Misplaced Pages

#723276

73-658: The truck, a " cab-over-engine " released in September 2005, was designed in Volkswagen 's Wolfsburg Design Studio at Volkswagen Group Headquarters, but engineered by Volkswagen Truck and Bus, in Brazil , South Africa , and mainland Europe - on a rigorous 7 million kilometre test phase over a four-year period. In 2006, Renato Martins won the Brazilian Fórmula Truck Championship in

146-410: A kentēnarion ( κεντηνάριον , "hundredweight"). Its weight seems to have decreased gradually from the original 324 g (11.4 oz) to 319 g (11.3 oz). Due to its association with gold, it was also known as the chrysaphikē litra ( χρυσαφική λίτρα , "gold pound") or thalassia litra ( θαλάσσια λίτρα , "maritime pound"), but it could also be used as a measure of land, equalling

219-528: A torque handling capacity of 1,800 newton-metres (1,328  lbf⋅ft ). The 6x2 variants use a Meritor MS 23-185 tractive rear axle, and this has a maximum capacity of 60 tons. It includes a series differential locking system when used on the VW 25.370 tractor unit. The 6x2 variants also have the facility for partial or total lifting of the third axle, which helps achieve better traction, particularly on slopes. This Extra Traction Device (ETD) ensures part of

292-715: A 19.370, 25.370, and 31.370, with a Volkswagen Caminhões e Ônibus engineered and MWM produced 370 hp (276 kW; 375 PS) Volkswagen NGD 370 diesel engine. The Volkswagen Group NGD 370 turbodiesel engine premiers new attributes for the heavy trucks sector. The high "flat" torque at low engine speeds is improved by a variable geometry turbo-compressor : the Multi Turbo System - MTS. Its cylinder head features four valves per cylinder, displaces 9,354 cubic centimetres (570.8  cu in ) (9.4 litres), and generates 367 horsepower (274 kW; 372 PS) at 2,000 rpm. It also comes with

365-428: A 1980s US conventional, the result of such a crash was: Frame, front axle and wheels would go under the truck in front, while the motor got pushed into the cab (which was very small in a 1980s conventional). Both conventionals and cabovers need structural protection against rollovers, and special protection against massive objects at the height of another truck body. The survival space should be able to move backward on

438-425: A COE, provide a level of 60–65  dB(A) . Because of their flat front design, early COE semi-trucks had significantly worse aerodynamics than conventional tractors. Modern cab-over designs, in both semi-trucks and light- and medium-duty models, have improved aerodynamics significantly over early models, but often still have higher drag coefficients than their modern conventional-design counterparts. Although

511-506: A Swedish standard, and was adopted by the European Community in simplified form as ECE R-29 in 1974. During the early 1980s, the safest place for a truck driver was a European truck, usually a cabover. Motor placement before or under the cab does not have much influence on the results of rollovers. Behind the danger of a rollover, heavy truck on heavy truck crashes are the second most relevant reason for occupant casualties. With

584-572: A decline in sales to less than 1000 units worldwide, with European sales declining by 50% and sales in South America by 90%, within one decade. In addition, Asian regulations are typically stricter, and the relatively shorter journey distances allow trucks to forgo sleepers to save even more length. Cabover trucks are widely used in the United States for refuse collection , terminal tractors , and other vocational applications requiring

657-574: A fortieth of the thalassios modios . The soualia litra was specifically used for weighing olive oil or wood, and corresponded to 4/5 of the logarikē or 256 g (9.0 oz). Some outlying regions, especially in later times, adopted various local measures, based on Italian, Arab or Turkish measures. The most important of these was the argyrikē litra ( αργυρική λίτρα , "silver pound") of 333 g (11.7 oz), found in Trebizond and Cyprus , and probably of Arab origin. Since

730-663: A long series of Acts of Parliament, the intention of which has been to regulate the sale of commodities. Materials traded in the marketplace are quantified according to accepted units and standards in order to avoid fraud. The standards themselves are legally defined so as to facilitate the resolution of disputes brought to the courts; only legally defined measures will be recognised by the courts. Quantifying devices used by traders (weights, weighing machines, containers of volumes, measures of length) are subject to official inspection, and penalties apply if they are fraudulent. The Weights and Measures Act 1878 ( 41 & 42 Vict. c. 49) marked

803-655: A major overhaul of the British system of weights and measures, and the definition of the pound given there remained in force until the 1960s. The pound was defined thus (Section 4) "The ... platinum weight ... deposited in the Standards department of the Board of Trade ... shall continue to be the imperial standard of ... weight ... and the said platinum weight shall continue to be the Imperial Standard for determining

SECTION 10

#1732797941724

876-515: A new engine brake system, the Dual Power Brake (DPB) fed into the cylinder head, is electronically integrated into the turbocharger. It is claimed that the advantages are: increasing the operational average speed, the brake force, safety, retaking with fuel reduction, and speed on downward slopes. This means less gear shifts, lower maintenance costs, and helps improve the service life of the brakes and tyres . Clutches on all variants are

949-519: A series of measurements known as pounds ( Latin : libra , Ancient Greek : λίτρα , romanized :  litra ). The most common was the logarikē litra ( λογαρική λίτρα , "pound of account"), established by Constantine the Great in 309/310. It formed the basis of the Byzantine monetary system , with one litra of gold equivalent to 72 solidi . A hundred litrai were known as

1022-473: A tight turning radius or frequent ingress/egress by the driver. Autocar , the oldest surviving motor vehicle manufacturer in America, produces primarily cabover trucks. Although cabover trucks were popular among U.S. heavy truckers and trucking companies during the 1970s because of strict length laws in many states, when those length laws were repealed, most heavy-truck makers moved to other body styles. One of

1095-461: A tilting cab, with the last non-tilting cabs produced well into 1983. Truck occupant safety depends on survival space within the cab, with " rollover " being the most significant heavy truck accident causing occupant casualties. In the 1950s, when many truck cabs were still wooden structures, knowledge about the most common accidents was already established, and led to the first mechanized truck cab crash test in 1959, performed by Volvo. The test became

1168-523: A troy pound, is still used for measurements of gems such as opals, and precious metals such as silver, platinum and particularly gold. A tower pound is equal to 12 tower ounces and to 5,400 troy grains , which equals around 350 grams. The tower pound is the historical weight standard that was used for England's coinage. Before the Norman conquest in 1066, the tower pound was known as the Saxon pound. During

1241-647: A unit of mass effective 1 January 1840 by a decree of 4 July 1837, but is still used informally. Originally derived from the Roman libra, the definition varied throughout the Holy Roman Empire in the Middle Ages and onward. For example, the measures and weights of the Habsburg monarchy were reformed in 1761 by Empress Maria Theresa of Austria. The unusually heavy Habsburg (civil) pound of 16 ounces

1314-411: Is a body style of truck , bus , or van that has a vertical front, "flat face" or a semi-hood , with the cab of the truck sitting above (or forward of) the front axle . This contrasts with a conventional truck where the engine is mounted in front of the driver. This truck configuration is currently common among European and Asian truck manufacturers. European regulations set restrictions for both

1387-418: Is above the front axle . In the 1970s, COEs used to be noisier, because the engine is directly below. This was an important consideration back then: Interior noise in the cab was between 80 and 90  dB(A) , creating an unhealthy work environment . As of 2017 , US long-distance trucks provide an interior noise level of 60–70  dB(A) at highway speed, while European long-distance trucks, all built as

1460-412: Is electronically controlled. This helps achieve faster responses, better performance, and better thermal efficiency . This also works as part of the engine brake retarder in the exhaust system. The water-cooled exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) system, coupled with the cylinder block , reutilises part of the exhaust gasses, producing combustion at lower temperatures with less discharge rates. It includes

1533-529: Is now equivalent to 328.9 g (11.60 oz). It was divided into 12 unciae (singular: uncia ), or ounces. The libra is the origin of the abbreviation for pound, "lb". A number of different definitions of the pound have historically been used in Britain. Among these are the avoirdupois pound , which is the common pound used for weights, and the obsolete tower , merchants' and London pounds. The troy pound and ounce remain in use only for

SECTION 20

#1732797941724

1606-670: Is the ablative singular of the Latin noun pondus ('weight'). The United States and the Commonwealth of Nations agreed upon common definitions for the pound and the yard . Since 1 July 1959, the international avoirdupois pound (symbol lb) has been defined as exactly 0.453 592 37  kg . In the United Kingdom, the use of the international pound was implemented in the Weights and Measures Act 1963 . The yard or

1679-479: The funt was the basic unit of weight, and all other units of weight were formed from it; in particular, a zolotnik was 1 ⁄ 96 of a funt, and a pood was 40 fúnty . The Skålpund was a Scandinavian measurement that varied in weight between regions. From the 17th century onward, it was equal to 425.076 g (14.9941 oz) in Sweden but was abandoned in 1889 when Sweden switched to

1752-653: The Kenworth and Peterbilt brands) still manufactures traditional cab over engine designs for the Australian and South African markets where length restrictions still make them advantageous. In Australia , both American (cab over axle) and European/Japanese/Chinese ( cab forward of axle) types, as well as the conventional type are common. Cab over engine types dominate urban and light duty use, with conventional trucks predominating in remote and off-road areas. Both types are common for highway use. The first truck in

1825-539: The Metro series of vans and trucks for International Harvester . The bodies for these vehicles were initially produced by the Metropolitan Body Company (MBC). The company produced a wide variety of truck and commercial bodies for several vehicle manufacturers such as Chevrolet, Ford, Dodge Bros., and International Harvester until 1948 when they were purchased by the latter. MBC was instrumental in

1898-414: The Norman conquest the Saxon pound was known as the tower pound or moneyer's pound. In 1528, during the reign of Henry VIII , the coinage standard was changed by parliament from the tower pound to the troy pound . The avoirdupois pound, also known as the wool pound, first came into general use c. 1300. It was initially equal to 6,992 troy grains. The pound avoirdupois was divided into 16 ounces. During

1971-458: The Tower of London . The tower system ran concurrently with the avoirdupois and troy systems until the reign of Henry VIII , when a royal proclamation dated 1526 required that the troy pound be used for mint purposes instead of the tower pound. No standards of the tower pound are known to have survived. The tower pound was also called the moneyers' pound (referring to the Saxon moneyers before

2044-512: The apothecaries' system of weights. Troy weight may take its name from the French market town of Troyes in France where English merchants traded at least as early as the early 9th century. The troy pound is no longer in general use or a legal unit for trade (it was abolished in the United Kingdom on 6 January 1879 by the Weights and Measures Act 1878 ), but the troy ounce, 1 ⁄ 12 of

2117-528: The departements : Roer , Sarre , Rhin-et-Moselle , and Mont-Tonnerre . As a result of the Congress of Vienna , these regions again became part of various German states. However, many of these regions retained the metric system and adopted a metric pound of precisely 500 g (17.64 oz). In 1854, the pound of 500 g also became the official mass standard of the German Customs Union and

2190-482: The metre shall be the unit of measurement of length and the pound or the kilogram shall be the unit of measurement of mass by reference to which any measurement involving a measurement of length or mass shall be made in the United Kingdom; and- (a) the yard shall be 0.9144 metre exactly; (b) the pound shall be 0.453 592 37 kilogram exactly. An avoirdupois pound is equal to 16 avoirdupois ounces and to exactly 7,000 grains . The conversion factor between

2263-403: The metric system . Usage of the unqualified term pound reflects the historical conflation of mass and weight . This accounts for the modern distinguishing terms pound-mass and pound-force . The word 'pound' and its cognates ultimately derive from a borrowing into Proto-Germanic of the Latin expression libra pondo ('the weight measured in libra '), in which the word pondo

Volkswagen Constellation - Misplaced Pages Continue

2336-654: The 14th century for goods other than money and medicine (" electuaries "). The London pound is that of the Hansa , as used in their various trading places. The London pound is based on 16 ounces, each ounce divided as the tower ounce. It never became a legal standard in England; the use of this pound waxed and waned with the influence of the Hansa itself. A London pound was equal to 7,200 troy grains (16 troy ounces) or, equivalently, 10,240 tower grains (16 tower ounces). In

2409-457: The COE designs' being smaller in general, over-the-road tractors can still be fully equipped with single or bunk beds. Also, lack of a hood gives better visibility to the driver and a tighter turning radius , and significantly reduces the forward blind spots . One critique is that the shorter wheelbase in the COE semi-trucks gives a rougher ride than those with conventional cabs, as the driver's seat

2482-464: The Cologne standard. This arrátel was introduced in 1499 by Manuel I , king of Portugal . Based on an evaluation of bronze nesting weight piles distributed by Manuel I to different towns, the arrátel of Manuel I has been estimated to be of 457.8 g (16.15 oz). In the early 19th century, the arrátel was evaluated at 459 g (16.2 oz). In the 15th century, the arrátel

2555-569: The Constellation's first season racing. The cab is available in daycab and sleeper cab configurations. It is available in the following internal combustion engine / payload configurations: 13.180 and 15.180 with 180  hp (134 kW; 182 PS) MWM International Motores ; 17.250, 24.250 6x2 and 19.320 Titan with 250 hp (186 kW; 253 PS) or 320 hp (239 kW; 324 PS) Cummins diesel engines . A further three models were subsequently launched in 2007;

2628-735: The Dual Power Brake – DPB. It features an exclusive high pressure direct fuel injection similar to the Pumpe Düse (PD) system found in Volkswagen's car engines, the Hydraulic Electronic Unit Injector - HEUI – with electro-hydraulic digital unit injectors and extended durability, developed by the partner company Siemens / VDO . An important advantage is the removable wet cylinder liners which will assist with easier maintenance and lower costs. Its Multi Turbo System (MTS) turbine with variable vane geometry,

2701-531: The Imperial Standard Pound for the United Kingdom". Paragraph 13 states that the weight in vacuo of this standard shall be called the Imperial Standard Pound, and that all other weights mentioned in the act and permissible for commerce shall be ascertained from it alone. The first schedule of the act gave more details of the standard pound: it is a platinum cylinder nearly 1.35 inches (34 mm) high, and 1.15 inches (29 mm) diameter, and

2774-412: The Middle Ages, various pounds ( livre ) have been used in France. Since the 19th century, a livre has referred to the metric pound , 500 g. The livre esterlin is equivalent to about 367.1 grams (5,665 gr) and was used between the late 9th century and the mid-14th century. The livre poids de marc or livre de Paris is equivalent to about 489.5 grams (7,554 gr) and

2847-823: The Norman conquest); the easterling pound , which may refer to traders of eastern Germany, or to traders on the shore of the eastern Baltic sea , or dealers of Asiatic goods who settled at the London Steelyard wharf ; and the Rochelle pound by French writers, because it was also in use at La Rochelle . An almost identical weight was employed by the Germans for weighing gold and silver. The mercantile pound (1304) of 6750 troy grains, or 9600 Tower grains, derives from this pound, as 25 shilling -weights or 15 Tower ounces, for general commercial use. Multiple pounds based on

2920-467: The SI means that the pound is now defined precisely in terms of fundamental constants, ending the era of its definition in terms of physical prototypes. A troy pound (abbreviated lb t ) is equal to 12 troy ounces and to 5,760 grains, that is exactly 373.241 7216 grams. Troy weights were used in England by jewellers. Apothecaries also used the troy pound and ounce, but added the drachms and scruples unit in

2993-557: The U.S. ), and ℔ or ″̶ (specifically for the apothecaries' pound ). The unit is descended from the Roman libra (hence the symbol lb , descended from the scribal abbreviation , ℔ ). The English word pound comes from the Roman libra pondo ('the weight measured in libra '), and is cognate with, among others, German Pfund , Dutch pond , and Swedish pund . These units are now designated as historical and are no longer in common usage, being replaced by

Volkswagen Constellation - Misplaced Pages Continue

3066-444: The United States was built by Autocar in 1899 using a format then called "engine-under-the-seat" and was available with optional 5 or 8 horsepower (3.7 or 6.0 kilowatts) motors. Although early Autocar trucks were not exactly "cab-over", since the truck did not have a cab, per se, they were the fore-runners to COEs. The Sternberg company of Wisconsin produced cab-over trucks as early as 1907, though by 1914 only their seven-ton model

3139-577: The United States, the avoirdupois pound as a unit of mass has been officially defined in terms of the kilogram since the Mendenhall Order of 1893 . That order defined the pound to be 2.204 62 pounds to a kilogram. The following year, this relationship was refined as 2.204 622 34 pounds to a kilogram, following a determination of the British pound. In 1959, the United States National Bureau of Standards redefined

3212-426: The cab-over design allows the vehicle's wheelbase to be shorter than in the conventional arrangement , wherein the engine is placed in front of the cab, covered by a horizontal or sloping hood that opens to allow engine access. Its shorter wheelbase allows cab-over semi-trucks to have a shorter overall length, thereby allowing for longer trailers to be used. For light- and medium-duty solid- or rigid-axle trucks,

3285-533: The cab-over design requires less length for the cab and engine, in a given wheelbase, and therefore allows a greater length for the truck body or load area. In both class 8 tractors and light- and medium-duty vocational trucks, the cab-over-engine design gives the COE model an advantage in maneuverability over a conventional model. And since COEs are generally lighter than conventionals, they can often haul heavier loads, given equal gross vehicle weight rating (GVWRs) and gross combination weight rating (GCWRs). Despite

3358-578: The courts to be made according to the Imperial units defined in the Act, and a table of metric equivalents was supplied so that the Imperial equivalents could be legally calculated. This defined, in UK law, metric units in terms of Imperial ones. The equivalence for the pound was given as 1 lb = 453.592 65  g or 0.45359 kg, which made the kilogram equivalent to about 2.204 6213  lb . In 1883, it

3431-457: The design in 1934. Autocar reintroduced the engine-under-the-seat format with their Model U in 1933, which became a staple of U.S. roads and the U.S. military through World War II and well into the 1950s. White- Freightliner introduced its first tilting cab-over design in 1958, which allowed the entire cab to tilt forward for access to the engine. In Class 8 tractors (using the US designation),

3504-411: The development of COE route delivery bodies in the 1930s. The laws of the time limited overall truck length to 42 feet (12.8 m) on highways. Setting the cab over the engine and front axle shaved several feet off the length of the tractor, feet which could then be added to the length of the trailer while keeping the dimensions of the entire truck within the permissible limit. Schreckengost patented

3577-524: The edges are carefully rounded off. It has a groove about 0.34 inches (8.6 mm) from the top, to allow the cylinder to be lifted using an ivory fork. It was constructed following the destruction of the Houses of Parliament by fire in 1834, and is stamped "P.S. 1844, 1 lb" (P.S. stands for "Parliamentary Standard"). The British Weights and Measures Act 1878 ( 41 & 42 Vict. c. 49) said that contracts worded in terms of metric units would be deemed by

3650-401: The existing legal definition of the UK pound differed from the international standard pound by 0.06 milligrams . To remedy this, the pound was again redefined in the United Kingdom by the Weights and Measures Act 1963 to match the international pound, stating: "the pound shall be 0.453 592 37 kilogramme exactly", a definition which remains valid to the present day. The 2019 revision of

3723-478: The frame. In military use, the COE design increases the chance of crew injury or death in the event of running over a landmine . This is because the tire that detonates the mine is directly below/beside the driver. Pound (mass) The pound or pound-mass is a unit of mass used in both the British imperial and United States customary systems of measurement . Various definitions have been used;

SECTION 50

#1732797941724

3796-441: The front and into the cab. European or Chinese or Japanese truckers enter their cab in a straight fashion with handrails left and right. Cabovers are also very popular in the US's light- and medium-duty truck segment where compact size is required for urban mobility without sacrificing payload; Hino (a Toyota subsidiary), Isuzu , and Mitsubishi Fuso models are a regular sight for this reason. American company Paccar (which owns

3869-532: The hydraulically operated with pneumatic assistance single-plate diaphragm type. All are supplied by ZF Sachs , and range in diameter from 362 millimetres (14.3 in) to 430 millimetres (16.9 in). The engine output is routed through a variety of transmissions . One option is the ZF 16S 1685 TD 16-speed manual synchromesh transmission. This latest ZF box is 80 kilograms (176  lb ) lighter than existing models, due to its all- aluminium alloy casings. It has

3942-490: The kilogram and the international pound was therefore chosen to be divisible by 7 with a terminating decimal representation, and an (international) grain is thus equal to exactly 64.798 91   milligrams . In the United Kingdom, the process of metrication and European units of measurement directives were expected to eliminate the use of the pound and ounce, but in 2007 the European Commission abandoned

4015-430: The metric system, despite many efforts to do so , and the pound remains widely used as one of the key customary units. Historically, in different parts of the world, at different points in time, and for different applications, the pound (or its translation) has referred to broadly similar but not identical standards of mass or force. The libra (Latin for 'scale'/'balance') is an ancient Roman unit of mass that

4088-410: The metric system. In Norway, the same name was used for a weight of 425.076 g (14.9941 oz). In Denmark, it equaled 471 g (16.6 oz). In the 19th century, Denmark followed Germany's lead and redefined the pound as 500 g (18 oz). The Portuguese unit that corresponds to the pounds of different nations is the arrátel , equivalent to 16 ounces of Colonha , a variant of

4161-416: The most common today is the international avoirdupois pound, which is legally defined as exactly 0.453 592 37   kilograms , and which is divided into 16 avoirdupois ounces . The international standard symbol for the avoirdupois pound is lb ; an alternative symbol (when there might otherwise be a risk of confusion with the pound-force ) is lb m (for most pound definitions), # ( chiefly in

4234-501: The pound (avoirdupois) to be exactly equal to 0.453 592 37 kilograms, as had been declared by the International Yard and Pound Agreement of that year. According to a 1959 NIST publication, the United States 1894 pound differed from the international pound by approximately one part in 10 million. The difference is so insignificant that it can be ignored for almost all practical purposes. The Byzantines used

4307-492: The reasons is the Federal Bridge Formula , which is unique to the US, and encourages spreading out the load. If axle distances are too tight, the maximum load allowance is reduced. For COEs operated at maximum weight in the US, this required an axle directly behind the front bumper. This cab design caused an awkward climb into the cab for the driver, forcing them to climb up behind the front wheel, then moving to

4380-418: The reign of King Offa (757–96) of Mercia , a Saxon pound of silver was used to set the original weight of a pound sterling . From one Saxon pound of silver (that is a tower pound) the king had 240 silver pennies minted. In the pound sterling monetary system, twelve pennies equaled a shilling and twenty shillings equaled a pound sterling. The tower pound was referenced to a standard prototype found in

4453-420: The reign of Queen Elizabeth I , the avoirdupois pound was redefined as 7,000 troy grains. Since then, the grain has often been an integral part of the avoirdupois system. By 1758, two Elizabethan Exchequer standard weights for the avoirdupois pound existed, and when measured in troy grains they were found to be of 7,002 grains and 6,999 grains. In the United Kingdom, weights and measures have been defined by

SECTION 60

#1732797941724

4526-525: The requirement for metric-only labelling on packaged goods there, and allowed for dual metric – imperial marking to continue indefinitely. In the United States, the Metric Conversion Act of 1975 declared the metric system to be the "preferred system of weights and measures" but did not suspend use of United States customary units , and the United States is the only industrialised country where commercial activities do not predominantly use

4599-413: The same ounce were quite common. In much of Europe, the apothecaries' and commercial pounds were different numbers of the same ounce. The merchants' pound ( mercantile pound , libra mercantoria , or commercial pound ) was considered to be composed of 25 rather than 20 Tower shillings of 12 pence . It was equal to 9,600 wheat grains (15 tower ounces or 6,750 grains) and was used in England until

4672-403: The third axle load, during partial lifting, is transferred to the tractive axle. 6x4 variants utilise Meritor MD/MR 25-168 tractive rear axles, and are located via Randon S.A. rear suspension ( bogie type rigid shafts in tandem). Cab over Cab-over , also known as cab over engine ( COE ), cab forward or flat face (U.S.), flat nose (Canada), or forward control (UK),

4745-433: The tilting cab gives comparatively unobstructed access to the engine, its deployment causes unsecured items in the cab and sleeper (if equipped) to fall onto the windshield or under the instrument panel . Vehicles without a tilting cab will usually be equipped with removable floor panels through which mechanics can access and service the engine. In Europe, Mercedes-Benz was the last manufacturer to use such panels instead of

4818-490: The total length and the length of the load area, which allow a cab length of 2.35 m (7 ft 8 + 1 ⁄ 2  in) in combination with the maximum load area length. This allows a sleeper cab with a narrow bunk, or a bonneted (hooded) day cab. Nonetheless, no manufacturer in Europe produces such day cabs with bonnets. The last manufacturer of a conventional truck in Europe, Scania , stopped production in 2005 due to

4891-429: The weight of precious metals , especially in their trade. The weights of traded precious metals, such as gold and silver, are normally quoted just in ounces (e.g. "500 ounces") and, when the type of ounce is not explicitly stated, the troy system is assumed. The pound sterling money system, which was introduced during the reign of King Offa of Mercia (757–96), was based originally on a Saxon pound of silver. After

4964-539: Was a cab-over. They reintroduced the cab-over layout in 1933 with their "Camel Back" model, which allowed the cab to be tilted to access the engine. The introduction of the first modern cab-over layout in the United States is credited to industrial designer Viktor Schreckengost , who, with engineer Ray Spiller, designed a cab-over truck for the White Motor Company in 1932. Schreckengost was later joined by other designers such as Raymond Loewy who designed

5037-748: Was determined jointly by the standards department of the British Board of Trade and the Bureau International that 0.453 592 4277  kg was a better approximation, and this figure, rounded to 0.453 592 43  kg was given legal status by an Order in Council in May 1898. In 1959, based on further measurements and international coordination, the International Yard and Pound Agreement defined an "international pound" as being equivalent to exactly 0.453 592 37  kg . This meant that

5110-620: Was later defined in terms of 560.012 g (19.7538 oz). Bavarian reforms in 1809 and 1811 adopted essentially the same standard as the Austrian pound. In Prussia , a reform in 1816 defined a uniform civil pound in terms of the Prussian foot and distilled water, resulting in a Prussian pound of 467.711 g (16.4980 oz). Between 1803 and 1815, all German regions west of the River Rhine were under French control, organised in

5183-483: Was of 14 ounces of Colonha or 400.6 g (14.13 oz). The Portuguese libra was the same as 2 arráteis . There were also arráteis of 12.5 and 13 ounces and libras of 15 and 16 ounces. The Troyes or Tria standard was also used. A Jersey pound is an obsolete unit of mass used on the island of Jersey from the 14th century to the 19th century. It was equivalent to about 7,561 grains (490 g (17 oz)). It may have been derived from

5256-508: Was renamed the Zollpfund , but local pounds continued to co-exist with the Zollverein pound for some time in some German states. Nowadays, the term Pfund is sometimes still in use and universally refers to a pound of 500 g. The Russian pound ( Фунт , funt ) is an obsolete Russian unit of measurement of mass. It is equal to 409.51718 g (14.445293 oz). In 1899,

5329-401: Was used between the 1350s and the late 18th century. It was introduced by the government of John II . The livre métrique was set equal to the kilogram by the decree of 13 Brumaire an IX between 1800 and 1812. This was a form of official metric pound. The livre usuelle (customary unit) was defined as 500 g (18 oz) by the decree of 28 March 1812. It was abolished as

#723276