125-629: The Volcanic Seven Summits are the highest volcanoes on each of the seven continents , just as the Seven Summits are the highest peaks on each of the seven continents. Two of the Volcanic Seven Summits are also on the Seven Summits list. Kilimanjaro and Mount Elbrus , which were formed volcanically, are the highest peaks of their respective continents. Due to different interpretations of continental borders (geological, geographical, geopolitical), several definitions for
250-523: A Polish expedition in the Andes . During the middle of the 20th century there was a debate on whether Ojos del Salado or Aconcagua was the highest mountain in South America which was eventually resolved in favour of Aconcagua. The name Ojos del Salado [ˈo.xos d̪el saˈla.ð̞o] refers to a river, Río Salado ("Salty River"), that a 1937 Polish expedition used to reach the mountain. It
375-940: A ghost town ) and Fourpeaked Mountain in Alaska, which, before its September 2006 eruption, had not erupted since before 8000 BCE. Ojos del Salado Nevado Ojos del Salado is a dormant complex volcano in the Andes on the Argentina – Chile border. It is the highest volcano on Earth and the highest peak in Chile. The upper reaches of Ojos del Salado consist of several overlapping lava domes , lava flows and volcanic craters , with sparse ice cover. The complex extends over an area of 70–160 square kilometres (27–62 sq mi) and its highest summit reaches an altitude of 6,893 metres (22,615 ft) above sea level. Numerous other volcanoes rise around Ojos del Salado. Being close to
500-886: A mid-ocean ridge , such as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge , has volcanoes caused by divergent tectonic plates whereas the Pacific Ring of Fire has volcanoes caused by convergent tectonic plates. Volcanoes can also form where there is stretching and thinning of the crust's plates, such as in the East African Rift , the Wells Gray-Clearwater volcanic field , and the Rio Grande rift in North America. Volcanism away from plate boundaries has been postulated to arise from upwelling diapirs from
625-528: A debate whether Ojos del Salado was higher than Aconcagua and thus the highest summit of the Western Hemisphere , and drew attention to the mountain. Three separate Chilean, Argentine and Austrian parties went to Ojos del Salado in 1956; the Chilean party measured an elevation of 7,084 metres (23,241 ft) with a barometer , a value that was once again presented as proven by the press despite
750-608: A dirt road built after a helicopter accident in 1994. West of the volcano lies the Nevado Tres Cruces National Park and in 1991/1994 there were plans to make a national park on the Argentine side as well. As of 2020 , the establishment of a "zone of touristic interest" encompassing Ojos del Salado was under discussion in Chile. Astronomers have surveyed the volcano for the possibility of creating an observatory there. The landforms such as
875-442: A few hundred metres. Meltwater feeds streams. Climbing parties in 1956 reported two glaciers on the northwestern slope, a 1958 report indicated that an ice body at 6,600 metres (21,700 ft) elevation descends into two branches and is followed at lower elevation by another glacier also with two branches—but in neither case with any evidence of movement— and in 2014 there was ice in the summit crater and substantial glaciers on
1000-469: A fresh appearance but there is no clear evidence of recent activity. There are no confirmed historical eruptions and the volcano is presently inactive. In November 1993, observers witnessed ash and steam columns on two separate days but no deformation of the volcano was observed by satellites during this occasion. An ash cloud observed on June 13, 2015, and which led to a warnings about volcanic ash to aircraft turned out to be wind-blown volcanic ash in
1125-595: A geographic (southern boundary of the Puna de Atacama) and tectonic discontinuity in the region. The lineament may be a consequence of the subduction of the Copiapo Ridge at this latitude. An alternative view is that the subducting Copiapo Ridge is actually located north of the lineament; this would be more consistent with the theory that the subduction of such ridges gives rise to gaps in the volcanic chain. Except for firn and small glaciers in sheltered parts of
1250-437: A graduated spectrum, with much overlap between categories, and does not always fit neatly into only one of these three separate categories. The USGS defines a volcano as "erupting" whenever the ejection of magma from any point on the volcano is visible, including visible magma still contained within the walls of the summit crater. While there is no international consensus among volcanologists on how to define an active volcano,
1375-503: A large creek to its origin at Aguas Calientes at 4,200 metres (13,800 ft). From there it continues first up dry valleys to Acqua di Vicuna at 4,950 metres (16,240 ft) elevation, to the El Arenal plateau at 5,500 metres (18,000 ft) elevation and eventually along various routes to Ojos del Salado. The mountain is also accessible by vehicle, up to 6,650 metres (21,820 ft) or 5,900 metres (19,400 ft) elevation, through
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#17328018379501500-447: A massif/ complex volcano formed by overlapping smaller volcanoes, with over 20 craters. Two edifices, less than 2.5 kilometres (1.6 mi) wide, flank the 1.3-by-0.5-kilometre-wide (0.81 mi × 0.31 mi) summit crater on its eastern and western side. Basalt , gravel , pumice and scoria crop out in its rim, which is lower on the northern side. A second 300–400-metre-wide (980–1,310 ft) crater lies just west of
1625-552: A myth their "Ojos del Salado" was a much smaller mountain and the actual Ojos del Salado was their "Peak 'e'". The Polish climbers Justyn Wojsznis [ pl ] and Jan Szczepański from the Second Polish Andean Expedition reached the summit on February 26, 1937 and left a cairn but most of the maps and report they drafted were lost during World War II . After the Polish expedition,
1750-443: A paper was published suggesting a new definition for the word 'volcano' that includes processes such as cryovolcanism . It suggested that a volcano be defined as 'an opening on a planet or moon's surface from which magma , as defined for that body, and/or magmatic gas is erupted.' This article mainly covers volcanoes on Earth. See § Volcanoes on other celestial bodies and cryovolcano for more information. The word volcano
1875-731: A shallow angle and volcanism is absent in the "Pampean flat-slab". The shallow angle may be a consequence of the subduction of submarine topography, such as the Copiapo Ridge at the northern end of the Juan Fernández Ridge at the southern margin of the gap. The basement in the region crops out in the Cordillera Claudio Gay area, and consists of sedimentary rocks of Devonian - Carboniferous age. The rocks are intruded by and covered by granites and rhyolites associated with Permian volcanic rocks and
2000-438: A third of all climbing attempts reach the summit. Would-be mountaineers need to consult weather forecasts and prepare equipment before attempting an ascent. The mountain can be ascended from both the Argentine and the Chilean side, but owing to the better logistics most ascents occur from the Chilean side. The increasing mountaineering activities on Ojos del Salado have raised concerns about environmental impacts. Ascent from
2125-632: A volcano is largely determined by the composition of the lava it erupts. The viscosity (how fluid the lava is) and the amount of dissolved gas are the most important characteristics of magma, and both are largely determined by the amount of silica in the magma. Magma rich in silica is much more viscous than silica-poor magma, and silica-rich magma also tends to contain more dissolved gases. Lava can be broadly classified into four different compositions: Mafic lava flows show two varieties of surface texture: ʻAʻa (pronounced [ˈʔaʔa] ) and pāhoehoe ( [paːˈho.eˈho.e] ), both Hawaiian words. ʻAʻa
2250-555: A volcano is of a conical mountain, spewing lava and poisonous gases from a crater at its summit; however, this describes just one of the many types of volcano. The features of volcanoes are varied. The structure and behaviour of volcanoes depend on several factors. Some volcanoes have rugged peaks formed by lava domes rather than a summit crater while others have landscape features such as massive plateaus . Vents that issue volcanic material (including lava and ash ) and gases (mainly steam and magmatic gases) can develop anywhere on
2375-465: A volcano that has experienced one or more eruptions that produced over 1,000 cubic kilometres (240 cu mi) of volcanic deposits in a single explosive event. Such eruptions occur when a very large magma chamber full of gas-rich, silicic magma is emptied in a catastrophic caldera -forming eruption. Ash flow tuffs emplaced by such eruptions are the only volcanic product with volumes rivalling those of flood basalts . Supervolcano eruptions, while
2500-739: Is a volcanic field of over 60 cinder cones. Based on satellite images, it has been suggested that cinder cones might occur on other terrestrial bodies in the Solar system too; on the surface of Mars and the Moon. Stratovolcanoes (composite volcanoes) are tall conical mountains composed of lava flows and tephra in alternate layers, the strata that gives rise to the name. They are also known as composite volcanoes because they are created from multiple structures during different kinds of eruptions. Classic examples include Mount Fuji in Japan, Mayon Volcano in
2625-412: Is characterized by a rough, clinkery surface and is the typical texture of cooler basalt lava flows. Pāhoehoe is characterized by its smooth and often ropey or wrinkly surface and is generally formed from more fluid lava flows. Pāhoehoe flows are sometimes observed to transition to ʻaʻa flows as they move away from the vent, but never the reverse. More silicic lava flows take the form of block lava, where
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#17328018379502750-644: Is common in summer. Precipitation probably peaks at 5,500 metres (18,000 ft) where the cloud base lies; above that elevation it decreases to about 200 millimetres (7.9 in). Snow cover in the area is sporadic and quickly sublimates, which hinders its measurement; the average snow cover is less than 5 centimetres (2.0 in) thick. Due to the dry climate, the region is a desert with little vegetation occurring above 4,600 metres (15,100 ft) elevation, and none above 4,900 metres (16,100 ft). However, lichens and mosses have been found at higher elevations and green growths have been reported from
2875-565: Is derived from the name of Vulcano , a volcanic island in the Aeolian Islands of Italy whose name in turn comes from Vulcan , the god of fire in Roman mythology . The study of volcanoes is called volcanology , sometimes spelled vulcanology . According to the theory of plate tectonics, Earth's lithosphere , its rigid outer shell, is broken into sixteen larger and several smaller plates. These are in slow motion, due to convection in
3000-404: Is expected to contain permafrost , which is likely continuous at higher elevations and overlaid with a thin active layer . Cryoturbation landforms were not conspicuous according to Nagy et al. 2019, presumably because wind-driven phenomena overprint the effects of cryoturbation. Mass movements have left traces on the mountain. Ojos del Salado hosts the highest lake in the world in
3125-584: Is expressed using the volcanic explosivity index (VEI), which ranges from 0 for Hawaiian-type eruptions to 8 for supervolcanic eruptions. As of December 2022 , the Smithsonian Institution 's Global Volcanism Program database of volcanic eruptions in the Holocene Epoch (the last 11,700 years) lists 9,901 confirmed eruptions from 859 volcanoes. The database also lists 1,113 uncertain eruptions and 168 discredited eruptions for
3250-550: Is in fact an old eroded volcano, unlike the higher mountains of New Guinea which are all non-volcanic in origin. Even if this continent is defined instead as Oceania (thus adding New Zealand and Polynesia including Hawaii ), Giluwe remains the highest volcano since it exceeds the elevation of Mauna Kea in Hawaii and any volcano in New Zealand. The generally accepted geographical border between Europe and Asia runs along
3375-512: Is no evidence of Pleistocene glacier advances in the region nor any indication of a Pleistocene snowline , although cirques have been reported from Nevado Tres Cruces and some sources propose the existence of glaciers 19,000 years ago. The monsoon reached farther south during the Pleistocene but did not reach Ojos del Salado, allowing the development of glaciers only at more northern latitudes. Westerly winds did not regularly influence
3500-537: Is one of the several tuyas in the area of the Tuya River and Tuya Range in northern British Columbia. Tuya Butte was the first such landform analysed and so its name has entered the geological literature for this kind of volcanic formation. The Tuya Mountains Provincial Park was recently established to protect this unusual landscape, which lies north of Tuya Lake and south of the Jennings River near
3625-472: Is the highest lake of any kind in the world. Owing to its altitude and the desiccated climate, the mountain lacks vegetation. Ojos del Salado was volcanically active during the Pleistocene and Holocene , during which it mainly produced lava flows. Activity was in two phases and a depression or caldera formed in the course of its growth. The volcano was also impacted by eruptions of its neighbour to
3750-471: Is typically low in silica, shield volcanoes are more common in oceanic than continental settings. The Hawaiian volcanic chain is a series of shield cones, and they are common in Iceland , as well. Lava domes are built by slow eruptions of highly viscous lava. They are sometimes formed within the crater of a previous volcanic eruption, as in the case of Mount St. Helens , but can also form independently, as in
3875-466: Is unclear whether the name was already used before by a Chile-Argentina boundary commission. Another theory posits that the name means "salty eyes" or "salty springs ", referring to mineral deposits on its flanks. The mountain is often referred to as Cerro Ojos del Salado and Nevado Ojos del Salado; the former is a common term for "mountain" in Chile and the latter means "snowy", referring to snow-covered mountains. There are two summits, known as
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4000-423: Is uninhabited and lacks water resources; many parts are only accessible through dirt roads. Ojos del Salado is a dormant volcano that rises to 6,893 metres (22,615 ft), 6,879 metres (22,569 ft) or 6,887 metres (22,595 ft) elevation. It is the world's highest volcano and the second-highest summit of the Andes, and the highest summit in Chile. Ojos del Salado is not a single conical summit but
4125-475: The American Alpine Club in 1956. The expedition was hindered by bad weather conditions and a gust of wind stretching a measurement line may have almost frustrated the goal to determine the summit elevation of Ojos del Salado. The same party later used geodetic methods to establish the elevation of Ojos del Salado as 6,885.5 ± 3 metres (22,590.2 ± 9.8 ft) and lower than
4250-468: The Arid Diagonal of South America, the mountain has extremely dry conditions, which prevent the formation of substantial glaciers and a permanent snow cover . Despite the arid climate, there is a permanent crater lake about 100 m (330 ft) in diameter at an elevation of 6,480 metres (21,260 ft)-6,500 metres (21,300 ft) within the summit crater and east of the main summit. This
4375-617: The Cascade Volcanoes or the Japanese Archipelago , or the eastern islands of Indonesia . Hotspots are volcanic areas thought to be formed by mantle plumes , which are hypothesized to be columns of hot material rising from the core-mantle boundary. As with mid-ocean ridges, the rising mantle rock experiences decompression melting which generates large volumes of magma. Because tectonic plates move across mantle plumes, each volcano becomes inactive as it drifts off
4500-472: The Choiyoi Group . Oligocene to recent volcanic rocks and volcano-sedimentary formations cover this basement. The topography at Ojos del Salado bears evidence of what may have been past magmatic uplift. Seismic tomography has yielded evidence of a low seismic velocity anomaly underneath the volcano that may constitute the pathway through which water emanating from the downgoing slab rises through
4625-627: The Fiambala valley. Seismic activity has been reported. There is no information on volcanic hazards at Ojos del Salado and volcanic hazards in the Central Volcanic Zone are poorly reconnoitred, but a 2018 presentation at the University of Auckland ranked it 14th of 38 Argentine volcanoes and the Chilean geological agency SERNAGEOMIN 75th out of 92, thus as a very low risk volcano. The latter has published hazard maps for
4750-472: The Pacific Ring of Fire . Where volcanic activity occurs, the subduction process releases fluids from the downgoing slab which trigger the formation of melts in the mantle that eventually ascend to the surface and give rise to volcanism. The CVZ spans Peru, Bolivia, Chile and Argentina and contains about 1,100 recognized volcanoes, many of which are extremely old and are still recognizable owing to
4875-467: The Quaternary , volcanism formed the edifices of Cerro Solo, El Fraile, Incahuasi, El Muerto , El Muertito, Falso Azufre , Nevado San Francisco , Nevado Tres Cruces and Ojos del Salado, which together cover over half of the area. Apart from the large volcanoes, many smaller mafic monogenetic volcanoes developed in the area, especially east of Ojos del Salado. Pleistocene volcanism was limited to
5000-551: The Seven Summits . Kuwaiti climber Yousef Al Refaie made a Guinness World Record and became youngest climber in the world and the first Middle Eastern Arab to complete the Seven Volcanic Summits at the age of 24 years 119 days when he scaled Mount Sidley (4,285 metres (14,058 ft)) in Antarctica on 22 December 2021, surpassing Indian mountaineer Satyarup Siddhanta who had previously made this record at
5125-804: The core–mantle boundary , 3,000 kilometres (1,900 mi) deep within Earth. This results in hotspot volcanism , of which the Hawaiian hotspot is an example. Volcanoes are usually not created where two tectonic plates slide past one another. Large eruptions can affect atmospheric temperature as ash and droplets of sulfuric acid obscure the Sun and cool Earth's troposphere . Historically, large volcanic eruptions have been followed by volcanic winters which have caused catastrophic famines. Other planets besides Earth have volcanoes. For example, volcanoes are very numerous on Venus. Mars has significant volcanoes. In 2009,
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5250-429: The crust of a planetary-mass object , such as Earth , that allows hot lava , volcanic ash , and gases to escape from a magma chamber below the surface. The process that forms volcanoes is called volcanism . On Earth, volcanoes are most often found where tectonic plates are diverging or converging , and because most of Earth's plate boundaries are underwater, most volcanoes are found underwater. For example,
5375-721: The landform and may give rise to smaller cones such as Puʻu ʻŌʻō on a flank of Kīlauea in Hawaii. Volcanic craters are not always at the top of a mountain or hill and may be filled with lakes such as with Lake Taupō in New Zealand. Some volcanoes can be low-relief landform features, with the potential to be hard to recognize as such and be obscured by geological processes. Other types of volcano include cryovolcanoes (or ice volcanoes), particularly on some moons of Jupiter , Saturn , and Neptune ; and mud volcanoes , which are structures often not associated with known magmatic activity. Active mud volcanoes tend to involve temperatures much lower than those of igneous volcanoes except when
5500-566: The 1990s commercial tours have become important facilitators for ascents, and the number of climbers has increased in the 21st century. Ojos del Salado is one of the Second Seven Summits and Volcanic Seven Summits mountaineering challenges. It is easier to climb than an eight thousander owing to its lower elevation and the absence of rock faces and ice, but the high elevation, cold, dry and windy weather and impassable terrain are common challenges for would-be climbers and only
5625-454: The 6,960 metres (22,830 ft) high Aconcagua. In 1989, Francesco Santon of the University of Padua in Italy, with Argentine assistance, used GPS -based positioning to determine an elevation of 6,900 ± 5 metres (22,638 ± 16 ft). Ojos del Salado and the surrounding mountains draw fewer mountaineers than Aconcagua, with only several hundred climbers every year. Since
5750-487: The Andes at Ojos del Salado but did not mention it. Ojos del Salado is likewise absent from the 1861 plans of William Wheelwright for a railway across Paso San Francisco. The explorer Walter Penck crossed the area in 1912/13 and 1913/14 but did not identify the mountain. In 1896, 1897 and 1903 the Chile-Argentina boundary commission identified a peak in the area and named it "Ojos del Salado"; according to
5875-489: The Chilean part of the volcano. Future eruptions would most likely produce lava domes, lava flows and minor explosive activity, and the presence of ice on the mountain makes it a potential source for lahars . Effects would most likely be limited to the direct surroundings of the volcano, such as highway Chile Route 31 [ es ] . There are fumaroles that emit sulfurous fumes. Polish climbers in 1937 first observed this activity, 200 metres (650 ft) below
6000-543: The Chilean side is easier as the first refuge can be reached by car, but the actual climb is easier from the Argentine side. A dirt road departing from the Chile Route 31 [ es ] highway to Paso San Francisco heads south to Ojos del Salado, past Refugio Murray to the bivouac Refugio Universidad de Atacama/Jorge Rojas at 5,200 metres (17,100 ft) elevation, from there a path goes to Refugio Tejos at 5,825 metres (19,111 ft) elevation and eventually to
6125-571: The Holocene, which cover an area of 120 square kilometres (46 sq mi), as well as pumice deposits at Laguna Verde and elongated fractures in the summit region. A rhyodacitic eruption was dated with tephrochronology to have occurred 750 ± 250 CE , and may have deposited tephra over the Bolson de Fiambala and in the Tafí and Villa Vil areas of northwestern Argentina. Many volcanic rocks have
6250-590: The Maricunga arc . Between 8–5 million years ago activity declined in the Maricunga region and increased in the Ojos del Salado region, until Maricunga volcanism ceased 4 million years ago. This shift coincided with a gradual flattening of the subduction process since the Miocene and was accompanied by change in crustal and mantle properties that are reflected in the isotope ratios of erupted volcanic rocks. During
6375-714: The Ojos del Salado area, where recent faulting offset volcanic rocks. The large dimensions of Ojos del Salado indicate that magmatism was focused here. Volcanic rocks erupted by Ojos del Salado form a calc-alkaline potassium -rich suite of dacitic rocks, with occasional andesite and rhyodacite . Earlier in the geological history of the region more mafic magmas also erupted. The rocks contain phenocrysts like augite , biotite , hornblende , hypersthene , opaque minerals, plagioclase , pyroxene and quartz . Magma mixing phenomena produced olivine and pyroxene xenocrysts and amphibole reaction rims. Volcanic activity probably commenced 3.3–1.5 million years ago or during
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#17328018379506500-570: The Philippines, and Mount Vesuvius and Stromboli in Italy. Ash produced by the explosive eruption of stratovolcanoes has historically posed the greatest volcanic hazard to civilizations. The lavas of stratovolcanoes are higher in silica, and therefore much more viscous, than lavas from shield volcanoes. High-silica lavas also tend to contain more dissolved gas. The combination is deadly, promoting explosive eruptions that produce great quantities of ash, as well as pyroclastic surges like
6625-550: The Santa Rosa-Maricunga-Negro Francisco region. Chinchillas and vicuñas live in the valleys south of Ojos del Salado, and have drawn humans to the region. Mice venture to elevations of 5,250 metres (17,220 ft), and earwigs have been observed at 5,960 metres (19,550 ft) elevation. As Ojos del Salado is hidden behind and nested among many peaks of similar elevation, for centuries travellers and mountaineers paid little attention to
6750-613: The USGS defines a volcano as active whenever subterranean indicators, such as earthquake swarms , ground inflation, or unusually high levels of carbon dioxide or sulfur dioxide are present. The USGS defines a dormant volcano as any volcano that is not showing any signs of unrest such as earthquake swarms, ground swelling, or excessive noxious gas emissions, but which shows signs that it could yet become active again. Many dormant volcanoes have not erupted for thousands of years, but have still shown signs that they may be likely to erupt again in
6875-466: The age of 35 years 261 days. On 9 December 2018 after scaling Ojos del Salado , Canadian climber Theodore Fairhurst became the oldest in the world to climb both the Seven Summits and Volcanic Seven Summits at 71 years and 231 days. On 4 July 2023, Australian-born Caroline Leon completed the Volcanic Seven Summits in the fastest time of 183 days. Volcano A volcano is a rupture in
7000-431: The area. The Puna de Atacama region has an extreme climate with strong wind, high elevation, a dry climate and high insolation ; the area is in or just south of the Arid Diagonal . Temperatures at lower elevations can exceed 10 °C (50 °F) but mean annual temperatures only reach −10 °C (14 °F). Mean winds at Laguna Verde reach maximum speeds of 8–10 metres per second (26–33 ft/s) in winter, on
7125-510: The boundary with the Yukon Territory . Mud volcanoes (mud domes) are formations created by geo-excreted liquids and gases, although several processes may cause such activity. The largest structures are 10 kilometres in diameter and reach 700 meters high. The material that is expelled in a volcanic eruption can be classified into three types: The concentrations of different volcanic gases can vary considerably from one volcano to
7250-402: The case of Lassen Peak . Like stratovolcanoes, they can produce violent, explosive eruptions, but the lava generally does not flow far from the originating vent. Cryptodomes are formed when viscous lava is forced upward causing the surface to bulge. The 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens was an example; lava beneath the surface of the mountain created an upward bulge, which later collapsed down
7375-753: The climate at the volcano, either. In South America, there are about 200 volcanoes with evidence of eruptions during the Pleistocene and Holocene along the western coast, where the Nazca Plate and Antarctic Plate subducts beneath the South America Plate in the Peru-Chile Trench . Volcanic activity is localized in four major volcanic belts, the Northern , Central (CVZ), Southern and Austral Volcanic Zones ; these are separated by belts without volcanic activity and form part of
7500-734: The crest of the Ural Mountains in central Russia and of the Caucasus along the southern border of Russia. Since the massive twin-peaked stratovolcano of Mount Elbrus rises just north of the crest, it is the highest summit in Europe and also the highest volcano. Some geologists, though, consider the Kuma-Manych depression as the geological border between Asia and Europe. Such definition would render Elbrus entirely in Asia, making it
7625-603: The current consensus based on the most recent measurements places Ojos del Salado as the 2nd highest peak and highest volcano in South America, significantly higher than Monte Pissis . The 5,610 m (18,406 ft) Mount Damavand is a very large isolated stratovolcano with over 4,600 m (15,000 ft) of topographic prominence. There are more than 70 volcanic vents known as the Kunlun Volcanic Group in Tibet at higher elevations than Damavand's summit,
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#17328018379507750-439: The disappearance of ice volume creates cavities that collapse and form the valleys and pseudokarst landforms. Pseudokarst landforms and dolines are other structures generated by the melting of buried ice. Lateral moraines altered by wind erosion occur north of Ojos del Salado and some lava flows bear traces of glaciation. Research published in 2019 found cirques and U-shaped valleys on Ojos del Salado. However, there
7875-590: The eastern and southern slopes, which reached elevations below 6,000 metres (20,000 ft). There have been increases in ice area between 1974 and 1983 but between 1986 and 2000, ice area decreased by 40%. The melting of the ice is expected to produce an increased discharge at first, but eventually ice diminishes to the point that runoff will decline. Penitentes have been encountered by climbers as early as 1937, in 1949 there were reportedly 5–8 metres (16–26 ft) high penitentes on Ojos del Salado. Penitentes are high ice spires which form when ice sublimates in
8000-618: The eastern or Argentine and western or Chilean summit; both lie along the international boundary and get their names after the country from which they can be more easily reached. Ojos del Salado is part of the High Andes and rises from the southern end of the Puna de Atacama , a high plateau next to the Atacama Desert with an average elevation of 4,000 metres (13,000 ft). The border between Argentina and Chile runs across
8125-799: The enormous area they cover, and subsequent concealment under vegetation and glacial deposits, supervolcanoes can be difficult to identify in the geologic record without careful geologic mapping . Known examples include Yellowstone Caldera in Yellowstone National Park and Valles Caldera in New Mexico (both western United States); Lake Taupō in New Zealand; Lake Toba in Sumatra , Indonesia; and Ngorongoro Crater in Tanzania. Volcanoes that, though large, are not large enough to be called supervolcanoes, may also form calderas in
8250-411: The flanks of Ojos del Salado, and produced pyroclastic flows . Wind-driven erosion has produced megaripple sand fields on the northern flank. Above 6,000 metres (20,000 ft) elevation talus -covered slopes and lava flows form the bulk of the surface, while the desert plains begin below 5,000 metres (16,000 ft) elevation. The ground above 4,000–5,600 metres (13,100–18,400 ft) elevation
8375-431: The flow is covered with angular, vesicle-poor blocks. Rhyolitic flows typically consist largely of obsidian . Tephra is made when magma inside the volcano is blown apart by the rapid expansion of hot volcanic gases. Magma commonly explodes as the gas dissolved in it comes out of solution as the pressure decreases when it flows to the surface . These violent explosions produce particles of material that can then fly from
8500-413: The form of the crater lake in the summit crater. Fed by permafrost and snowfields, it lies at 6,480–6,500 metres (21,260–21,330 ft) elevation. It is surrounded by fumaroles and covers an area of 6,000 square metres (65,000 sq ft). Waters in a creek flowing into this lake reach temperatures of 40.8 °C (105.4 °F). There are two lakes at 5,900 metres (19,400 ft) elevation on
8625-610: The formation of a submarine volcano off the coast of Mayotte . Subglacial volcanoes develop underneath ice caps . They are made up of lava plateaus capping extensive pillow lavas and palagonite . These volcanoes are also called table mountains, tuyas , or (in Iceland) mobergs. Very good examples of this type of volcano can be seen in Iceland and in British Columbia . The origin of the term comes from Tuya Butte , which
8750-585: The future. In an article justifying the re-classification of Alaska's Mount Edgecumbe volcano from "dormant" to "active", volcanologists at the Alaska Volcano Observatory pointed out that the term "dormant" in reference to volcanoes has been deprecated over the past few decades and that "[t]he term "dormant volcano" is so little used and undefined in modern volcanology that the Encyclopedia of Volcanoes (2000) does not contain it in
8875-466: The glossaries or index", however the USGS still widely employs the term. Previously a volcano was often considered to be extinct if there were no written records of its activity. Such a generalization is inconsistent with observation and deeper study, as has occurred recently with the unexpected eruption of the Chaitén volcano in 2008. Modern volcanic activity monitoring techniques, and improvements in
9000-457: The gullies and crater lakes and their conditions, and climatic conditions around Ojos del Salado have also led researchers to investigate it as a potential analogue to environments on Mars . The volcano is one of several depicted on Chilean passports . Numerous record-high altitude attempts with vehicles have been carried out at Ojos del Salado, including with cars , electric vehicles , motorcycles and utility vehicles . A modified car
9125-456: The highest of which has a reported elevation of 5,808 m (19,055 ft) (35.5°N 80.2°E). Peaks in this volcanic group are not considered volcanic mountains but instead a type of pyroclastic cone . Information about these cones is extremely scarce and the listed elevations and prominences is of unknown accuracy and reliability. It is disputed whether any of these cones have a prominence greater than 300 m (1,000 ft). The volcanoes in
9250-490: The highest peak in the western hemisphere, does have a volcanic origin, its current high point is due to geological processes rather than being strictly volcanic. Due to this, Aconcagua is not considered to be a volcano on its own, at least not as a member of Volcanic Seven Summits. Topographic maps of the Argentina and Chile border region which contains the highest peaks suffer from poor accuracy, with elevation errors exceeding 100 metres (330 ft) in many cases. However,
9375-562: The highest summits per continent and the number of continents are possible. The number of seven continents used here is based on the continent model used in Western Europe and the United States. An additional complication in determining the highest volcanic summits is defining exactly what constitutes a volcano and how much topographic prominence it must have relative to any nearby non-volcanic peaks in order to qualify. For
9500-775: The highest volcano of that continent (see below) and making Mount Etna (a 3350-metre active stratovolcano in Sicily , Italy ) the highest volcano in Europe. Mount Teide in the Canary Islands , while active, taller than Etna and within the territory of a European country, would not be considered because geologically the Canaries belong to the African continent. Although Aconcagua , the highest peak in South America and
9625-652: The highest volcanoes in Africa, North America, and Antarctica—respectively, Kilimanjaro , Pico de Orizaba , and Mount Sidley . Although there are a few minor and inactive volcanoes on the Australian mainland , this list recognizes that the island of New Guinea is part of the Australian continent . Numerous scientific papers written in the 1970s and 1980s confirm that Mount Giluwe in Papua New Guinea
9750-402: The intense insolation. Ice buried beneath sand and encased in moraines is more important than surface ice at Ojos del Salado. It is retreating but the insulating effect of the cover slows the retreat. Cryokarst , erosional gullies and so-called "infilled valleys" have been observed; they most likely form when buried ice and snow melt. The combined effect of erosion by the meltwater and
9875-492: The interior of a continent and lead to rifting. Early stages of rifting are characterized by flood basalts and may progress to the point where a tectonic plate is completely split. A divergent plate boundary then develops between the two halves of the split plate. However, rifting often fails to completely split the continental lithosphere (such as in an aulacogen ), and failed rifts are characterized by volcanoes that erupt unusual alkali lava or carbonatites . Examples include
10000-400: The lakes may be permanently frozen. Lakes might disappear with climate change owing to the breakdown of permafrost. The landscape is dominated by volcanoes, many of Pleistocene or Holocene age, and is the highest volcanic region in the world. Young volcanoes have conical shapes and often feature summit craters. Travellers have called the region a "moonscape". There are hot springs in
10125-467: The late Pleistocene. The 3.7±0.2 million years old Las Lozas Andesite may have been a precursor of Ojos del Salado. The oldest rocks of Ojos del Salado are 3.5–3.4 million years old dacites in the lower parts of the volcano. Argentine geological maps define a "Ojos del Salado basal complex", which consists of a number of Miocene volcanoes that have erupted andesite and dacite , partially in glacial environments. The volcano developed in two stages, with
10250-493: The list below all have prominences far exceeding that threshold. Download coordinates as: Note: Two of the Volcanic Seven Summits, Kilimanjaro and Elbrus, are also members of the Seven Summits. Ojos del Salado is also a member of the Seven Second Summits . In 2011, Mario Trimeri became the first person to summit all 12 ( Kilimanjaro and Mount Elbrus are on both lists) of the Volcanic Seven Summits and
10375-485: The low erosion rates in the region. Apart from stratovolcanoes , the CVZ includes numerous calderas, isolated lava domes and lava flows, maars and pyroclastic cones. Most of the volcanoes are remote and thus constitute a low hazard. Ojos del Salado is part of the CVZ and constitutes its southern boundary. South of the volcano volcanism ceased during the last six million years and until 32° south, subduction takes place at
10500-470: The mantle and gives rise to melting. Volcanism in the region commenced 26 million years ago, when the Farallon Plate broke up and subduction speed increased. Initially between 26 and 11 million years ago activity was concentrated in the Maricunga region 60 kilometres (37 mi) west of the Ojos del Salado region, where only small-volume volcanism took place and which constituted the back-arc to
10625-419: The mid-oceanic ridge is above sea level, volcanic islands are formed, such as Iceland . Subduction zones are places where two plates, usually an oceanic plate and a continental plate, collide. The oceanic plate subducts (dives beneath the continental plate), forming a deep ocean trench just offshore. In a process called flux melting , water released from the subducting plate lowers the melting temperature of
10750-551: The modelling of the factors that produce eruptions, have helped the understanding of why volcanoes may remain dormant for a long time, and then become unexpectedly active again. The potential for eruptions, and their style, depend mainly upon the state of the magma storage system under the volcano, the eruption trigger mechanism and its timescale. For example, the Yellowstone volcano has a repose/recharge period of around 700,000 years, and Toba of around 380,000 years. Vesuvius
10875-428: The more recent one grown on top of the older. A somma volcano structure may have formed during an eruption that generated the pumice deposits on the lower slopes of the volcano, and there are potential air fall deposits north of it. Ojos del Salado may or may not have produced pyroclastic flows; the neighbouring Nevado Tres Cruces c. 67,000 years ago produced extensive deposits on and around Ojos del Salado and in
11000-415: The most dangerous type, are very rare; four are known from the last million years , and about 60 historical VEI 8 eruptions have been identified in the geologic record over millions of years. A supervolcano can produce devastation on a continental scale, and severely cool global temperatures for many years after the eruption due to the huge volumes of sulfur and ash released into the atmosphere. Because of
11125-402: The mountain remained unclimbed until 1955, although expeditions went to its lower slopes and sometimes confused other peaks for Ojos del Salado. In that year an expedition from Tucumán ascended a mountain south of Ojos del Salado, which they mistook for the volcano. They stated that the peak may be higher than Aconcagua, which media reported as if it were proven fact. These measurements set off
11250-542: The mountain, Ojos del Salado lacks substantial ice cover. This is due to the arid climate of the region, which causes the equilibrium line altitude of ice to rise above the top of the mountain and keeps most peaks in the area ice-free. Only farther south at Tronquitos does more extensive glaciation begin. Temporary ice and snow accumulations can be mistaken for glaciers, and glacier areas shown on maps are often actually immobile firn fields. The ice reaches thicknesses of only 10–15 metres (33–49 ft) and areal extents of
11375-531: The mountain. Its remoteness meant that for a long time, both its elevation and exact topography were unclear. The positions and names of the mountains were frequently confused. The Inca used the Paso San Francisco as a major crossing of the Andes but there is no evidence of them building any structures on Ojos del Salado even though a number of such sites exist in the surrounding region. The Spanish conquistador Diego de Almagro crossed
11500-590: The mountaintops they can exceed 10 metres per second (33 ft/s) and can impede climbing attempts. Winds blow strongest in the afternoon. The winds produce aeolian landforms such as aeolian sediments , dunes , gravel pavements, abraded rocks and megaripples at lower elevations, and redeposit snow. Precipitation consists mostly of hail and snow. It either amounts to less than 150 millimetres (5.9 in) per year or reaches 300–500 millimetres (12–20 in) per year. Compared to sites farther north, precipitation falls primarily during winter, although snowfall
11625-438: The mud volcano is actually a vent of an igneous volcano. Volcanic fissure vents are flat, linear fractures through which lava emerges. Shield volcanoes, so named for their broad, shield-like profiles, are formed by the eruption of low-viscosity lava that can flow a great distance from a vent. They generally do not explode catastrophically but are characterized by relatively gentle effusive eruptions . Since low-viscosity magma
11750-452: The next. Water vapour is typically the most abundant volcanic gas, followed by carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide . Other principal volcanic gases include hydrogen sulfide , hydrogen chloride , and hydrogen fluoride . A large number of minor and trace gases are also found in volcanic emissions, for example hydrogen , carbon monoxide , halocarbons , organic compounds, and volatile metal chlorides. The form and style of an eruption of
11875-876: The north side of the mountain. Cinder cones result from eruptions of mostly small pieces of scoria and pyroclastics (both resemble cinders, hence the name of this volcano type) that build up around the vent. These can be relatively short-lived eruptions that produce a cone-shaped hill perhaps 30 to 400 metres (100 to 1,300 ft) high. Most cinder cones erupt only once and some may be found in monogenetic volcanic fields that may include other features that form when magma comes into contact with water such as maar explosion craters and tuff rings . Cinder cones may form as flank vents on larger volcanoes, or occur on their own. Parícutin in Mexico and Sunset Crater in Arizona are examples of cinder cones. In New Mexico , Caja del Rio
12000-444: The northeastern slope, c. 4 kilometres (2.5 mi) away from the higher lake. Each has an area of 2,500 square metres (27,000 sq ft) and an estimated depth of 1 metre (3 ft 3 in). Ephemeral lakes occur at 5,900–6,000 metres (19,400–19,700 ft) elevation, when meltwater from permafrost accumulates in closed depressions. Such ponds may form in depressions at 6,380 metres (20,930 ft) elevation. Some of
12125-623: The northwestern part of Ojos del Salado, 1.08 ± 0.09 million years for flows underlying the summit, 1.08 ± 0.04 million years for the northern flank of Ojos del Salado, 700,000±50,000 for its western flank, 450,000±60,000 for El Muerto, 340,000 ± 190,000 years for the summit rocks, and 230,000±40,000 years for El Fraile. Lava flows and a lava dome on the northern flank have yielded ages of 100,000 ± 17,000 and 35,000 years, respectively. The "El Quemado Ignimbrite" may be either 200,000 or less than 50,000 years old. The youngest dates reported are 30,000 years ago. The volcano produced lava flows during
12250-549: The ocean surface as new islands or floating pumice rafts . In May and June 2018, a multitude of seismic signals were detected by earthquake monitoring agencies all over the world. They took the form of unusual humming sounds, and some of the signals detected in November of that year had a duration of up to 20 minutes. An oceanographic research campaign in May 2019 showed that the previously mysterious humming noises were caused by
12375-420: The ocean surface, due to the rapid cooling effect and increased buoyancy in water (as compared to air), which often causes volcanic vents to form steep pillars on the ocean floor. Hydrothermal vents are common near these volcanoes, and some support peculiar ecosystems based on chemotrophs feeding on dissolved minerals. Over time, the formations created by submarine volcanoes may become so large that they break
12500-471: The ocean's surface. In the deep ocean basins, the tremendous weight of the water prevents the explosive release of steam and gases; however, submarine eruptions can be detected by hydrophones and by the discoloration of water because of volcanic gases . Pillow lava is a common eruptive product of submarine volcanoes and is characterized by thick sequences of discontinuous pillow-shaped masses which form underwater. Even large submarine eruptions may not disturb
12625-468: The one that destroyed the city of Saint-Pierre in Martinique in 1902. They are also steeper than shield volcanoes, with slopes of 30–35° compared to slopes of generally 5–10°, and their loose tephra are material for dangerous lahars . Large pieces of tephra are called volcanic bombs . Big bombs can measure more than 1.2 metres (4 ft) across and weigh several tons. A supervolcano is defined as
12750-425: The overlying mantle wedge, thus creating magma . This magma tends to be extremely viscous because of its high silica content, so it often does not reach the surface but cools and solidifies at depth . When it does reach the surface, however, a volcano is formed. Thus subduction zones are bordered by chains of volcanoes called volcanic arcs . Typical examples are the volcanoes in the Pacific Ring of Fire , such as
12875-619: The plume, and new volcanoes are created where the plate advances over the plume. The Hawaiian Islands are thought to have been formed in such a manner, as has the Snake River Plain , with the Yellowstone Caldera being part of the North American plate currently above the Yellowstone hotspot . However, the mantle plume hypothesis has been questioned. Sustained upwelling of hot mantle rock can develop under
13000-471: The purposes of this list, the summits must be an actual eruptive volcanic center, not merely made of volcanic rocks which were uplifted by other geological processes. In addition, a topographic prominence of at least 1,000 feet (300 m) is required, so that the list includes only genuine volcanic mountains and not minor outpourings of lava which happened to leak to the Earth's surface in high-altitude regions (see Asia below). No serious dispute exists as to
13125-536: The region, such as the Termas Laguna Verde at the shores of Laguna Verde , which are frequented by visitors. The volcano lies in the middle of an over 80-kilometre (50 mi) long east–west trending chain of volcanoes that form a drainage divide and includes the volcanoes Nevado Tres Cruces , Incahuasi and Cerro Blanco . This chain of volcanoes appears to be part of the Ojos del Salado-San Buenaventura tectonic lineament , which corresponds to
13250-435: The same time interval. Volcanoes vary greatly in their level of activity, with individual volcanic systems having an eruption recurrence ranging from several times a year to once in tens of thousands of years. Volcanoes are informally described as erupting , active , dormant , or extinct , but the definitions of these terms are not entirely uniform among volcanologists. The level of activity of most volcanoes falls upon
13375-492: The same way; they are often described as "caldera volcanoes". Submarine volcanoes are common features of the ocean floor. Volcanic activity during the Holocene Epoch has been documented at only 119 submarine volcanoes, but there may be more than one million geologically young submarine volcanoes on the ocean floor. In shallow water, active volcanoes disclose their presence by blasting steam and rocky debris high above
13500-622: The solidified erupted material that makes up the mantle of a volcano may be stripped away that its inner anatomy becomes apparent. Using the metaphor of biological anatomy , such a process is called "dissection". Cinder Hill , a feature of Mount Bird on Ross Island , Antarctica , is a prominent example of a dissected volcano. Volcanoes that were, on a geological timescale, recently active, such as for example Mount Kaimon in southern Kyūshū , Japan , tend to be undissected. Eruption styles are broadly divided into magmatic, phreatomagmatic, and phreatic eruptions. The intensity of explosive volcanism
13625-463: The steam plumes are poorly visible from the ground except from close distance or during episodes of increased fumarolic activity. Geysers have been reported in the summit region. Hot springs occur at the shores of Laguna Verde which may be part of a hydrothermal circulation system of Ojos del Salado. According to a 2020 publication, the mountain was being evaluated for the generation of geothermal power . Detailed climate data do not exist for
13750-421: The summit and in the summit crater. Fumarolic activity appears to be linked to a rift structure on the volcano. Climbers in 1957 reported that the fumaroles were noisy and the emissions intense enough that with unfavourable winds they could suffocate people. The fumaroles can be observed from satellites in the form of temperature anomalies which reach 4 K (7.2 °F) above background temperatures, but
13875-622: The summit crater. Reportedly, the summit is separated by a deep gap into two separate peaks. Thick short dacitic lava flows make up the core 13 by 12 kilometres (8.1 mi × 7.5 mi) area of the volcano but pyroclastic fall material covers much of the summit area. The massif rises about 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) above the surrounding terrain and covers an oval area of about 70 square kilometres (27 sq mi) –160 square kilometres (62 sq mi), consisting of lava domes , lava flows , pyroclastic cones and volcanic craters that rise about 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) above
14000-408: The summit of Ojos del Salado through scree-covered slopes and a steep ridge/ couloir at the end. Ropes and supports are available. Between 2004 and 2015, a Chilean company held a mountaineering concession for the Chilean side and maintained the infrastructure there; after the end of the concession maintenance resumed in 2018. From Argentina, the path runs from Cazadero Grande (Quemadito hut) along
14125-715: The summit of the mountain in east-west direction. The Argentine part is within Catamarca Province and the Chilean in Copiapo Province of the Atacama Region . The highway Chile Route 31 [ es ] runs between the city of Copiapo west of the volcano and the Paso San Francisco to Argentina, lying about 20 kilometres (12 mi) north of the volcano, making it more accessible than many other volcanoes there. The region
14250-507: The summit region. As of 2007 , there were no reports of plants in the waterbodies on Ojos del Salado. Salt, acid and cold-tolerant bacteria have been recovered from sediments in the lakes on Ojos del Salado, consistent with microorganism samples from similar dry volcanic environments. A diverse flora and fauna has been described in the lower elevation regions south-southeast of Ojos del Salado. Birds such as ducks , flamingos and geese and mammals such as guanacos and vicuñas occur in
14375-406: The surrounding areas, and initially not seismically monitored before its unanticipated and catastrophic eruption of 1991. Two other examples of volcanoes that were once thought to be extinct, before springing back into eruptive activity were the long-dormant Soufrière Hills volcano on the island of Montserrat , thought to be extinct until activity resumed in 1995 (turning its capital Plymouth into
14500-409: The surrounding terrain. The massif appears to feature a buried caldera , visible through a slope break from the western side, and/or a 2.5-kilometre-wide (1.6 mi) depression. The occurrence of a rift-like structure with numerous small craters has also been reported. Volcanic cones form a north-northeast trending alignment on the western flank. Cerro Solo and El Fraile are large lava domes on
14625-434: The theory of plate tectonics. For example, some volcanoes are polygenetic with more than one period of activity during their history; other volcanoes that become extinct after erupting exactly once are monogenetic (meaning "one life") and such volcanoes are often grouped together in a geographical region. At the mid-ocean ridges , two tectonic plates diverge from one another as hot mantle rock creeps upwards beneath
14750-444: The thinned oceanic crust . The decrease of pressure in the rising mantle rock leads to adiabatic expansion and the partial melting of the rock, causing volcanism and creating new oceanic crust. Most divergent plate boundaries are at the bottom of the oceans, and so most volcanic activity on Earth is submarine, forming new seafloor . Black smokers (also known as deep sea vents) are evidence of this kind of volcanic activity. Where
14875-431: The underlying ductile mantle , and most volcanic activity on Earth takes place along plate boundaries, where plates are converging (and lithosphere is being destroyed) or are diverging (and new lithosphere is being created). During the development of geological theory, certain concepts that allowed the grouping of volcanoes in time, place, structure and composition have developed that ultimately have had to be explained in
15000-502: The unreliability of this technique. The Chilean party also claimed seeing the Argentine pampa and the Pacific Ocean from the summit. In 1957, the official elevation of Ojos del Salado was 6,870 metres (22,540 ft) according to Argentina and 6,880 metres (22,570 ft) according to Chile. The debate on the elevation and confusion about which mountain was Ojos del Salado and who climbed which peak prompted an expedition by
15125-702: The valley between the two volcanoes; these were originally interpreted to have originated at Ojos del Salado. A pyroclastic flow erupted by Ojos del Salado descended the Cazadero valley and constitutes the "El Quemado Ignimbrite". Cerro Solo, whose emplacement was probably accompanied by intense pyroclastic flow activity, and lava domes in the summit region are of Pleistocene age. The long-term growth rate of Ojos del Salado amounts to 0.03–0.04 cubic kilometres per kiloare (0.0072–0.0096 cu mi/ka). Radiometric dating has yielded ages of 1.53 ± 0.13, 1.2 ± 0.3 million and less than one million years ago for rocks in
15250-492: The volcano. Solid particles smaller than 2 mm in diameter ( sand-sized or smaller) are called volcanic ash. Tephra and other volcaniclastics (shattered volcanic material) make up more of the volume of many volcanoes than do lava flows. Volcaniclastics may have contributed as much as a third of all sedimentation in the geologic record. The production of large volumes of tephra is characteristic of explosive volcanism. Through natural processes, mainly erosion , so much of
15375-424: The volcanoes of the East African Rift . A volcano needs a reservoir of molten magma (e.g. a magma chamber), a conduit to allow magma to rise through the crust, and a vent to allow the magma to escape above the surface as lava. The erupted volcanic material (lava and tephra) that is deposited around the vent is known as a volcanic edifice , typically a volcanic cone or mountain. The most common perception of
15500-419: The west, Nevado Tres Cruces . The last eruption occurred around 750 CE ; steam emissions observed in November 1993 may have constituted another eruptive event. An international highway between Argentina and Chile crosses north of the mountain. Ojos del Salado can be ascended from both countries; the first ascent was made in 1937 by Jan Alfred Szczepański and Justyn Wojsznis [ pl ] , members of
15625-421: Was described by Roman writers as having been covered with gardens and vineyards before its unexpected eruption of 79 CE , which destroyed the towns of Herculaneum and Pompeii . Accordingly, it can sometimes be difficult to distinguish between an extinct volcano and a dormant (inactive) one. Long volcano dormancy is known to decrease awareness. Pinatubo was an inconspicuous volcano, unknown to most people in
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