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127-538: The Prehistory of Transylvania describes what can be learned about the region known as Transylvania through archaeology , anthropology , comparative linguistics and other allied sciences. Transylvania proper is a plateau or tableland in northwest central Romania . It is bounded and defined by the Carpathian Mountains to the east and south, and the Apuseni Mountains to the west. As

254-482: A center for Christian denominations other than Eastern Orthodoxy , the form of Christianity that most Romanians currently follow. As such, there are significant numbers of inhabitants of Transylvania that follow Latin Catholicism and Greek Catholicism , and Protestantism . Even though before 1948, the population of Transylvania split between Eastern Orthodox, Greek Catholic and other forms of Christianity, during

381-411: A complex spiritual life, partly decoded by the components of the great sanctuary studied here. The cult edifice (with maximum dimensions of 12x6x7m), with two stages of construction, had two chambers, the one to the east, the other to the west, separated by an altar table and then a wall. The west chamber served as a depository for daily offerings. In the foundation of the south entrance to this chamber

508-712: A culture with several stages of development was identified and subsequently named the Quartzite Upper Paleolithic by its discoverer, considered to be synchronous with the local Aurignacian, later the Gravettian, and regarded as a prolongation of the late stages of the Mousterian with quartz and quartzite tools (Eastern Charentian). The populations evolving at the onset of the Bölling oscillation (approximately 12,000 BP ) and which have continued to

635-488: A diverse and relatively protected region, the area has always been rich in wildlife, and remains one of the more ecologically diverse areas in Europe. The mountains contain a large number of caves , which attracted both human and animal residents. The Peștera Urșilor , the "Bears Cave", was home to a large number of cave bears ( Ursus spelæus ) whose remains were discovered when the cave was discovered in 1975. Other caves in

762-647: A later stage of the Mousterian, or even with a transition stage to the Upper Paleolithic , at the onset of the Aurignacian culture of the Upper Paleolithic. The process of regional diversification among cultures was accelerated in the Upper Paleolithic through the middle to upper Würm. The beginnings of the Upper Paleolithic on the territory of Romania is dated somewhere between 32,000/30,000 – 13,000 BP , corresponding paleoclimatically to

889-483: A majority in the counties of Covasna (73.6%) and Harghita (84.8%). The Hungarians are also numerous in the following counties: Mureș (37.8%), Satu Mare (34.5%), Bihor (25.2%), and Sălaj (23.2%). Transylvania is rich in mineral resources, notably lignite , iron , lead , manganese , gold , copper , natural gas , salt , and sulfur . Transylvania's GDP (nominal) is $ 194 billion and its GDP per capita measures around $ 28,574. Transylvania's Human Development Index

1016-504: A mask), cross-like bodies, and are often decorated with spiral winding patterns. In Banat, with the end of the Vinča A2 stage there emerges the Banat culture with several distinctive regional peculiarities (groups Bucovăț and Parța ). The Parța settlement , thoroughly researched, demonstrates that the culture reached a high level of civilization, attested to by the one storey buildings and by

1143-487: A maximum of 5–6 metres (16–20 ft) and a minimum of 3 m (9.8 ft) in diameter. On one of the edges a simple fireplace was built out of a smoothed layer of clay. The thatched roof was conical or elongated and was supported by a trestle . The one room rectangular surface dwellings are also documented as dating back to the beginning of the Neolithic. They had wattle walls pasted with clay mixed with straw. The roof

1270-433: A remarkable process of assimilation, characteristic of the layer above mentioned. At Ocna Sibiului, at Precriș, level II, a small conical stone statuette was found, with a shape representing a couple embracing, and a plinth of the same material associated with the figure. On the statue and the plinth several symbols can be distinguished interpreted by the discoverer as ideograms . The Starčevo-Criș culture , representing

1397-496: A rich fauna, have been encountered in certified stratigraphic positions, belonging to the geo-chronological interval covering the late Mindel to the early Riss . The Middle Paleolithic – Mousterian – covers a time period much shorter than that of the prior epoch ( c. 100,000 – 33,000/30,000 BP ). It is a period set largely in Early Upper Pleistocene, and corresponds within the alpine glacial chronology to

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1524-644: A ritual hole in the ground, next to clay and alabaster idols and a fragment of an anchor, all of which have triggered hot debate over the stratigraphy and chronology of the settlement. The preservation by some Starčevo-Criș communities of painted pottery, in addition to the Vinča elements, engendered in the area of the eastern arch of the Western Carpathians the Cluj–Cheile Turzii–Lumea Nouă–Iclod cultural complex. This complex represents

1651-538: Is a drilled horse phalange , wholly ornamented and probably representing a female figure. Besides the mammal ( beaver , boar, mountain goat , etc.), bird and fish remnants, fragments of human skeletons were also found. The Climente II cave has produced a human skeleton, set in a crouching position, and covered by a thick layer of red ochre , which is attributed to the Tardigravettian dwelling and which predates Level I at Cuina Turcului . The discoveries in

1778-408: Is another valuable resource. IT , electronics and automotive industries are important in urban and university centers like Cluj-Napoca ( Robert Bosch GmbH , Emerson Electric ), Timișoara ( Alcatel-Lucent , Flextronics and Continental AG ), Brașov , Sibiu , Oradea and Arad . The cities of Cluj Napoca and Târgu Mureș are connected with a strong medical tradition, and according to

1905-481: Is largely a mystery. If the discovery of an Acheulean lithic item at Căpușu Mic , Cluj County , and of several Pre-Mousterian lithic items at Tălmaciu , Sibiu County , are a certain fact, their precise stratigraphic position remains to be established. The same cannot be said about the discoveries in the Ciuc Depression  [ ro ] at Sândominic , Harghita County , where several tools, and

2032-507: Is no proof of the provenance of the first metal items, they are seemingly local rather than imported products. That does not necessarily suggest that metallurgy was the invention of the local population, for it might have been introduced as a result of contact with regions where metal processing had started earlier (in the East or the Caucasus ). Transylvania Transylvania is known for

2159-710: Is one of the most important cultural centres of Romania and was designated the European Capital of Culture for the year 2007, along with the city of Luxembourg . It was formerly the centre of the Transylvanian Saxon culture and between 1692 and 1791 and 1849–65 was the capital of the Principality of Transylvania . Alba Iulia , a city located on the Mureș River in Alba County, has since

2286-710: Is ranked 0.829, which makes Transylvania the 2nd most developed region in Romania after Bucharest-Ilfov and makes it comparable to countries like the Czech Republic, Poland and Estonia. There are large iron and steel , chemical, and textile industries. Stock raising, agriculture , wine production and fruit growing are important occupations. Agriculture is widespread in the Transylvanian Plateau , including growing cereals, vegetables, viticulture and breeding cattle, sheep, swine, and poultry. Timber

2413-550: Is the Aurignacian (c. 43,000–28,000 BP) of Homo sapiens . The culture was named after the type site of Le Moustier , three superimposed rock shelters in the Dordogne region of France. Similar flintwork has been found all over unglaciated Europe and also the Near East and North Africa . Handaxes , racloirs , and points constitute the industry; sometimes a Levallois technique or another prepared-core technique

2540-601: Is the exclusive result of the migration of a Neolithic population from the South Balkan area, while the second (the Starčevo-Criș culture ) reflects the process of adjusting to local conditions by a South Balkan community, possibly a synthesis with the local Tardenoisian groups. The layer Gura Baciului – Cârcea, also called the Precriș culture , is a spin-off of a Protosesklo culture group that advanced north and reached

2667-654: Is the largest religion, but other faiths also are present, including Jews and Muslims . Under the Habsburgs , Transylvania served as a place for "religious undesirables". People who arrived in Transylvania included those that did not conform to the Catholic Church and were sent here forcibly, as well as many religious refugees. Transylvania has a long history of religious tolerance, ensured by its religious pluralism. Transylvania has also been (and still is)

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2794-500: Is the only university in Europe that has four faculties of theology (Orthodox, Reformed, Roman Catholic, and Greek Catholic). There are also small denominations like Adventism , Jehovah's Witnesses and more. Others Data refers to extended Transylvania (with Banat , Crișana and Maramureș ). Mousterian The Mousterian (or Mode III ) is an archaeological industry of stone tools , associated primarily with

2921-615: Is the site where layers of the Middle Aurignacian culture have been identified, as signaled by the presence of blade scrapers, refitted core, burins . In Banat , the settlements of Tincova , Coșava , and Românești - Dumbrăvița , have produced flint tools demonstrating that the Aurignacian in this area evolved closely with that in Central Europe (the Krems-Dufour group ). Aurignician items were also found in

3048-737: The Gesta Hungarorum , the Vlach ( Blacorum, Blacus ) leader Gelou ruled part of Transylvania before the Hungarians arrived. Historians debate whether he was a historical person or an imaginary figure. The gyulas from the seven chieftains of the Hungarians governed Transylvania in the 10th century. King Stephen I of Hungary asserted his claim to rule all lands dominated by Hungarian lords. He personally led his army against his maternal uncle Gyula III and Transylvania became part of

3175-755: The April Laws of 1848. After the failure of the revolution, the March Constitution of Austria decreed that the Principality of Transylvania be a separate crown land entirely independent of Hungary . The separate status of Transylvania ended with the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 , and it was reincorporated into the Kingdom of Hungary ( Transleithania ) as part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire . It

3302-636: The Bran Castle in Brașov County (14th century), and the Hunyad Castle in Hunedoara (15th century). Notable writers such as Emil Cioran , Lucian Blaga , George Coșbuc , Ioan Slavici , Octavian Goga , Liviu Rebreanu , Endre Ady , Elie Wiesel , Elek Benedek and Károly Kós were born in Transylvania. Liviu Rebreanu wrote the novel Ion , which introduces the reader to a depiction of

3429-532: The Carpathian Basin . The First Bulgarian Empire expanded into Southern Transylvania in the 9th century. Smaller Slavic polities were also present, nevertheless they could hardly keep their independence. In the late 9th century, Transylvania was reached and conquered by the Hungarian conquerors . There is an ongoing scholarly debate over the demographics in Transylvania at the time. According to

3556-720: The Carpathian Mountains . The area includes the Transylvanian Plain . Other areas to the west and north are widely considered part of Transylvania; in common reference, the Western border of Transylvania has come to be identified with the present Romanian-Hungarian border, settled in the 1920 Treaty of Trianon, although geographically the two are not identical. Ethnographic areas: Light yellow – historical region of Transylvania Dark yellow – historical regions of Banat , Crișana and Maramureș Grey – historical regions of Wallachia , Moldavia and Dobruja The area of

3683-618: The Centru development region , another six (Bihor, Bistrița-Năsăud, Cluj, Maramureș, Satu Mare, Sălaj) form the Nord-Vest development region , while four (Arad, Caraș-Severin, Hunedoara, Timiș) form the Vest development region . Cluj-Napoca , commonly known as Cluj, is the second most populous city in Romania (as of the 2021 census), after the national capital Bucharest , and is the seat of Cluj County . From 1790 to 1848 and from 1861 to 1867, it

3810-892: The Clisura area display striking similarities to the industries of the Italian Peninsula — the expression of the migrant human bearers of the Late Epigravettian in the mentioned area. Specialist opinions fix the beginning of the Mesolithic era at the end of the Preboreal , its development throughout the Boreal , and its end as late as the beginnings of the Atlantic . Chronologically then, it can be set between 9,500-9,000 and 7,500 BP. Two cultures are documented on

3937-470: The Gornești culture . The graves at Decea Mureșului , according to some, are a continuation of the rituals of Iclod , whereas according to others, they are hard proof of the penetration of central Transylvania by a north-Pontic population. The presence of red ochre scattered over the skeletons, or laid at their feet in the form of little balls, as well as other ritual elements find better analogies, however, in

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4064-661: The Great Union Day (also called Unification Day , ) occurring on December 1, celebrates this event. The holiday was established after the Romanian Revolution , and marks the unification not only of Transylvania but also of the provinces of Banat , Bessarabia and Bukovina with the Romanian Kingdom . These other provinces had all joined with the Kingdom of Romania a few months earlier. In 1920,

4191-582: The Habsburg monarchy gained possession of Transylvania through the Hungarian crown . After the failure of Rákóczi's War of Independence in 1711, Habsburg control of Transylvania was consolidated, and Hungarian Transylvanian princes were replaced with Habsburg imperial governors. During the Hungarian Revolution of 1848 , the Hungarian government proclaimed union with Transylvania in

4318-680: The High Middle Ages been the seat of Transylvania's Roman Catholic diocese . Between 1541 and 1690 it was the capital of the Eastern Hungarian Kingdom and the later Principality of Transylvania . Alba Iulia also has historical importance: after the end of World War I, representatives of the Romanian population of Transylvania gathered in Alba Iulia on 1 December 1918 to proclaim the union of Transylvania with

4445-606: The Huns , defeated and shattered the Goths, and settled in the area. After the death of Hun King Attila , their empire disintegrated and the Gepids conquered the region in 455, under King Ardaric . For two centuries, the Gepids controlled Transylvania. The Ostrogoths systematically pushed the Gepids out of Pannonia . King Elemund , on the other hand, successfully fought battles against

4572-528: The Jewish population reported Hungarian as their primary language, so they were also counted as ethnically Hungarian in the 1910 census). At the same time, the percentage of the Romanian population decreased from 59.0% to 53.8% and the percentage of the German population decreased from 11.9% to 10.7%, for a total population of 5,262,495. Magyarization policies greatly contributed to this shift. The percentage of

4699-573: The Kingdom of Hungary in 1002. After the Battle of Mohács in 1526 it belonged to the Eastern Hungarian Kingdom , from which the Principality of Transylvania emerged in 1570 by the Treaty of Speyer . During most of the 16th and 17th centuries, the principality was a vassal state of the Ottoman Empire ; however, the principality had dual suzerainty ( Ottoman and Habsburg ). In 1690,

4826-508: The Kingdom of Hungary in 1002. Place names derived from the Hungarian tribes evidence that major Hungarian groups settled in Transylvania from the 950s. In the 12th and 13th centuries, Southeast and Northeast Transylvania was settled by Saxon colonists. In Romanian historiography, Romanians constituted an important part of Transylvania's population even on the eve of the Mongol Invasions . Hungarian historiography claims that

4953-479: The Kingdom of Romania by the Treaty of Trianon in 1920. In 1940, Northern Transylvania reverted to Hungary as a result of the Second Vienna Award , but it was returned to Romania after the end of World War II . In popular culture, Transylvania is commonly associated with vampires because of the influence of Bram Stoker 's 1897 novel Dracula and the many subsequent books and films that

5080-565: The Kingdom of Romania . In Transylvania, there are many medieval smaller towns such as Sighișoara , Mediaș , Sebeș , and Bistrița . Official censuses with information on Transylvania's population have been conducted since the 18th century. On May 1, 1784 the Emperor Joseph II called for the first official census of the Habsburg Empire , including Transylvania. The data was published in 1787, and this census showed only

5207-741: The Neanderthals in Europe , and to the earliest anatomically modern humans in North Africa and West Asia . The Mousterian largely defines the latter part of the Middle Paleolithic , the middle of the West Eurasian Old Stone Age . It lasted roughly from 160,000 to 40,000  BP . If its predecessor, known as Levallois or Levallois-Mousterian, is included, the range is extended to as early as c.  300,000–200,000 BP. The main following period

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5334-623: The North Danubian region where it founded the first culture of painted pottery in Romania. The small number of sites attributable to this early cultural time has not allowed the route followed by the group, to penetrate the Inter-Carpathian area, to be firmly established, yet in all likelihood, it was the Olt Valley . Based on the stratigraphy in the site of Gura Baciului , Cluj County , and Ocna Sibiului , Sibiu County ,

5461-407: The Pișcolt group, the Turdaș culture , the Cluj-Cheile–Turzii–Lumea Nouă–Iclod complex, and the Iclod group. A general characteristic of these groups is the black polished pottery (cups, bowls, lids, etc.). The decorations are variously incised and impressed (bands filled in with stripes, in particular) in addition to displaying fine grooves. The statuettes feature oblong heads (possibly indicating

5588-417: The Schela Cladovei culture had already come to an end. The Neolithic began with the slow migration of communities from the south of the Balkan Peninsula (the Protosesklo culture from the Thesalo-Macedonean area ), who brought with them momentous economic progress. Consequently, the process of neolithisation , which is essentially a shift to plant growing and animal breeding , was not an innovation of

5715-443: The Slavs , and the 9th century First Bulgarian Empire . During the late 9th century, Transylvania was reached and conquered by the Hungarian tribes , and Gyula's family from the seven chieftains of the Hungarians ruled it in the 10th century. King Stephen I of Hungary asserted his claim to rule all lands dominated by Hungarian lords. He personally led his army against his maternal uncle Gyula III and Transylvania became part of

5842-415: The Székely Land of Eastern Transylvania, and along the newly created border. In August 1940, with the arbitration of Germany and Italy under the Second Vienna Award , Hungary gained Northern Transylvania (including parts of Crișana and Maramureș ), and over 40% of the territory lost in 1920. This award did not solve the nationality problem, as over 1.15–1.3 million Romanians (or 48% to more than 50% of

5969-399: The Treaty of Karlowitz ; however, some anti-Habsburg elements within the principality submitted to the emperor only in the 1711 Peace of Szatmár , when Habsburg control over Principality of Transylvania was consolidated. The Grand Principality of Transylvania was reintroduced 54 years later in 1765. The Hungarian revolution against the Habsburgs started in 1848, and grew into a war for

6096-407: The Treaty of Trianon established new borders and much of the proclaimed territories became part of Romania. Hungary protested against the new state borders, as they did not follow the real ethnic boundaries, for over 1.3 or 1.6 million Hungarian people, representing 25.5 or 31.6% of the Transylvanian population (depending on statistics used), were living on the Romanian side of the border, mainly in

6223-432: The Triticum monococcum and Triticum aestivus species in proportion of approx. 10%. The first occurrence on the territory of Romania of the Hordeum vulgare barley is seen. Also present are such leguminous plants as lentil and vetch. Of paramount interest is that wheat was harvested, as discovered in a settlement south of the Carpathians ( Teiu , the Gumelnița culture ), and was possibly used in other areas, too. The wheat

6350-436: The Villages with fortified churches , the Historic Centre of Sighișoara , the Dacian Fortresses of the Orăștie Mountains and the Roșia Montană Mining Cultural Landscape . It was under the rule of the Agathyrsi , part of the Dacian Kingdom (168 BC–106 AD), Roman Dacia (106–271), the Goths , the Hunnic Empire (4th–5th centuries), the Kingdom of the Gepids (5th–6th centuries), the Avar Khaganate (6th–9th centuries),

6477-423: The Vinča culture (more commonly divided into four main phases: A, B, C, and D), whose beginning is synchronous with the final phase of the Sesklo culture (Greece) occupying Banat and most of Transylvania. In about the same period, the north-east of Transylvania was penetrated by several groups, bearing the linear and musical note pottery culture . The Vinča culture in Romania comes in many forms depending on

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6604-411: The empire came close to the brink of collapse. Thus, the new young emperor Franz Joseph I had to call for Russian help under the Holy Alliance. Czar Nicholas I answered, and sent an army of 200,000 men with 80,000 auxiliary forces. Finally, the joint army of Russian and Austrian forces defeated the Hungarian forces. After the restoration of Habsburg power, Hungary was placed under martial law. Following

6731-407: The ethnic Romanians from Transylvania, Banat, Crișana and Maramureș backed by the mobilization of Romanian troops , proclaimed Union with Romania on 1 December 1918. The Proclamation of Union of Alba Iulia was adopted by the Deputies of the Romanians from Transylvania and supported one month later by the vote of the Deputies of the Saxons from Transylvania. The national holiday of Romania ,

6858-473: The Aurignacian discovered next to them. Likewise, in the Ciurul Mare Cave in the Pădurea Craiului Mountains ( Transylvania ) speleologists have discovered some distinctively male, female and child footprints. An anthropological analysis has identified Cro-Magnon and even Neanderthal characteristics in these footprints. The economy of the Paleolithic communities consisted mainly of exploiting natural resources: gathering, fishing and especially hunting were

6985-635: The Communist Period the Orthodox Church was much more favored by the state which has led to Eastern Orthodoxy being the religion of the majority of Transylvanians. However, among the Hungarian and German minorities only a small part are Eastern Orthodox. The main two religions of the Hungarian minority are Reformed (Calvinism) and Roman Catholicism; among Germans the main religions are Roman Catholicism (slightly over half of Germans in Romania ), followed by Lutheranism and Eastern Orthodox. There are also Pentecostals and Baptists , particularly in Banat and Crișana. Babeș-Bolyai University , located in Cluj-Napoca

7112-427: The Cucuteni-Ariușd, Petrești, Tiszapolgár-Românești and Bodrogkeresztúr-Gornești. The first two cultures are among the numerous Eneolithic cultures with pottery painted in bi- and tri-chromatic patterns. At Ariușd , Covasna County , in the east of Transylvania, the first systematic excavations were undertaken in what is considered the neo-Eneolithic epoch in Romania . The material discovered has been integrated into

7239-454: The Eastern Roman Empire. They were defeated by the Lombards and Avars in 567. In the following years, the Avars took full control over Transylvania, heavily settling the area with Slavic tribes who accepted their suzerainty. The expansion of the Frankish Empire , however, imposed a growing threat on them and their khaganate was crushed in the Avar Wars . The Avars and Slavs, although substantially depleted in number, continued to inhabit

7366-443: The Hungarian Army's surrender at Világos (now Șiria , Romania) in 1849, their revolutionary banners were taken to Russia by the Tsarist troops and were kept there both under the Tsarist and Communist systems (in 1940 the Soviet Union offered the banners to the Horthy government). After the Ausgleich of 1867, the Principality of Transylvania was once again abolished. The territory then became part of Transleithania , an addition to

7493-451: The Low Paleolithic have been found, while the only Middle Paleolithic remains that have been discovered were a number of phalanges unearthed by Márton Roska  [ hu ] in the Bordu Mare Cave at Ohaba Ponor , Hunedoara County . A skull capsule discovered by Roska in the Cioclovina Cave displays features attributed to Homo sapiens sapiens , and dates back to the Upper Paleolithic as indicated by three flint objects peculiar to

7620-431: The Near East, Mousterian tools were produced by anatomically modern humans . In the Eastern Mediterranean , for example, assemblages produced by Neanderthals are indistinguishable from those made by Qafzeh type modern humans. The Mousterian industry in North Africa is estimated to be 315,000 years old. Possible variants are Denticulate, Charentian (Ferrassie & Quina) named after the Charente region, Typical, and

7747-514: The Old Kingdom, most notably to Bucharest ). According to the results of the 2011 census , the total population of Transylvania was 6,789,250 inhabitants and the ethnic groups were: Romanians – 70.62%, Hungarians – 17.92%, Roma – 3.99%, Ukrainians – 0.63%, Germans (mostly Transylvanian Saxons and Banat Swabians, but also Zipsers, Sathmar Swabians, or Landlers) – 0.49%, other – 0.77%. Some 378,298 inhabitants (5.58%) have not declared their ethnicity. The ethnic Hungarian population of Transylvania form

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7874-516: The Paleolithic coincides with that of the Pleistocene (the first period of the Quaternary ), and is marked by four great glaciations , as established in the Alps ( Günz , Mindel , Riss , and Würm ). While an ever-increasing amount of data has become available on the evolution of the climate, fauna and vegetation of present-day Romania , there is very little in the fossil record to give researchers an idea of what Paleolithic man in Romania looked like. To date, no human skeletal remains dating from

8001-404: The Romanian majority has significantly increased since the declaration of the union of Transylvania with Romania after World War I in 1918. The proportion of Hungarians in Transylvania was in steep decline as more of the region's inhabitants moved into urban areas, where the pressure to assimilate and Romanianize was greater. The expropriation of the estates of Magyar magnates , the distribution of

8128-524: The Saxons. In retaliation, the Saxons distributed poems of cruelty and other propaganda characterising the sadistic Vlad III Dracula as a drinker of blood. The earliest known reference to Transylvania appears in a Medieval Latin document of the Kingdom of Hungary in 1078 as ultra silvam , meaning "beyond the forest" ( ultra meaning "beyond" or "on the far side of" and the accusative case of Sylva ( sylvam ) "woods, forest"). Transylvania, with an alternative Latin prepositional prefix, means "on

8255-403: The Treaty of Trianon, 27 years earlier, thus confirming the return of Northern Transylvania to Romania. From 1947 to 1989, Transylvania, along with the rest of Romania, was under a communist regime . The ethnic clashes of Târgu Mureș between ethnic Romanians and Hungarians in March 1990 took place after the fall of the communist regime and became the most notable inter-ethnic incident in

8382-497: The Vlach population entered Transylvania from the Balkans only in the 12th century, and the devastating invasion of Mongols had also as consequence the large-scale immigration by Romanians, however the immigration of Romanians did not happen all at once, the process of settlement stretched over several centuries. After the Battle of Kosovo and Ottoman arrival at the Hungarian border, thousands of Vlach and Serbian refugees came to Transylvania. Between 1002 and 1526, Transylvania

8509-489: The area sheltered early humans. Prehistory is the longest period in the history of mankind, throughout of which writing was still unknown. In Transylvania specifically this applies to the Paleolithic , Neolithic , Bronze Age , and Iron Age . The Paleolithic epoch, the oldest and longest period in the history of mankind, is divided by specialists into three stages of development: Lower Paleolithic , Middle Paleolithic , and Upper Paleolithic . The chronological frame of

8636-430: The bodies were oriented east–west, their heads facing east. The inventory consists of vessels (cylindrical, painted bowls, and S profile pots), ochre , stone utensils, ornaments and animal offerings . The Chalcolithic , Eneolithic or Copper Age ( c. 4600/4500 – 3800/3700 BC) is characterized by an ever-increasing number of copper items, as well as the presence of stone, bone, horn and baked clay utensils. It marks

8763-426: The bones of hunted game outnumbering the tools. Consequently, specialists consider this Mousterian to be an " Eastern Charentian ". Likewise, North-Western and Northern Transylvania with the settlements at Boinești , Satu Mare County , and Remetea , Maramureș County , have revealed several typically Mousterian tools ( flake scrapers , blade scrapers , target points etc.), some of which have been associated with

8890-455: The bottom of several vessels, particularly on those at Turdaș ( Hunedoara County ), have often been regarded as the potter's mark . More recently they have been considered by some researchers as early attempts at recording dates graphically. That things might stand this way is demonstrated, apparently, by the baked clay tablets covered with incised pictographic patterns at Tărtăria ( Alba County ), discovered, according to Nicolae Vlassa , in

9017-424: The caves in the Western Carpathians, the most famous of which is the Cioclovina cave in Hunedoara County – the site, around the start of the 20th century, of the first Paleolithic discoveries in Transylvania. The Eastern Gravettian had a long evolution, featuring several stages of development as documented especially by the settlements in Moldova. The Gravettian has left traces in Țara Oașului and Maramureș ,

9144-408: The debut of plant cultivation . Some of the larger river rocks flattened by water or some of the thicker slabs might have served for grinding. The examination of the fauna indicates an economy based mainly on hunting. The targeted game were deer, roebucks , European bisons , wild boars, hares, wild donkeys , foxes, etc. Furthermore, it would seem that the representatives of this culture domesticated

9271-445: The development of the culture is divided into three major stages. The settlements are situated on high terraces strung along secondary valleys. The dwellings are most often underground, but there are also ground level houses, usually standing on river stone platforms. Pottery (bowls, cups) is refined, with white painted dots or geometrical patterns on red or brown-red background. Concomitant with pottery, plant cultures and animal breeding,

9398-418: The dog . Anthropological data are quite consistent. The physical type was evaluated as Oriental Cro-Magnon . The skeletons of the deceased were laid in rectangular holes, some dug in the floor of the dwelling itself. Part of them was laid in a crouching position, part was laid on their back, together with some of their personal belongings. Child mortality was high, while the average life expectancy for adults

9525-542: The end of the Preboreal have been generally attributed to the Epipaleolithic . Consequently, this historical period could be associated with the interval between 13,000 and about 9,500-9,000 BP . These communities continued the lifestyles of the Upper Paleolithic . Due to numerous factors, including changes in the climate, the small groups of hunters-fishermen-gatherers innovated tool and weapon types – producing, for instance, microlites (trapeze) — while also keeping

9652-468: The environment was friendly. The dwellings were embedded in the early phases and were huts at ground level, in the later phases. Asymmetrical receptacles, bowls, spherical cups, all of which were made of clay, furnish the interiors of this culture. The lithic utensil inventory includes flint and obsidian microlites , as well as large polished stone axes of the Walzenbiele type. It is now, too, that

9779-514: The female principle, and the Bull , representing the male principle. The presence among the findings at Gura Baciului of some anthropomorphic stone heads, similar to the famous stone heads of Lepenski Vir , signify possible contact between the locals, the Mesolithic cultures , and the newcomers. Furthermore, the adoption of these alien deities, even if exclusively a plastic substantiation, speaks of

9906-489: The first production of heavy copper tools and moulds, (axes – chisels and axes), in close conjunction with the exploitation of copper deposits in Transylvania. Gold is used for ornaments and the fashioning of such idols as those at Moigrad in the Bodrogkeresztúr-Gornești culture. The craft of pottery reaches a peak, exemplified by the great number of exquisitely decorated pots. Cultures typical for this period are

10033-515: The first small copper items occur sporadically. The pintaderas decorated with geometrical patterns as well as the Spondylus and Tridacna shells testify to possible connections with Eastern Mediterranean regions. Burials were performed both inside and among the dwellings. Anthropological analyses have revealed a major Mediterranean component suggesting a southern origin of this population. The Developed Neolithic ( c. 5500–4000 BC) covers

10160-657: The generalisation of the early Neolithic in the Intra-Carpathian territory, has been regarded by some as the prolongation of the Gura Baciului-Cârcea/Precriș culture, disregarding that it is probably the result of a new south Balkan migration (the Presesklo culture ) arriving in Transylvania via Banat . The Starčevo–Criș culture has a long evolution in four stages. Dwellings were set up on meadows, terraces , hills and even in caves, wherever

10287-467: The greater painted pottery complex of Cucuteni-Ariușd-Trypillia. The Petrești culture diffused across almost all of Transylvania, is regarded as local in origin by some specialists, and as a migration originating from the southern areas of the Balkans, by others. It is primarily known for its painted decoration – patterns painted in red, brown-red, later brown, on a brick-red background, which testifies to

10414-459: The high standard of civilization of the bearers of this culture. The ornamental motifs consist in bands, rhombuses , squares, spirals, and windings. The typical forms are bowls, tureens, high stands. Plastic art is fairly scarce and so are brass items. The end of this culture has been associated with the entry into central Transylvania by the bearers of the Decea Mureșului culture /horizon and

10541-1114: The historical Voivodeship is 55,146 km (21,292 sq mi). The regions granted to Romania in 1920 covered 23 counties including nearly 102,200 km (39,460 sq mi) (102,787–103,093 km in Hungarian sources and 102,282 km in contemporary Romanian documents). Nowadays, several administrative reorganisations make the territory cover 16 counties ( Romanian : județ ), with an area of 100,290 km (38,722 sq mi), in central and northwest Romania. The 16 counties are: Alba , Arad , Bihor , Bistrița-Năsăud , Brașov , Caraș-Severin , Cluj , Covasna , Harghita , Hunedoara , Maramureș , Mureș , Sălaj , Satu Mare , Sibiu , and Timiș . Transylvania contains both largely urban counties, such as Brașov and Hunedoara counties, as well as largely rural ones, such as Bistrița-Năsăud and Sălaj counties. Since 1998, Romania has been divided into eight development regions , acting as divisions that coordinate and implement socio-economic development at regional level. Six counties (Alba, Brașov, Covasna, Harghita, Mureș and Sibiu) form

10668-597: The interval between the last phase of the Starčevo–Criș culture and the beginnings of the Petrești culture, the period including what has long been known as middle and late Neolithic. The Developed Neolithic is marked by the migration of some new groups of populations, whose point of departure was the south of the Balkan Peninsula , as part of the group of cultures with polished black pottery. These same groups created

10795-606: The interval covering the late Riss-Würm interglacial, or rather the Lower Würm , through middle Würm , as indicated by the dating of the late Mousterian dwellings in the Gura Cheii Cave , Râșnov , Brașov County , and the Spurcată Cave , Nandru , Hunedoara County . The Mousterian period is closest to the alpine Paleolithic. Both periods were characterized by the presence of numerous quartzite slivers and chips, with

10922-493: The lands to the Romanian peasants, and the policy of cultural Romanianization that followed the Treaty of Trianon were major causes of friction between Hungary and Romania. Other factors include the emigration of non-Romanian peoples, assimilation and internal migration within Romania (estimates show that between 1945 and 1977, some 630,000 people moved from the Old Kingdom to Transylvania, and 280,000 from Transylvania to

11049-668: The life of Romanian peasants and intellectuals of Transylvania at the turn of the 20th century. Károly Kós was one of the most important writers supporting the movement of Transylvanianism . Transylvania has a very rich and unique religious history. Since the Protestant Reformation , different Christian denominations have coexisted in this religious melting pot, including Romanian Orthodox , other Eastern Orthodox , Latin Catholic and Romanian Greek Catholic , Lutheran , Reformed , and Unitarian branches. Christianity

11176-612: The local Mesolithic population but rather the result of the penetration of this territory by communities carrying the Neolithic civilization. The normal divisions of the Neolithic are: Early Neolithic , Developed Neolithic , and Chalcolithic (Copper Age). The Neolithic epoch on the territory of Romania , as certified by calibrated 14C dates, began around 6600 BC, and ended around 3800–3700 BC, and no later than 3500 BC. The Early Neolithic ( c. 6600–5500 BC) consists of two cultural layers: genetically linked and with similar physiognomies. The first (layer Gura Baciului – Cârcea /Precriș)

11303-505: The local background against which it developed (the Starčevo-Criș culture and the linear pottery) and the degree of southern influence. The synthesis of the above-mentioned elements gave birth to numerous related regional elements, so that when referring to the Transylvania territory, specialists do not speak of a Vinča culture per se, but rather that of the Banat culture , the Bucovăț group,

11430-467: The main pursuits of the diverse human groups. As early as the Lower Paleolithic, human groups either hunted or trapped game. We can assume that in Transylvania, alongside mammoths or deer, horses were a fairly important food source, if our dating of the painting on the ceiling of the cave at Cuciulat , Sălaj County , is correct. The Lower Paleolithic in Transylvania, because data are scarce,

11557-497: The necropolis at Mariupol in south Ukraine. The Gornești culture, characterized by the occurrence of the so-called high-necked milk pots with two small protuberances pulled at the margin and drilled vertically, is a continuation of the [Românești] (featuring receptacles with bird bill protuberances and decorated with step or nettle incisions), in turn descended from the Tisa culture in the developed Neolithic period. The settlements of

11684-469: The neo-Eneolithic cultures were located on the low or high river terraces, on hilltops or hillspurs and consisted in several dwellings whose positions sometimes observed particular rules. Recent research has tended to focus on the defense systems (ditches and scarps) of these sites. The culture strata are thick and superposed forming at times regular tells . The dwellings of this period were of several types. The earth houses displayed an oval shaped hole, with

11811-466: The new culture introduces implements of polished stone and the first clay statuettes. The dead are buried on the grounds of the settlements sometimes directly under the dwellings. Gura Baciului is the first site on the territory of Romania attesting incineration as a funerary practice. Anthropomorphic and zoomorphic plastic art reveals a bipolar system of beliefs: the Great Mother , representing

11938-718: The newly established Austro-Hungarian Empire . Romanian intellectuals issued the Blaj Pronouncement in protest. The region was the site of an important battle during World War I, which caused the replacement of the German Chief of Staff, temporarily ceased German offensives on all the other fronts and created a unified Central Powers command under the German Kaiser. Following defeat in World War I , Austria-Hungary disintegrated. Elected representatives of

12065-777: The onset of the Arcy oscillation , and is marked by the development of the two great civilizations: the Aurignacian and the Gravettian both featuring several stages of development as established by stratigraphy . The onset of the Aurignacian culture seems to have paralleled the late Mousterian facies in the Carpathian caves, if we accept as valid the C14 dating of level IIb in the cave of Gura Cheii in Râșnov . Northwestern Transylvania

12192-531: The other side of the woods". The Medieval Latin form Ultrasylvania , later Transylvania , was a direct translation from the Hungarian form Erdő-elve , later Erdély , from which also the Romanian name, Ardeal , comes. That also was used as an alternative name in German überwald ("beyond the forest") (13th–14th centuries) and Ukrainian Залісся ( Zalissia ). Historical names of Transylvania are: The first known civilization to inhabit

12319-426: The overall population (1,440,986 inhabitants). Fényes Elek , a 19th-century Hungarian statistician, estimated in 1842 that in the population of Transylvania for the years 1830–1840 the majority were 62.3% Romanians and 23.3% Hungarians . In the last quarter of the 19th century, the Hungarian population of Transylvania increased from 24.9% in 1869 to 31.6%, as indicated in the 1910 Hungarian census (the majority of

12446-733: The population of the ceded territory) remained in Northern Transylvania while 0.36–0.8 million Hungarians (or 11% to more than 20% of the population) continued to reside in Southern Transylvania . The Second Vienna Award was voided on 12 September 1944 by the Allied Commission through the Armistice Agreement with Romania (Article 19), and the 1947 Treaty of Paris reaffirmed the borders between Romania and Hungary as originally defined in

12573-565: The post-communist era. The Transylvanian Plateau , 300 to 500 metres (980–1,640 feet) high, is drained by the Mureș , Someș , Criș , and Olt rivers, as well as other tributaries of the Danube . This core of historical Transylvania roughly corresponds with nine counties of modern Romania. The plateau is almost entirely surrounded by the Eastern , Southern and Romanian Western branches of

12700-454: The region was divided during the war) was crucial to the Romanian defense industry. Transylvanian factories built until 1945 over 1,000 warplanes and over 1,000 artillery pieces of all types, among others . The culture of Transylvania is complex because of its varied history and longstanding multiculturalism, which has incorporated significant Hungarian (see Hungarians in Romania ) and German (see Germans of Romania ) influences. The region

12827-419: The same classifications top performance hospitals exist there. Native brands include: Roman of Brașov (trucks and buses), Azomureș of Târgu Mureș (fertilizers), Terapia of Cluj-Napoca (pharmaceuticals), Banca Transilvania of Cluj-Napoca (finance), Romgaz and Transgaz of Mediaș (natural gas), Jidvei of Alba county (alcoholic beverages), Timișoreana of Timișoara (alcoholic beverages),

12954-405: The scenery of its Carpathian landscape and its rich history, coupled with its multi-cultural character. It also contains Romania's second-largest city, Cluj-Napoca , and other very well preserved medieval iconic cities and towns such as Brașov , Sibiu , Târgu Mureș , Bistrița , Alba Iulia , Mediaș , and Sighișoara . It is also the home of some of Romania's UNESCO World Heritage Sites such as

13081-651: The settlement at Ciumești is one) as being in the process of neolithization , albeit incomplete, that is, displaying an incipient productive economy, whose foundations were laid by animal domestication and plant cultures. The Schela Cladovei culture is known through the nine open air settlements in the proximity of the Danube. The lithic utensils come in numerous atypical forms and are fashioned of quartzite and siliceous sandstone while an additional small number are made of flint. The horn tools (agriculture artefacts with one or two handle attachment holes) apparently indicate

13208-463: The shelter under the rocks at Cuina Turcului , Dubova , both of which are located in the same limestone massif — Ciucaru Mare . The two dwelling levels at Cuina Turcului have produced a large quantity of tools and weapons made of flint in particular, and less so of obsidian, bone and horn, as well as body ornaments (shells and drilled teeth, bone pendants, etc.) The ornaments are often decorated with incised geometrical patterns. The most remarkable

13335-569: The sites of microlite fashioned mainly out of obsidian indicating the connection with the Gravettian in the neighboring regions ( Moldavia , South-Carpathian Ukraine, Eastern Slovakia , and Northeastern Hungary). The Late Gravettian covers Banat too, particularly the area of the Iron Gates of the Danube , where heads identical to the Laugerie-Basse type heads were discovered in grottoes and open air dwellings. Still in Banat ,

13462-563: The state owned Cugir Arms Factory , and others. The Jiu Valley , located in the south of Hunedoara County , has been a major mining area throughout the second half of the 19th century and the 20th century, but many mines were closed down in the years following the collapse of the communist regime, forcing the region to diversify its economy. During the Second World War, Transylvania (the Southern/Romanian half, as

13589-589: The story has inspired. Many Transylvanian Saxons were furious with Vlad the Impaler for strengthening the borders of Wallachia , which interfered with their control of trade routes, and his extreme sadism and barbarity, which by a collection of credible historical accounts of diverse origins, most of which were non-Saxon, led to the industrial-scale execution of over 100,000 people by impaling, some of whom were Saxons. The victims were often arranged in grotesque displays intended to terrorize various groups, including

13716-644: The substratum for the emergence of the Petrești culture . Long-term research at Iclod has demonstrated that this station possessed a complex fortification system built during the Iclod, Phase I, still in use for some time in the Iclod II phase, eventually abandoned when the settlement expanded. It is in the same spot that research has been carried in two inhumation necropoles , where the dead were laid on their backs hands across their chests or abdomens or along their bodies;

13843-800: The suzerainty of the Habsburg emperor Leopold I , and the region was officially attached to the Habsburg Empire. The Habsburgs acknowledged the Principality of Transylvania as one of the Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen , but the territory of the principality was administratively separated from Habsburg Hungary, and subjected to the direct rule of the emperor's governors. In 1699 the Ottomans legally acknowledged their loss of Transylvania in

13970-533: The territory of Romania in this time period: the Tardenoisian and the Schela Cladova types. The Tardenoisian spread in several of the country's regions ( Moldavia , Muntenia , Dobruja ), including the mountainous area of Transylvania in the southeast ( Cremenea - Sita Buzăului , Costanța - Lădăuți ) and northwest ( Ciumești - Pășune ). In the settlement of Ciumești, Satu Mare County , besides

14097-585: The territory was the Agathyrsi , of the Scythic cultures . From the 4th century BC, Celtic La Tène culture came to domination. The indigenous Dacian tribes engaged in politics from the 1st century BC and united under King Burebista , forming their kingdom Dacia . The Roman Empire made heavy efforts to seize the territory from King Decebalus , resulting in the formation of Roman Dacia in 106, after Trajan 's costly and bloody wars . During Roman rule,

14224-522: The territory, depleted of its indigenous population, was repopulated with Latin colonists and its rich resource stock was systematically exploited. However, the growing threat of East Germanic and Carpic invasions made Emperor Aurelian withdraw his legions and evacuate the citizens south of the Lower Danube in 275, when the province became occupied by the Goths . In 376, a powerful nomadic people,

14351-486: The theory of Daco-Roman continuity, Romanians continuously lived on the territory. Opponents of that hypothesis point to the lack of written, archaeological and linguistic evidence to support it. Hungarian medieval chronicles claimed that the Székely people descended from the Huns , who remained in Transylvania, and later, in combination with the returning Hungarians , conquered the Carpathian Basin . According to

14478-496: The thousand anthropomorphous statues discovered, the female ones, symbols of fertility and fecundity, prevail by far. Copper was first used for fashioning small implements or ornaments (needles, awls , fishing hooks, pendants, etc.), while gold was used solely for aesthetic and decorative purposes. For a long time the items were produced by the technique of hammering, for the technique of the casting mould as well as that of "cire perdue" ( lost wax ) emerged much later. Although there

14605-564: The total independence of the Kingdom of Hungary from the Habsburg dynasty . Julius Jacob von Haynau , the leader of the Austrian army, was appointed plenipotentiary to restore order in Hungary after the conflict. He ordered the execution of The 13 Hungarian Martyrs of Arad , and Prime Minister Batthyány was executed the same day in Pest . After a series of serious Austrian defeats in 1849,

14732-560: The traditional tool types. The Iron Gates mesolithic culture of the central trans-Danube region, named by archaeologists after the gorge of Porţile de Fier ("Iron Gates"), was settled by a population attributed to the Late Epigravettian or Mediterranean Tardigravettian . The first stage of this period was discovered by archaeologists in the Climente II cave ( Mehedinți County ), and the second stage, by discoveries in

14859-478: The treaty. The Principality of Transylvania continued to be part of the Kingdom of Hungary in the sense of public law, which stressed in a highly significant way that John Sigismund's possessions belonged to the Holy Crown of Hungary and he was not permitted to alienate them. The Habsburgs acquired the territory shortly after the Battle of Vienna in 1683. In 1687, the rulers of Transylvania recognized

14986-519: The typically Central and East European Tardenoisian microlitice tools made of flint and obsidian , some artefacts were found in the form of circular segments and two triangular ones, in addition to trapezes. The fauna remnants indicate the presence of wild boar and deer. Some specialists do not exclude the possibility of identifying the Late Tardenoisian communities of the north-western Pontic or central European types (of which

15113-523: Was 36.2 years. The discovery of some skeletons with arrowhead marks speaks of violent death. Research so far has proved that this culture does not have its roots in the Mediterranean type Tardigravettian , but rather originated by some new migration into the Iron Gates region. In addition, it would seem that on the arrival of the first bearers of the Neolithic civilisation ( Precriș culture ),

15240-555: Was also during this period that Romanians experienced the awakening of self-consciousness as a nation, manifested in cultural and ideological movements such as Transylvanian School , and drafted political petitions such as Supplex Libellus Valachorum . After World War I , the National Assembly of Romanians from Transylvania proclaimed the Union of Transylvania with Romania on 1 December 1918, and Transylvania became part of

15367-463: Was double sloping, and the floor was made of trodden clay. The Cucuteni dwellings in south-east Transylvania are spacious (40–100 square metres (430–1,080 sq ft) and more), often have a platform and are divided into two or more rooms. Neo-Eneolithic sculpture is represented by cultic figures, idols, and talismans fashioned out of bone, stone or clay. These are human or animal representations conveyed by stylized or exaggerated body parts. Among

15494-513: Was employed in making the flint flakes. The European Mousterian is the product of Neanderthals . It existed roughly from 160,000 to 40,000 BP . Some assemblages, namely those from Pech de l'Aze, include exceptionally small points prepared using the Levallois technique among other prepared core types, causing some researchers to suggest that these flakes take advantage of greater grip strength possessed by Neanderthals. In North Africa and

15621-467: Was harvested by pulling out, then was sheaved and tied with a switch, vine shoots or ivy. Once carried to the settlement, the grain was threshed. The Vinča communities that advanced on the middle course of the Mureș River , under the influence of the Starčevo-Criș traditions and the elements of the linear pottery, created a new cultural synthesis called the Turdaș culture . The occurrence of signs incised on

15748-513: Was laid a zoomorphic idol and a tiny vessel. The east chamber served for the initiation ceremonies. Religious centers of this type through their prestige and grandeur most certainly congregated the population of an extended area. The charred seeds found in the Liubcova settlement indicate that several cereals were grown. Wheat prevailed, particularly the Triticum dicoccum species, as well as

15875-485: Was part of the Kingdom of Hungary , led by a voivode appointed by the King of Hungary . After the Battle of Mohács in 1526, Transylvania became part of the Eastern Hungarian Kingdom . Later, in 1570, the kingdom became the Principality of Transylvania by the Treaty of Speyer , which was ruled primarily by Calvinist Hungarian princes . The Eastern Hungarian king became the first prince of Transylvania , according to

16002-667: Was the birthplace of the Transylvanian School movement, its members, namely Samuil Micu-Klein , Petru Maior , and Gheorghe Șincai , being responsible for the early version of Romanian alphabet . With regard to architecture, the Transylvanian Gothic style is preserved to this day in monuments such as the Black Church in Brașov (14th and 15th centuries) and a number of other cathedrals , as well as

16129-537: Was the official capital of the Grand Principality of Transylvania . Brașov is an important tourist destination, being the largest city in a mountain resorts area, and a central location, suitable for exploring Romania, with the distances to several tourist destinations (including the Black Sea resorts, the monasteries in northern Moldavia , and the wooden churches of Maramureș ) being similar. Sibiu

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