode ,
484-422: A frequency divider circuit that allows the frequency to be halved, in order to produce the sound an octave lower. This is then halved again for the subsequent octave, and so on down the rest of the instrument's range, except for the lowest note, C , which has a dedicated generator. Each key is connected to four contacts connected to ground ; when a key is pressed, it makes a connection to the bus bar which sends
605-624: A frequency divider to span multiple octaves. The first Continentals were produced at Vox's manufacturing plant in Dartford , England; after arranging a deal with the Thomas Organ Company , later models were produced in the US and Italy. The most popular model was the single-manual Continental, but other models were produced, such as the budget Vox Jaguar, various dual-manual organs, and the experimental Guitar Organ and Voxmobile, based on
726-406: A harpsichord . The organ comes with a chrome Z-shaped bolt-on leg stand assembly. The top of the organ is furnished with an orange Rexine cover. The Vox Continental uses six slider-type, metered volume controls called drawbars instead of the stop-tab rocker switches seen on other combo organs. Two of the drawbars on the right hand side control the voices (flute and reed tones), while the four on
847-532: A p-n-p transistor symbol, the arrow " P oints i N P roudly". However, this does not apply to MOSFET-based transistor symbols as the arrow is typically reversed (i.e. the arrow for the n-p-n points inside). The field-effect transistor , sometimes called a unipolar transistor , uses either electrons (in n-channel FET ) or holes (in p-channel FET ) for conduction. The four terminals of the FET are named source , gate , drain , and body ( substrate ). On most FETs,
968-476: A vacuum tube invented in 1907, enabled amplified radio technology and long-distance telephony . The triode, however, was a fragile device that consumed a substantial amount of power. In 1909, physicist William Eccles discovered the crystal diode oscillator . Physicist Julius Edgar Lilienfeld filed a patent for a field-effect transistor (FET) in Canada in 1925, intended as a solid-state replacement for
1089-610: A "bass chords" option and the vibrato as found on the Continental. The bottom octave could be switched to a monophonic sub-octave bass generator, which was routed to a separate audio jack. Though the Jaguar superficially resembled the Continental, the sound was significantly different. However it was still popular, particularly in the US. The Jaguar was also sold in DIY kit form, allowing musicians to save money by finishing certain aspects of
1210-494: A 30% stake in the EME factory, with Jennings and Royston holding 22%. The Italian Continentals used cheaper plastic keys glued to metal shafts, that were easier to break. There were also some minor cosmetic differences compared to older models, including a different vinyl covering, colours on the drawbar tips and construction of the stand. By 1969, the price of the Continental had dropped to $ 599 ($ 8,300 as of 2023). In 1966, Vox produced
1331-541: A Hammond organ style casing on stage, before upgrading to a real one six months later. The Vox Continental was revived during the punk and new wave movements in the late 1970s. It was used by Steve Nieve , keyboard player for Elvis Costello & The Attractions, particularly in the early years up to This Year's Model . It was also used by several 2-Tone groups, including the Specials ' Jerry Dammers and Madness ' Mike Barson . Benmont Tench of Tom Petty and
SECTION 10
#17327906205181452-514: A centre for the pharmaceutical industry . There had been a large power station at Littlebrook on the Thames, to the north of the town, from 1939 until its closure in 2015. The station, including one of the tallest chimneys in the UK, was completely demolished in 2019. The Mazda motor manufacturer has its UK head office at the large Thames-side Crossways Business Park. Thomas Walter Jennings created
1573-578: A device had been built. In 1934, inventor Oskar Heil patented a similar device in Europe. From November 17 to December 23, 1947, John Bardeen and Walter Brattain at AT&T 's Bell Labs in Murray Hill, New Jersey , performed experiments and observed that when two gold point contacts were applied to a crystal of germanium , a signal was produced with the output power greater than the input. Solid State Physics Group leader William Shockley saw
1694-552: A few hundred milliwatts, but power and audio fidelity gradually increased as better transistors became available and amplifier architecture evolved. Modern transistor audio amplifiers of up to a few hundred watts are common and relatively inexpensive. Before transistors were developed, vacuum (electron) tubes (or in the UK "thermionic valves" or just "valves") were the main active components in electronic equipment. The key advantages that have allowed transistors to replace vacuum tubes in most applications are Transistors may have
1815-425: A field-effect transistor (FET) by trying to modulate the conductivity of a semiconductor, but was unsuccessful, mainly due to problems with the surface states , the dangling bond , and the germanium and copper compound materials. Trying to understand the mysterious reasons behind this failure led them instead to invent the bipolar point-contact and junction transistors . In 1948, the point-contact transistor
1936-536: A funeral. In March 1452, Richard, Duke of York , camped at the Brent allegedly with ten thousand men, waiting for a confrontation with King Henry VI . The Duke surrendered to the king in Dartford. The place of the camp is marked today by York Road, Dartford. The 16th century saw significant changes to the hitherto agrarian basis of the market in Dartford, as new industries began to take shape ( see below ). The priory
2057-592: A live set closer, such as their 1965 concert at Shea Stadium . In 2008, this model was sold at auction for $ 182,500. Price used it prominently on the Animals' hit arrangement of " The House of the Rising Sun ". The Doors ' Ray Manzarek played a Vox in combination with a Rhodes Piano Bass early in the group's career, including " Light My Fire ". Paul Revere Dick of Paul Revere & the Raiders switched from
2178-412: A particular type, varies depending on the collector current. In the example of a light-switch circuit, as shown, the resistor is chosen to provide enough base current to ensure the transistor is saturated. The base resistor value is calculated from the supply voltage, transistor C-E junction voltage drop, collector current, and amplification factor beta. The common-emitter amplifier is designed so that
2299-470: A population of 51,240. The town centre lies in a valley through which the River Darent flows and where the old road from London to Dover crossed: hence the name, which derives from Darent + ford . Dartford became a market town in medieval times and, although today it is principally a commuter town for Greater London , it has a long history of religious, industrial and cultural importance. It
2420-457: A promotional instrument, designed by custom car designer George Barris . It combined a dual-manual Vox Continental with two oversized Vox basses, which were mounted onto a 289ci Ford Cobra engine. The Continental Baroque was introduced in 1968, which combined the usual Continental manual with a multi-timbral one similar to that on other Thomas organs, and included a built-in amplifier. It sold for $ 1,598 ($ 14,000 as of 2023), significantly more than
2541-582: A range of Vox Continentals, with the price of the Super Continental reduced from $ 999 ($ 7,500 as of 2023) to $ 265 ($ 2,000 as of 2023). By then, groups were preferring to use a Hammond organ and Leslie speaker instead of a Vox. Most of the remaining assets were sold at a liquidation sale in 1971. There are no definitive figures for how many Vox Continentals were manufactured. However, estimates based on serial numbers indicate 9,100 single-manual organs were manufactured. Around 4,100 of these come from
SECTION 20
#17327906205182662-499: A signal to the drawbars to produce a sound. The first Continentals were manufactured with wooden keys covered with plastic key caps. Musicians complained this gave it an unpleasant playing action. Later models switched to using plastic keys connected to metal shafts. The Vox Continental was first manufactured by the Jennings Musical Instruments factory in Dartford, Kent in 1962. Most of the components for
2783-467: A silicon MOS transistor in 1959 and successfully demonstrated a working MOS device with their Bell Labs team in 1960. Their team included E. E. LaBate and E. I. Povilonis who fabricated the device; M. O. Thurston, L. A. D’Asaro, and J. R. Ligenza who developed the diffusion processes, and H. K. Gummel and R. Lindner who characterized the device. With its high scalability , much lower power consumption, and higher density than bipolar junction transistors,
2904-605: A small change in voltage ( V in ) changes the small current through the base of the transistor whose current amplification combined with the properties of the circuit means that small swings in V in produce large changes in V out . Various configurations of single transistor amplifiers are possible, with some providing current gain, some voltage gain, and some both. From mobile phones to televisions , vast numbers of products include amplifiers for sound reproduction , radio transmission , and signal processing . The first discrete-transistor audio amplifiers barely supplied
3025-434: A transistor can amplify a signal. Some transistors are packaged individually, but many more in miniature form are found embedded in integrated circuits . Because transistors are the key active components in practically all modern electronics , many people consider them one of the 20th century's greatest inventions. Physicist Julius Edgar Lilienfeld proposed the concept of a field-effect transistor (FET) in 1926, but it
3146-440: A type of 3D non-planar multi-gate MOSFET, originated from the research of Digh Hisamoto and his team at Hitachi Central Research Laboratory in 1989. Because transistors are the key active components in practically all modern electronics , many people consider them one of the 20th century's greatest inventions. The invention of the first transistor at Bell Labs was named an IEEE Milestone in 2009. Other Milestones include
3267-416: A weaker input signal, acting as an amplifier . It can also be used as an electrically controlled switch , where the amount of current is determined by other circuit elements. There are two types of transistors, with slight differences in how they are used: The top image in this section represents a typical bipolar transistor in a circuit. A charge flows between emitter and collector terminals depending on
3388-461: A working bipolar NPN junction amplifying germanium transistor. Bell announced the discovery of this new "sandwich" transistor in a press release on July 4, 1951. The first high-frequency transistor was the surface-barrier germanium transistor developed by Philco in 1953, capable of operating at frequencies up to 60 MHz . They were made by etching depressions into an n-type germanium base from both sides with jets of indium(III) sulfate until it
3509-609: Is an important rail hub; the main through-road now by-passes the town itself. Dartford lies within the area known as the London Basin . The low-lying marsh to the north of the town consists of London Clay and the alluvium brought down by the two rivers—the Darent and the Cray —whose confluence is in this area. The higher land on which the town stands and through which the narrow Darent valley runs, consists of chalk surmounted by
3630-463: Is connected to the mains via a round three pin Bulgin connector, which was standard for the time but is no longer in general use because it does not meet modern safety standards. Some technicians have retrofitted the power supply on a Continental to take a standard IEC 60320 C14 "kettle plug" lead. The later US and Italian Continentals have a hinged lid, which allows servicing without having to dismantle
3751-474: Is known as Langley Square. Further regeneration is taking place at Market Street, to be known as Brewery Square. Some of Dartford's key industries, including brewing, paper-making, flour milling and the manufacture of cement, suffered extreme decline in the 20th century, causing redundancies and unemployment. Swanscombe Cement Works (now redeveloped into Bluewater shopping centre) was closed by Blue Circle in 1990. This industry had been an economic boon to
Vox Continental - Misplaced Pages Continue
3872-481: Is not observed in modern devices, for example, at the 65 nm technology node. For low noise at narrow bandwidth , the higher input resistance of the FET is advantageous. FETs are divided into two families: junction FET ( JFET ) and insulated gate FET (IGFET). The IGFET is more commonly known as a metal–oxide–semiconductor FET ( MOSFET ), reflecting its original construction from layers of metal (the gate), oxide (the insulation), and semiconductor. Unlike IGFETs,
3993-421: Is often easier and cheaper to use a standard microcontroller and write a computer program to carry out a control function than to design an equivalent mechanical system. A transistor can use a small signal applied between one pair of its terminals to control a much larger signal at another pair of terminals, a property called gain . It can produce a stronger output signal, a voltage or current, proportional to
4114-407: Is one of the basic building blocks of modern electronics . It is composed of semiconductor material , usually with at least three terminals for connection to an electronic circuit . A voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's terminals controls the current through another pair of terminals. Because the controlled (output) power can be higher than the controlling (input) power,
4235-573: Is served by two local newspapers: the Dartford & Swanley News Shopper and the Dartford Messenger. Between 1877 and 1903 the number of hospitals in Dartford rose to 11, together providing 10,000 hospital beds, at a time when the town's population was a little over 20,000. The majority of these have been closed, especially since the opening of Darent Valley Hospital . One of the best-known, Stone House Hospital , in Cotton Lane to
4356-490: Is situated on the western bank of the River Darent, from where a hermit would conduct travellers across the ford. The church was originally a 9th-century Saxon structure, but gained later Norman additions. In the 13th century a royal wedding was celebrated there; thus today the choristers are entitled to wear scarlet cassocks. Also on display within the church is a brass plaque commemorating the work of Richard Trevithick ,
4477-530: Is the former home of the now defunct Kent Football United . Southern Counties East Football League side Halls AFC are also based in Dartford, playing at the Community Stadium at Princes Park. Dartford Harriers Athletic Club was formed in 1922 and is currently based at Central Park. Originally founded as Dartford Rugby Football Club, the rugby players began taking part in cross-country runs in an effort to keep fit. Running soon became more popular with
4598-768: Is the principal town in the Borough of Dartford , Kent , England. It is located 18 mi (29 km) south-east of Central London and is situated adjacent to the London Borough of Bexley to its west. To its north, across the Thames estuary , is Thurrock in Essex , which can be reached via the Dartford Crossing . To its east lies the Borough of Gravesham and to the south the district of Sevenoaks . It had
4719-704: The Dartford Loop Line through Sidcup , which opened in 1866, and the Bexleyheath Line , which opened in 1895. All the lines were electrified by 6 June 1926. The station is served by two train operating companies : Dartford is served by many bus services provided by Transport for London , Arriva Kent Thameside and Go Coach Buses. These routes connect Dartford with areas including Bluewater , Bexleyheath , Crayford , Erith , Gravesend , Greenhithe , Orpington , Sidcup , Swanley , Welling and Woolwich . The parish church, Holy Trinity ,
4840-486: The Pigou family), marking the foundation of J & E Hall , an engineering firm specialising in heavy engineering , and later refrigerating equipment, and, for 20 years from 1906, vehicle production, plus lifts and escalators . From those humble beginnings in the 18th century was to come the industrial base on which the growth and prosperity of Dartford were founded. In 1840 the mustard factory of Saunders & Harrison
4961-715: The Vox musical brand, with products such as the AC15 and AC30 amplifiers originating in Dartford. In early 2006, the since-closed South East England Development Agency (SEEDA) purchased the former Unwins depot on the edge of the town. The warehouse was demolished and a business centre, The Base, built in its place, funded by the Homes and Communities Agency . By 2018, the former GlaxoSmithKline manufacturing site in Mill Pond Road had been redeveloped with residential apartments and
Vox Continental - Misplaced Pages Continue
5082-552: The brewing of traditional beers and ales . Lime-burning and chalk-mining also had their place. Fulling was another: the cleansing of wool needed a great deal of water, which the river could provide. This led to other water-based industries, using hydropower to operate machinery. Upon his return in 1578 from Frobisher Bay in the Canadian Arctic with a reputed cargo of gold-bearing ore, Sir Martin Frobisher had
5203-399: The surface state barrier that prevented the external electric field from penetrating the material. In 1955, Carl Frosch and Lincoln Derick accidentally grew a layer of silicon dioxide over the silicon wafer, for which they observed surface passivation effects. By 1957 Frosch and Derick, using masking and predeposition, were able to manufacture silicon dioxide field effect transistors;
5324-473: The 2017–18 season. Dartford is also home to Dartford and White Oak Triathlon Club; formed in 1988, it is one of the oldest British Triathlon Federation clubs in the UK. The club trains at The Bridge Estate, Dartford. Sports centres in Dartford include the Becket Sports Centre, within the grounds of Dartford Grammar School on Shepherds Lane, which is the home of several sports groups. Since
5445-660: The Blackheath Beds of sand and gravel. As a human settlement , Dartford became established as a river crossing-point with the coming of the Romans; and as a focal point between two routes: that from west to east being part of the main route connecting London with the Continent; and the southerly route following the Darent valley. As a result, the town's main road pattern makes the shape of letter 'T'. The Dartford Marshes to
5566-622: The Dartford area around 250,000 years ago: a tribe of prehistoric hunter-gatherers whose exemplar is called Swanscombe Man . Many other archaeological investigations have revealed a good picture of occupation of the district with important finds from the Stone Age , the Bronze Age and the Iron Age . When the Romans engineered the Dover to London road (afterwards named Watling Street ), it
5687-527: The Guitar Organ, which put the internals of a Vox Continental in a Vox Phantom guitar body, and used a series of contacts along the frets so that a note would sound when a string was depressed onto a fret. John Lennon was given a sample instrument in the hope he would promote it, but it was never recorded and the instrument never entered full production. In 1967, Thomas manufactured the Voxmobile as
5808-584: The Heartbreakers has also frequently used a Vox Continental, and sometimes prefers its "drier, thinner, more cutting sound". On " Don't Do Me Like That ", he played one through a Leslie speaker. In the 21st century, the organist Rhys Webb , of the UK band the Horrors can be seen using the Continental. Citations Sources Transistor A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify or switch electrical signals and power . It
5929-504: The JFET gate forms a p–n diode with the channel which lies between the source and drains. Functionally, this makes the n-channel JFET the solid-state equivalent of the vacuum tube triode which, similarly, forms a diode between its grid and cathode . Also, both devices operate in the depletion-mode , they both have a high input impedance, and they both conduct current under the control of an input voltage. Dartford, Kent Dartford
6050-465: The MOSFET made it possible to build high-density integrated circuits, allowing the integration of more than 10,000 transistors in a single IC. Bardeen and Brattain's 1948 inversion layer concept forms the basis of CMOS technology today. The CMOS (complementary MOS ) was invented by Chih-Tang Sah and Frank Wanlass at Fairchild Semiconductor in 1963. The first report of a floating-gate MOSFET
6171-427: The MOSFET was invented at Bell Labs between 1955 and 1960. Transistors revolutionized the field of electronics and paved the way for smaller and cheaper radios , calculators , computers , and other electronic devices. Most transistors are made from very pure silicon , and some from germanium , but certain other semiconductor materials are sometimes used. A transistor may have only one kind of charge carrier in
SECTION 50
#17327906205186292-562: The NHS to manage regional health care delivery, and was also home to a nursing school, Livingstone Hospital , on East Hill. The main buildings of this facility are now closed, and have been turned into luxury flats. The route of an ancient Celtic trackway which the Romans later paved and identified as Iter III on the Antonine Itinerary , later to be called Watling Street , and which the current A2 roughly follows, passed close to
6413-775: The Regency Division of Industrial Development Engineering Associates, I.D.E.A. and Texas Instruments of Dallas, Texas, the TR-1 was manufactured in Indianapolis, Indiana. It was a near pocket-sized radio with four transistors and one germanium diode. The industrial design was outsourced to the Chicago firm of Painter, Teague and Petertil. It was initially released in one of six colours: black, ivory, mandarin red, cloud grey, mahogany and olive green. Other colours shortly followed. The first production all-transistor car radio
6534-443: The Super Continental. The additional sounds included banjo, harpsichord and celeste . It was considered unreliable and expensive, and did not sell well. Jennings struggled to retain control of Vox, and chief designer Dick Denney was fired on 19 September 1967, with employees loyal to him leaving shortly afterwards. Royston filed for bankruptcy two years later. The company was bought by Corinthian Securities who attempted to reintroduce
6655-457: The UK, followed by 4,000 from Italy and 1,000 in the US. The Vox name was later sold to Rose Morris , who in turn sold it to Korg in 1992. Since then new products carrying the trademark Vox have been primarily for the guitar player, and the Korg trademark appears on most keyboards. In September 2017, Korg released a workstation-style keyboard named in honour of the Vox Continental and highlighting
6776-532: The Vox Continental's internals. The Continental became a popular instrument in the 1960s and 1970s, especially with garage and later new wave bands, and was used by the Beatles , the Animals , the Doors , Iron Butterfly , Elvis Costello , and Madness . After being phased out of production in the early 1970s, the instrument remained a sought-after combo organ by enthusiasts. Japanese manufacturer Korg bought
6897-749: The Vox name, producing a new version of the Vox Continental in 2017, and various modern stage keyboards include an emulation of the organ. The Continental had two basic designs, each with its own variations. They were the single- manual Continental, and the dual manual model called the Vox Continental II in England and the Vox Super Continental in Italy. Each manual features 49 reverse-colored keys (black naturals and white sharps ) like on
7018-607: The Weald was in full operation at this time, and iron ingots were sent to Dartford, to England's first iron-slitting mill, set up by the Darent at Dartford Creek in 1595 by Godfrey Box , an immigrant from the Low Countries . In 1785, John Hall , a millwright set up a workshop in Lowfield Street and began to make engines, boilers and machinery (some of it for the local gunpowder factory run by Miles Peter Andrews and
7139-442: The area, but left behind a lot of derelict land and pollution. In 1990 Dartford contained around 1,700 acres (6.9 km ) of spoiled land resulting from extractive industries, and cement-dust pollution from local cement works was a regular subject of complaint in the local press throughout the 20th century. The closure of Dartford's major employers (including Seagers' Engineering Works, J & E Hall International, and Vickers ),
7260-488: The assembly on their own. The Continental quickly became popular as it was advertised as part of the British Invasion of the mid-1960s, particularly after being endorsed by the Beatles . In order to increase supply, a licensing deal was signed between Jennings and the Thomas Organ Company in the US in 1966. Later that year, production for the US market was moved to EME in Italy for economic reasons; Thomas held
7381-431: The basis of modern digital electronics since the late 20th century, paving the way for the digital age . The US Patent and Trademark Office calls it a "groundbreaking invention that transformed life and culture around the world". Its ability to be mass-produced by a highly automated process ( semiconductor device fabrication ), from relatively basic materials, allows astonishingly low per-transistor costs. MOSFETs are
SECTION 60
#17327906205187502-404: The body is connected to the source inside the package, and this will be assumed for the following description. In a FET, the drain-to-source current flows via a conducting channel that connects the source region to the drain region. The conductivity is varied by the electric field that is produced when a voltage is applied between the gate and source terminals, hence the current flowing between
7623-437: The collector to the emitter. If the voltage difference between the collector and emitter were zero (or near zero), the collector current would be limited only by the load resistance (light bulb) and the supply voltage. This is called saturation because the current is flowing from collector to emitter freely. When saturated, the switch is said to be on . The use of bipolar transistors for switching applications requires biasing
7744-445: The concept of an inversion layer, forms the basis of CMOS and DRAM technology today. In the early years of the semiconductor industry , companies focused on the junction transistor , a relatively bulky device that was difficult to mass-produce , limiting it to several specialized applications. Field-effect transistors (FETs) were theorized as potential alternatives, but researchers could not get them to work properly, largely due to
7865-559: The current in the base. Because the base and emitter connections behave like a semiconductor diode, a voltage drop develops between them. The amount of this drop, determined by the transistor's material, is referred to as V BE . (Base Emitter Voltage) Transistors are commonly used in digital circuits as electronic switches which can be either in an "on" or "off" state, both for high-power applications such as switched-mode power supplies and for low-power applications such as logic gates . Important parameters for this application include
7986-456: The current switched, the voltage handled, and the switching speed, characterized by the rise and fall times . In a switching circuit, the goal is to simulate, as near as possible, the ideal switch having the properties of an open circuit when off, the short circuit when on, and an instantaneous transition between the two states. Parameters are chosen such that the "off" output is limited to leakage currents too small to affect connected circuitry,
8107-460: The drain and source is controlled by the voltage applied between the gate and source. As the gate–source voltage ( V GS ) is increased, the drain–source current ( I DS ) increases exponentially for V GS below threshold, and then at a roughly quadratic rate: ( I DS ∝ ( V GS − V T ) , where V T is the threshold voltage at which drain current begins) in the " space-charge-limited " region above threshold. A quadratic behavior
8228-545: The east of the town, was opened on 16 April 1866 as the "City of London Lunatic Asylum". It was, and still is, a large castellated structure built in spacious grounds. It remained under the direct administration of the City of London until 1948, when it was transferred to the National Health Service (NHS). It remains one of the largest and most visible structures in Dartford, and was until recently operated by
8349-520: The existence of a town centre public house named after him could give credence to Dartford's claim. Dartford, however, cannot claim a monopoly on public houses named after Tyler. It is probable that Dartford was a key meeting point early in the Peasants' Revolt with a detachment of Essex rebels marching south to join Kentish rebels at Dartford before accompanying them to Rochester and Canterbury in
8470-463: The first planar transistors, in which drain and source were adjacent at the same surface. They showed that silicon dioxide insulated, protected silicon wafers and prevented dopants from diffusing into the wafer. After this, J.R. Ligenza and W.G. Spitzer studied the mechanism of thermally grown oxides, fabricated a high quality Si/ SiO 2 stack and published their results in 1960. Following this research, Mohamed Atalla and Dawon Kahng proposed
8591-559: The first week of June 1381. Although lacking a leader, Kentishmen had assembled at Dartford around 5 June through a sense of county solidarity at the mistreatment of Robert Belling, a man claimed as a serf by Sir Simon Burley . Burley had abused his royal court connections to invoke the arrest of Belling and, despite a compromise being proposed by bailiffs in Gravesend , continued to demand the impossible £300 of silver for Belling's release. Having left for Rochester and Canterbury on 5 June,
8712-454: The following limitations: Transistors are categorized by Hence, a particular transistor may be described as silicon, surface-mount, BJT, NPN, low-power, high-frequency switch . Convenient mnemonic to remember the type of transistor (represented by an electrical symbol ) involves the direction of the arrow. For the BJT , on an n-p-n transistor symbol, the arrow will " N ot P oint i N" . On
8833-505: The idea of a field-effect transistor that used an electric field as a "grid" was not new. Instead, what Bardeen, Brattain, and Shockley invented in 1947 was the first point-contact transistor . To acknowledge this accomplishment, Shockley, Bardeen and Brattain jointly received the 1956 Nobel Prize in Physics "for their researches on semiconductors and their discovery of the transistor effect". Shockley's team initially attempted to build
8954-603: The instrument drove the Sir Douglas Quintet 's instantly distinguishable sound. The Grateful Dead 's Pigpen switched from the Farfisa to the Continental, before moving on to a Hammond. Tom Constanten also played a Vox Continental during his tenure in the Dead, but did not like playing it and switched to a Hammond as well. Yes ' Tony Kaye played a Vox Continental when the group formed in 1968, and disguised it in
9075-600: The instrument, including the Arturia Vox Continental V, a Virtual Studio Technology plugin that uses modelling to accurately recreate the electronics of the original. The instrument was commonly heard in 1960s rock music, and played by the Beatles' John Lennon, the Dave Clark Five 's Mike Smith and the Animals ' Alan Price . Lennon played the Continental on Rubber Soul ' s " Think for Yourself ", and regularly used it on " I'm Down " as
9196-578: The instrument. Because the Continental was designed to be played in concert and used in touring, there are relatively few of them in good condition unless they have been repaired. Several surviving models are missing the original case carrying the stand and volume pedal. Several modern keyboards feature emulation of the Vox Continental, including the Nord Stage and Nord C Series , and the Hammond SK series. There are also some software emulations of
9317-418: The inventions of the junction transistor in 1948 and the MOSFET in 1959. The MOSFET is by far the most widely used transistor, in applications ranging from computers and electronics to communications technology such as smartphones . It has been considered the most important transistor, possibly the most important invention in electronics, and the device that enabled modern electronics. It has been
9438-547: The large department store previously occupied by the Co-operative has now been demolished, having been bought by Dartford Borough Council. The oldest independent business still trading in Dartford, the butchers Richardson & Sons in Lowfield Street, established in 1908, closed down in 2014 to make way for the proposed Lowfield centre superstore development. The problems with obtaining planning permission for this development and associated residential units were compounded by
9559-426: The left control the footages (corresponding to ranks of pipes on a pipe organ ). The stock Continental has 16', 8' and 4' drawbars, with a fourth one labelled "IV" containing a mixture of higher pitches. There is a single-speed, single intensity vibrato whose rate can only be adjusted by removing the lid of the instrument and adjusting a potentiometer. The Continental has no other internal effects. A bass pedalboard
9680-613: The mechanical encoding from punched metal cards. The first prototype pocket transistor radio was shown by INTERMETALL, a company founded by Herbert Mataré in 1952, at the Internationale Funkausstellung Düsseldorf from August 29 to September 6, 1953. The first production-model pocket transistor radio was the Regency TR-1 , released in October 1954. Produced as a joint venture between
9801-927: The most numerously produced artificial objects in history, with more than 13 sextillion manufactured by 2018. Although several companies each produce over a billion individually packaged (known as discrete ) MOS transistors every year, the vast majority are produced in integrated circuits (also known as ICs , microchips, or simply chips ), along with diodes , resistors , capacitors and other electronic components , to produce complete electronic circuits. A logic gate consists of up to about 20 transistors, whereas an advanced microprocessor , as of 2022, may contain as many as 57 billion MOSFETs. Transistors are often organized into logic gates in microprocessors to perform computation. The transistor's low cost, flexibility and reliability have made it ubiquitous. Transistorized mechatronic circuits have replaced electromechanical devices in controlling appliances and machinery. It
9922-420: The north and the proximity of Crayford in the London Borough of Bexley to the west, mean that the town's growth is to the south and east. Wilmington is contiguous with the town to the south; whilst the almost continuous Thames Gateway development means that there is little to show the town boundary in an easterly direction. Within the town boundaries there are several distinct areas: the town centre around
10043-816: The number of chain stores located in the town as B&Q , M&S Simply Food , TK Maxx and Asda Living opened new outlet stores in the town centre. Before this Safeway had taken part in the development of Dartford's second shopping centre, The Orchards, located next to the Orchard Theatre . The Safeway's site was eventually taken over by Waitrose but this closed in March 2014 and a new Aldi store opened in June 2015. The historical and once bustling main High Street and adjacent shopping centre, The Priory, continued to decline, and went into receivership in 2013, and
10164-659: The organ were subcontracted to other companies, with Jennings working on the final assembly. The original cabinets were constructed by Heathpoint Timer in Rayleigh, Essex while some of the electrics were made by Kimber-Allen in Swanley , Kent. Jennings sold part of the company to the Royston Group in 1963. Production later moved to Vox Sound in Erith , Kent. The dual-manual Continental II was introduced in 1965. That same year,
10285-585: The parish church and along the High Street; the Joyce Green area; Temple Hill estate constructed in 1947; the Brent ; Fleet Downs; as well as two important areas of open space and several industrial estates. The open spaces are Central Park, alongside the river; and Dartford Heath . Like most of the United Kingdom, Dartford has an oceanic climate . In prehistoric times, the first people appeared in
10406-490: The particular Continental organ sound, competing with contemporary keyboards such as the Nord Electro . The original Vox Continental is still used by collectors of vintage instruments. The Vox Continental used relatively unstable germanium transistors in its oscillators, which can occasionally drift in pitch and required to be re-tuned. The wooden keys on earlier models are more durable than later plastic ones. The organ
10527-435: The pioneer of steam propulsion, who, at the end of his career, lived, worked (at J & E Hall) and died in the town. Other places of worship in Dartford include: Brent Methodist Church, Brethren's Meeting Room, Dartford Methodist Church, Highfield Road Baptist Church, Net Church, St Alban's Church, St Andrew's United Reformed Church, Christ Church Dartford, Grace Outreach Church, and Zion Strict Baptist Chapel. The graveyard
10648-628: The players, and the club eventually dropped rugby around the end of the 1927–28 season, becoming Dartford Harriers AC. The club's running colours of blue and blue "hoops" are a legacy from the club's rugby origins, when the rugby players simply removed the sleeves from their old rugby shirts to create running vests. Dartfordians Rugby Football Club have five adult teams and a large youth section, and play their home matches at War Memorial Club House on Bourne Road. Their first team currently plays in London 1 South, following promotion from London 2 South-East in
10769-548: The potential in this, and over the next few months worked to greatly expand the knowledge of semiconductors . The term transistor was coined by John R. Pierce as a contraction of the term transresistance . According to Lillian Hoddeson and Vicki Daitch, Shockley proposed that Bell Labs' first patent for a transistor should be based on the field-effect and that he be named as the inventor. Having unearthed Lilienfeld's patents that went into obscurity years earlier, lawyers at Bell Labs advised against Shockley's proposal because
10890-580: The rebels passed back through Dartford, swollen in number, a week later on 12 June en route for London . In the 15th century, two kings of England became part of the town's history. Henry V marched through Dartford in November 1415 with his troops after fighting the French at the Battle of Agincourt ; in 1422 Henry's body was taken to Holy Trinity Church by Edmund Lacey , Bishop of Exeter , who conducted
11011-460: The recession. This created persistent delay in regeneration of the Lowfield Street site, and on 8 January 2015 it was finally announced that the Tesco plans were to be abandoned. The Orchard Theatre is a professional theatre in the town centre, with a schedule including drama, dance, music and entertainment. The Mick Jagger Centre , within the grounds of Dartford Grammar School on Shepherds Lane,
11132-440: The reduction and subsequent closure of Burroughs Wellcome (now GlaxoSmithKline ), the redevelopment of nearby Bexleyheath as a shopping town in the 1970s, and the opening of Bluewater Shopping Centre in 1999, all had a negative effect on the economy of Dartford, but the town is still home to major brands such as Sainsbury's , W.H. Smiths , and Boots . With the opening of the major Bluewater regional shopping centre just outside
11253-475: The refining done on Powder Mill Lane in Dartford. Assiduous efforts to extract gold were made over five years, but the ore proved to be a valueless rock containing hornblende and was eventually salvaged for road metalling and wall construction. Sir John Spielman set up the first paper mill in England at Dartford in 1588 on a site near Powder Mill Lane, and soon some 600 employees worked there, providing an invaluable source of local employment. Iron-making on
11374-491: The reigns of Queen Mary (1553–1554) and Philip and Mary (1554–1558), including Christopher Wade , a Dartford linen-weaver who was burnt at the stake on the Brent in 1555. The Martyrs' Memorial on East Hill commemorates Wade and other Kentish Martyrs. In 1576 Dartford Grammar School was founded, part of the Tudor emphasis on education for ordinary people. The earliest industries were those connected with agriculture, such as
11495-405: The resistance of the transistor in the "on" state is too small to affect circuitry, and the transition between the two states is fast enough not to have a detrimental effect. In a grounded-emitter transistor circuit, such as the light-switch circuit shown, as the base voltage rises, the emitter and collector currents rise exponentially. The collector voltage drops because of reduced resistance from
11616-442: The single-manual model sold for $ 995 ($ 9,600 in 2023). The Vox Jaguar was introduced as a budget version of the Continental the following year, retailing at $ 495 ($ 4,600 in 2023), which used rocker tabs instead of drawbars. Only fundamental frequencies could be produced on the Jaguar, as it lacked the circuitry to generate additional harmonics like the Continental. The tabs allowed a choice of "flute", "bright", "brass" and "mellow",
11737-917: The town is close to London, television signals are received from the Crystal Palace TV transmitter, placing Dartford in the BBC London and ITV London areas. Some areas of the town can also pick up a signal from the Bluebell Hill TV transmitter that broadcasts BBC South East and ITV Meridian . However in 2011 Bluewater Shopping Centre was used by BBC South East as their regional location for BBC Children in Need . Local radio stations are: BBC Radio Kent (96.7 FM), Heart South (103.1 FM), Gold (603 AM) and KMFM West Kent , which broadcasts from its studios in Strood on 96.2 FM. The town
11858-660: The town to the north. Its prime purpose is to carry traffic from the riverside industrial developments on to the Dartford Crossing from both west and east. Dartford is perhaps most well known for the latter, the main mode of crossing the River Thames to the east of London, where the southbound A282 (part of the London Orbital ) crosses the river via the Queen Elizabeth II Bridge toll bridge, opened in 1991. The northbound carriageway crosses via
11979-514: The town, the high street has seen a growth in cheaper brands such as Primark and Wilko taking over empty premises. Wilko announced in 2023 that it was going into receivership. In the 1990s, the local economy was boosted by the establishment of a number of business parks in the area, the biggest being Crossways Business Park at the foot of the Queen Elizabeth II Bridge . The former offices of Hall-Thermotank have been converted for use as Dartford Civic Centre . In 2007 Dartford saw an increase in
12100-434: The town. After the Romans left Britain, it fell out of use, as the town developed and traffic went into the town itself; the name Watling Street transferring to the new route. The introduction of stagecoach services increased the amount of traffic through the town, so that by the 18th century it had become necessary to control the upkeep of such a heavily used road. Turnpike Trusts were set up by Act of Parliament ; Dartford
12221-409: The transistor so that it operates between its cut-off region in the off-state and the saturation region ( on ). This requires sufficient base drive current. As the transistor provides current gain, it facilitates the switching of a relatively large current in the collector by a much smaller current into the base terminal. The ratio of these currents varies depending on the type of transistor, and even for
12342-483: The transistor, the company rushed to get its "transistron" into production for amplified use in France's telephone network, filing his first transistor patent application on August 13, 1948. The first bipolar junction transistors were invented by Bell Labs' William Shockley, who applied for patent (2,569,347) on June 26, 1948. On April 12, 1950, Bell Labs chemists Gordon Teal and Morgan Sparks successfully produced
12463-486: The triode. He filed identical patents in the United States in 1926 and 1928. However, he did not publish any research articles about his devices nor did his patents cite any specific examples of a working prototype. Because the production of high-quality semiconductor materials was still decades away, Lilienfeld's solid-state amplifier ideas would not have found practical use in the 1920s and 1930s, even if such
12584-538: The twin bore Dartford Tunnel ; the first tunnel was opened in 1963 and the second in 1980. Dartford railway station is located in the town centre and is connected to London by three National Rail routes. The first London to Dartford connection by rail was the North Kent Line via Woolwich Arsenal in 1849, connecting at Gravesend with the line to the Medway Towns. Later, two more lines were built:
12705-408: The widespread adoption of transistor radios. Seven million TR-63s were sold worldwide by the mid-1960s. Sony's success with transistor radios led to transistors replacing vacuum tubes as the dominant electronic technology in the late 1950s. The first working silicon transistor was developed at Bell Labs on January 26, 1954, by Morris Tanenbaum . The first production commercial silicon transistor
12826-525: Was a few ten-thousandths of an inch thick. Indium electroplated into the depressions formed the collector and emitter. AT&T first used transistors in telecommunications equipment in the No. 4A Toll Crossbar Switching System in 1953, for selecting trunk circuits from routing information encoded on translator cards. Its predecessor, the Western Electric No. 3A phototransistor , read
12947-527: Was an important waypoint for pilgrims and travellers en route to Canterbury and the Continent , and various religious orders established themselves in the area. In the 12th century the Knights Templar had possession of the manor of Dartford; the National Trust property at Sutton-at-Hone , to the south of the town, is a remaining piece of that history. In the 14th century, a priory
13068-486: Was announced by Texas Instruments in May 1954. This was the work of Gordon Teal , an expert in growing crystals of high purity, who had previously worked at Bell Labs. The basic principle of the field-effect transistor (FET) was first proposed by physicist Julius Edgar Lilienfeld when he filed a patent for a device similar to MESFET in 1926, and for an insulated-gate field-effect transistor in 1928. The FET concept
13189-409: Was available as an optional extra. Dual-manual models also have a 5 1/3' drawbar on the upper manual, an octave of bass keys and a string bass feature. Later models also supported a percussion feature similar to that on a Hammond. The organ's sound comes from twelve oscillators, one for each note in the chromatic scale along the top octave of the instrument. The signal from each of these is fed into
13310-703: Was completed in 2000 and provides facilities for community arts. library and Museum are located on Market Street. Central Park, in the town centre, is used for various community events. It comprises 26 acres (110,000 m ) of land. Dartford F.C. play at Princes Park Stadium and compete in the National League South . There are also three other senior clubs based in Dartford: Kent County Football League clubs Fleetdown United, who play at Heath Lane Lower, and Kent United, who play at Glentworth Sports Club which
13431-461: Was described as being "perhaps the largest in the kingdom". Dartford Paper Mills were built in 1862, when excise duty on paper was abolished. Between 1844 and 1939 the fabric printing works of Augustus Applegath were in being in Bullace Lane: again a firm using the waters of the river. RAF Joyce Green , at Long Reach, near Dartford was one of the first Royal Flying Corps airfields, It
13552-556: Was destroyed in 1538 during the Dissolution of the Monasteries and a new manor house was subsequently constructed by King Henry VIII . In 1545, Henry held a series of meetings of his Privy Council in the town, and from 21 to 25 June 1545 Dartford was the seat of the national government. Henry's fourth wife Anne of Cleves lived at the new priory for four years before her death in 1557. Many Protestants were executed during
13673-521: Was developed by Chrysler and Philco corporations and was announced in the April 28, 1955, edition of The Wall Street Journal . Chrysler made the Mopar model 914HR available as an option starting in fall 1955 for its new line of 1956 Chrysler and Imperial cars, which reached dealership showrooms on October 21, 1955. The Sony TR-63, released in 1957, was the first mass-produced transistor radio, leading to
13794-585: Was established here, and two groups of friars—the Dominicans and the Franciscans —built hospitals here for the care of the sick. At this time the town became a small but important market town . Wat Tyler , of Peasants' Revolt fame, might well have been a local hero, although three other towns in Kent all claim likewise, and there are reasons to doubt the strength of Tyler's connection to Dartford, though
13915-470: Was established in 1911 by Vickers Limited (the aircraft and weapons manufacturer, who used it as an airfield and testing ground. It was superseded by Biggin Hill, and closed in 1919. The demand created by World War I meant that output at the local Vickers factory multiplied, with a positive effect on the local economy. Burroughs-Wellcome chemical works (later incorporated into GlaxoSmithKline ) made Dartford
14036-918: Was independently invented by physicists Herbert Mataré and Heinrich Welker while working at the Compagnie des Freins et Signaux Westinghouse , a Westinghouse subsidiary in Paris . Mataré had previous experience in developing crystal rectifiers from silicon and germanium in the German radar effort during World War II . With this knowledge, he began researching the phenomenon of "interference" in 1947. By June 1948, witnessing currents flowing through point-contacts, he produced consistent results using samples of germanium produced by Welker, similar to what Bardeen and Brattain had accomplished earlier in December 1947. Realizing that Bell Labs' scientists had already invented
14157-455: Was later also theorized by engineer Oskar Heil in the 1930s and by William Shockley in the 1940s. In 1945 JFET was patented by Heinrich Welker . Following Shockley's theoretical treatment on JFET in 1952, a working practical JFET was made in 1953 by George C. Dacey and Ian M. Ross . In 1948, Bardeen and Brattain patented the progenitor of MOSFET at Bell Labs, an insulated-gate FET (IGFET) with an inversion layer. Bardeen's patent, and
14278-521: Was made by Dawon Kahng and Simon Sze in 1967. In 1967, Bell Labs researchers Robert Kerwin, Donald Klein and John Sarace developed the self-aligned gate (silicon-gate) MOS transistor, which Fairchild Semiconductor researchers Federico Faggin and Tom Klein used to develop the first silicon-gate MOS integrated circuit . A double-gate MOSFET was first demonstrated in 1984 by Electrotechnical Laboratory researchers Toshihiro Sekigawa and Yutaka Hayashi. The FinFET (fin field-effect transistor),
14399-606: Was necessary to cross the River Darent by ford, giving the settlement its name. Roman villas were built along the Darent Valley, and at Noviomagus ( Crayford ), close by. The Saxons may have established the first settlement where Dartford now stands. Dartford manor is mentioned in the Domesday Book , compiled in 1086, after the Norman conquest . It was then owned by the king. During the medieval period Dartford
14520-401: Was not possible to construct a working device at that time. The first working device was a point-contact transistor invented in 1947 by physicists John Bardeen , Walter Brattain , and William Shockley at Bell Labs who shared the 1956 Nobel Prize in Physics for their achievement. The most widely used type of transistor is the metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET),
14641-660: Was served by two: that for Watling Street and the road south to Sevenoaks , both brought into being between 1750 and 1780. From 1925, the A2 main road took traffic away from Dartford town centre via the Princes Road bypass. Today, the original main road through the town is the A226 and the former turnpike road south to Sevenoaks is now the A225 . A newer by-pass is the A206 , which skirts
#517482