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65-631: Stories about the Vazimba form a significant element in the cultural history and collective identity of the Malagasy people , ranging from the historical to the supernatural, inspiring diverse beliefs and practices across the island. They have analogs in some other Austronesian cultures, including the Menehunes in Hawaii . The facts surrounding the initial settling of Madagascar by oceanic explorers from

130-451: A Vazimba woman named Ramboamana and a Vazimba man named Ramboabesofy, known as tompon-tany (masters of the land) – the earliest inhabitants of Madagascar, who settled in the region of Ankavandra . The couple had two sons named Rangoromana and Zafihisoky whom legend credits as the first to bring zebu to the island. Some Merina trace their genealogy back to a man named Ndrenavoavo or his sister Pelamana who, according to oral history, were

195-629: A genetic study. Three hundred villages across Madagascar were sampled in terms of genetic, linguistic and cultural diversity. This research was led and performed by Malagasy and European researchers and academics. This study demonstrated that all Malagasy people have mixed African and Asian ancestry. But the proportion of ancestral genes differs. Coastal Malagasy populations, including the Temoro , Vezo , and Mikea , etc. have approximately 70% African ancestry and 30% Asian ancestry, while highlander tribes tend to have lower African ancestry at around 45%. In

260-429: A group of Austronesian -speaking ethnic groups indigenous to the island country of Madagascar , formed through generations of interaction between Austronesians originally from southern Borneo and Bantus from Southeast Africa . Traditionally, the population have been divided into sub-ethnic groups. Examples include "Highlander" (ethnically mixed ancestry but more Austronesian and slightly less Bantu) groups such as

325-463: A growth in population. The true number of people living from forest scavenging is difficult to estimate with accuracy, as the label "Mikea" is very flexible, and the degree of reliance on scavenging as opposed to seasonal farming can vary significantly at any given time depending on economic and environmental conditions. The Mikea are subject to social stigma linked to their image as primitive or uncivilized people. Housing and social organization among

390-523: A recent island-wide survey the male-only Y chromosomes of African origin are more common than those of East Asian origin, but it varies depending on the study (70.7 vs. 20.7 or 51% vs 34%). However the mtDNA lineages, passed down from mother to child, are the opposite (42.4% African origin vs. 50.1% East Asian origin). Male-only Y chromosome of East/Southeast Asian paternal frequencies such as Haplogroup O-M175 varies from 45% in Antalaotra, 16% in

455-461: A subset of the Sakalava ethnic group, although there are Mikea individuals who trace their origins to other ethnic groups. Their adherence to a way of life perceived by villagers and city dwellers as ancestral has contributed to a mystique and various myths and legends about them, and many Malagasy believe they are the descendants of Vazimba , the original inhabitants of the island, although there

520-429: A wide range of life events and ceremonies, including havoaza (funerals), bilo (magical healing rituals), tromba (spirit possession), ringa (martial arts matches), savatsy (circumcision ceremonies) and more. Most music is vocal - often making use of whistling, shouts and other vocal effects in addition to singing - with percussion accompaniment ranging from handclapping to djembe or langoro drums. Conch shells and

585-434: A wooden pole frame. These houses are loosely clustered with generous space between each lodging. The rainy season encampment serves for three to five years as a base for forest foraging before resource depletion requires a move to a new location. Those working the corn fields may live in simple grass shelters alongside their crops until April or May, when they return to the bark houses. During the dry season from May to October,

650-520: Is also practiced. Like other Malagasy, the Mikea spiritual belief system revolves around respect for ancestors. They also share the common Malagasy belief in a creator god, termed Andrianajanahary. Many Mikea believe in various types of forest spirits ( koko ), which are associated with certain natural spots in the forest deemed sacred; these sites serve as the focus of various ceremonies, in which rum has spiritual and symbolic significance. The greatest of

715-533: Is in contrast to certain ethnic groups, such as the Merina, who had a complex form of social organization that overlaid a caste system with specific social roles assigned to particular family groups. In 1991, an estimated 1,500 Malagasy were living the Mikea lifestyle, primarily around the Mikea Forest , an area that receives limited rainfall. This number was estimated at several hundred in the 1950s, suggesting

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780-508: Is interdependent with that of their neighboring Vezo fishermen and the Masikoro farmers and herders, with whom they trade products caught, foraged or cultivated in the forest. Many Mikea also occasionally engage in paid work such as guarding the zebu herds or tending the corn fields of others. The present-day Mikea are not a remnant of an ancient Malagasy hunter-gatherer society, but are instead descendants of individuals who took refuge in

845-475: Is known as the Vazimba period ( faha vazimba ), beginning with the initial population of the island by the Vazimba and their establishment of kingdoms – often ruled by Queens – in the central Highlands region of Madagascar. According to some accounts, the first Vazimba sovereign of the central highlands was named Andriandravindravina . The second period in the oral history of the Highlands begins with

910-563: Is no evidence to support this view. The majority of Malagasy believe the existence of the Mikea to be a myth and are unaware that any Malagasy continue to live the Mikea lifestyle to the present day. The term Mikea is principally used by outsiders to label this group and is not often used by members of this community themselves. Most Mikea prefer to call themselves either Vezo-Mikea or Masikoro-Mikea, depending on their specific family lineages. The Mikea are not remnants of an early hunter-gatherer society. Although researchers remain uncertain when

975-431: Is scavenged from the forest, and the average Mikea needs two hours or less to collect adequate food for the day. Their main source of food is tubers, particularly during the dry season when few other foods may be reliably available. Adults and children of both genders work to dig up using a metal-tipped digging stick ( antsoro ) and a digging bowl ( kipao ). The starchy ovy tuber is roasted or boiled before eating, while

1040-620: Is the “Merina B”, the Andevo, who have an average of 40–50% Bantu ancestry. The latter make up less than 2/3 of Merina society. The Malagasy population was 2,242,000 in the first census in 1900. Their population had a massive growth in the next hundred years, especially under French Madagascar . An island-wide survey of the genetic diversity was performed from 2008 to 2018. This project was called "MAGE" (for Madagascar, Anthropology Genetics Ethno-linguistic ). Around 3000 inhabitants of Madagascar participated in this study and provided their saliva for

1105-509: Is widespread year round, and the larger one ( tandraka , 2-3 kilograms), which is mainly caught during the rainy season. To a lesser extent they also hunt or trap two to three species of lemur, feral cats, occasional wild boars, turtles and rodents using blowguns, spears and dogs, and use a hook and line to catch fish in saline inland lakes. Some Mikea raise animals such as goats, chickens and guineafowls for food or sale at market; tree nuts also provide additional protein. The principal crop of

1170-500: The Beosi hunter-gatherers of the highlands. While some 1,500 individuals are known to identify as Mikea, many Malagasy disbelieve that the community continues to exist in the present day. The Mikea are hunter-gatherers (also called foragers) who practice limited farming. The Mikea label is applied to those who live this subsistence lifestyle rather than being tied to a specific ethnicity . There are numerous groups termed Mikea along

1235-564: The Merina and Betsileo of the central highlands around Antananarivo , Alaotra (Ambatondrazaka) and Fianarantsoa , and the "coastal dwellers" (predominantly Bantu with less Austronesian traits sometimes like mulatto) such as the Sakalava , Bara , Vezo , Betsimisaraka , Mahafaly , etc. The Merina are further divided into two subgroups. The “Merina A” are the Hova and Andriana, and have an average of 30–40% Bantu ancestry. The second subgroup

1300-504: The Sakalava people . Speculation that there may be remnants of a Vazimba language in Mikea speech was investigated by Blench & Walsh (2009) and found wanting. They concluded, The speech of the Beosi people , short-statured hunter-gatherers of the highlands, has a higher proportion of unidentifiable vocabulary. The arid conditions of the spiny forest, which receives less than 600 millimeters of rainfall each year, largely shape Mikea economic activities. Nearly everything they consume

1365-458: The jejy lava (stringed instrument with a gourd resonator, played with a bow) are also performed; both of these ancient instruments are increasingly rare in Madagascar and among the Mikea the latter is performed by men for one another. Rarer and more costly instruments like the marovany wooden box zither and the valiha bamboo tube zither are used for certain sacred rituals that invoke

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1430-454: The 21st century than they were in the past. But, many Malagasy are proud to proclaim their association with one or several of these groups as part of their own cultural identity. Countries with a significant Malagasy diaspora include France (specifically the overseas departments of Mayotte and Réunion ), Comoros (specifically the island of Moheli ), South Africa , Latin America and

1495-806: The Ampanabaka, 5% Anteony. In contrast, African male haplogroup such as E1b1a1 constituted 76% of the Ampanabaka genetic diversity, but only 7% in the Antalaotra and 12% in the Anteony. Due to the proximity to Africa, the connection with Asian populations aroused the most curiosity. Around 1996, a study was launched in an attempt to identify the presence of the Polynesian motif in the Malagasy population ( mtDNA haplotype B4a1a1a). A more recent study identified two additional mutations (1473 and 3423A) found in all Polynesian motif carriers of Madagascar, hence

1560-971: The Caribbean and the United States . The Malagasy diaspora in the United States includes those descended from people who, slave or free, came during the 18th and 19th centuries. Other Americans of Malagasy ancestry are recent immigrants from Madagascar. Some notable Americans who have Malagasy ancestry include Andy Razaf , Katherine Dunham , Regina M. Anderson , William H. Hastie , George Schuyler and Philippa Schuyler , Muhammad Ali , Robert Reed Church and Mary Church Terrell , Frederick D. Gregory , Thomas P. Mahammitt , Paschal Beverly Randolph , Maya Rudolph , Claude McKay , Jess Tom , Ben Jealous , and Keenen Ivory Wayans . The first recorded African slave in Canada, Olivier Le Jeune ,

1625-529: The Malagasy were historically subdivided into specifically named ethnic groups, who were primarily distinguished from one another on the basis of cultural practices. These were namely agricultural, hunting, or fishing practices; construction style of dwellings ; music ; hair and clothing styles; and local customs or taboos, the latter was known in the Malagasy language as fady . The number of such ethnic groups in Madagascar has been debated. The practices that distinguished many of these groups are less prevalent in

1690-644: The Merina-Betsileo alliance. During the 19th and 20th centuries, the French colonial administration capitalized on and further exacerbated these political inequities by appropriating existing Merina governmental infrastructure to run their colony. This legacy of political inequity dogged the people of Madagascar after gaining independence in 1960; candidates' ethnic and regional identities have often served to help or hinder their success in democratic elections. Within these two broad ethnic and political groupings,

1755-534: The Mikea Forest area and low access to water for bathing, rates of diseases such as tuberculosis, leprosy and skin disease are disproportionately prevalent. Mikea tend to trace their lineage back to specific villages within one or more of three main lineages, associated respectively with the northern, southern and central parts of the Mikea Forest. Most also have relatives living in Vezo and/or Masikoro villages in

1820-583: The Mikea can vary from one individual or community to the next. Some Mikea remain in the forest their entire lives, while others live part of their lives in villages or towns. While living in the forest, groups of Mikea typically move seasonally between encampments nearest to critical resources. In the rainy season, they often live in groups of 30-50 people near tracts of virgin forest in proximity to their newly cleared and planted corn fields. The houses in this settlement are square with peaked roofs, as elsewhere in Madagascar, and are typically made of thatch and bark on

1885-656: The Mikea community as well as those of their Vezo and Masikoro neighbors. The Mikea sell their forest products, as well as woven mats and food animals they raise, at weekly Vezo and Masikoro markets in nearby villages to obtain the necessities they cannot scavenge, such as clothing and medicine. Some Mikea migrate for periods of time to work in local villages or the town of Morombe. They are also hired to work for Vezo and Masikoro villagers, such as by cutting forest for villagers or other Mikeas' corn fields, or guarding villagers' zebu herds. They occasionally acquire one or more zebu in addition to or in lieu of payment, as these are seen as

1950-418: The Mikea eat the watery babo (or baboho ) raw for hydration or use its water for boiling other foods; the tavolo tuber is dried and ground to make a flour that is sold at village markets. They also gather forest fruits, melons and honey, with the latter a particularly important source of income for the Mikea during the rainy season. To obtain water during the rainy season the Mikea capture rain run-off from

2015-420: The Mikea first adopted a forest-dwelling, hunter-gatherer lifestyle, they have determined that the Mikea were only recently established as a community. The current Mikea population is believed to be descended largely from Masikoro villagers who fled into the forest to escape advancing Merina and Sakalava armies in the 18th and 19th centuries. Colonial French documents dating to 1901 describe hunter gatherers by

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2080-533: The Mikea is corn, which was introduced to Madagascar in the 1890s. They also occasionally grow manioc. The dry season is used to cut new corn fields, which are burned in October ( swidden agriculture, locally termed hatsaky ) and planted in November and December as the rains begin to fall. This corn is harvested three months later and consumed during the wet season; surplus is dried and sold, with some saved for

2145-419: The Mikea possess Vazimba attributes, such as being small in stature, unclothed, shy and avoidant of contact with outsiders, and living in perfect harmony with the natural environment. None of these are borne out by evidence. The Mikea are known to make masks – a rarity in Madagascar – using human teeth and hair. Music is a significant part of Mikea social and spiritual life. Specific songs are associated with

2210-424: The Vazimba may not have been human at all, but rather a sort of monster or often malevolent spirit that haunts natural sites such as rivers, boulders or gorges. Oral history maintains that it was customary among Vazimba to submerge their dead in designated bogs or other waters and these areas are held sacred, sometimes becoming sites of pilgrimage and sacrifice. The Vazimba are often envisioned as being smaller than

2275-484: The Vazimba societies they are said to have encountered there. Archaeological research and oral histories have provided some indication of how these early inhabitants of the highlands might have lived. Upon their arrival in those ancient tropical highland forests, the Vazimba practiced tavy (swidden, slash-and-burn agriculture) to clear the land for cultivating bananas, tubers, ginger and other staples . They gathered honey, fruits and edible seeds and hunted small game in

2340-628: The Water") settled along rivers and lakes. The vazimba antety ("Vazimba of the Soil") were believed to be the most numerous and were reportedly clustered around the valley of Betsiriry in the central Highlands. The vazimba antsingy ("Vazimba of the Tsingy ") lived in the caves around the limestone formations (tsingy) of Bemaraha in western Madagascar and were believed to scavenge fruit and other forest products to live. The first period of Malagasy oral history

2405-483: The ancestors. The marovany or valiha player is typically paid a fomba monetary tribute to perform the ceremonial music. Many songs are accompanied by specific dances and rituals that continue to be practiced among the Mikea in daily life. The Mikea speak a dialect of the Malagasy language , which originated in southern Borneo . Their dialect is close to that spoken by the Vezo fishing clan and Masikoro herding clan of

2470-497: The average person, either quite pale or very dark. The more monstrous descriptions of Vazimba speak of an unnaturally elongated face with large lips concealing fang-like teeth. Among the many beliefs related to the Vazimba, it is said they cannot stand to touch any object that has made contact with salt, and it is forbidden to bring garlic or pork into an area believed to contain a Vazimba tomb. Malagasy people The Malagasy ( French : Malgache or Malagasy : Gasy ) are

2535-488: The best days or places to hunt, plant, shift camp, and other such events of daily life. The Mikea are culturally and linguistically nearly identical to the neighboring Vezo fishing clan and Masikoro herding and farming clan of the Sakalava; only the traditional source of livelihood distinguishes the three groups. The popular association of the Mikea with the ancestral Vazimba clan has contributed to widespread belief that

2600-469: The conquest of the Vazimba Highland kingdoms by Merina sovereigns in what would come to be known as Imerina in their honor. Andriamanelo (1540–1575) – who was himself half-Vazimba through his antecedents Queen Rangita and Queen Rafohy – is credited (along with his successors, Ralambo and Andrianjaka ) with successfully forcing the Vazimba out of the Highlands and into

2665-400: The elder couple's own unmarried children of any age. Adult daughters typically move to join their husband's family encampment upon marriage, but married couples often share their time between the husband's or wife's parents' encampments. Family unions are formed through a fandeo ceremony in which the man is presented to his intended bride's family, and the acceptance of her parents legitimizes

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2730-414: The encampment splits into smaller groups that relocate deeper into the forest to settle near babo tuber patches, with dwellings limited to brush shelters and thatch sunshades, and some individuals not living in shelters at all. In both types of settlements furniture is nearly non-existent and Mikea typically sleep in the sand or pits dug at the base of giant termite mounds. The Mikea struggle to ensure

2795-544: The following year's planting and consumption. The traders who gather the maize from the Mikea process it for international export at a significant profit. The Mikea live in a symbiotic relationship with the neighboring Masikoro farmers and herders, and the Vezo fishing clan. The Mikea live primarily on food scavenged from the forest but also grow seasonal crops. Their mobility and reliance on scavenging as opposed to crop growing shifts in response to changes in environmental and economic pressures on availability of resources within

2860-444: The forest beginning in the 1800s to escape military conflict, heavy taxation and other oppressive factors. Their way of life is perceived by villagers and city dwellers alike as ancestral, contributing to a mystique about them that has inspired various myths and legends. They are commonly believed to be the mythical Vazimba , the original inhabitants of the island, although there is no evidence to support this view. They are distinct from

2925-409: The forest to adopt the Mikea lifestyle. Mikea are subject to national laws like all Malagasy citizens but in practice national laws, government and social services do not reach this population while dwelling in the forest. Within Mikea forest encampments an egalitarian form of self-government predominates, with the eldest male family member having the main decision-making authority for the group. This

2990-425: The forests. As their population increased, villages were established and ruled by chiefs and later kings. Rulers are believed to have reddened their hair using a local mushroom; the association of the color red with royalty is found in many parts of Madagascar to this day. Oral history classifies the Vazimba according to the parts of the island where they are believed to have settled. The vazimba andrano ("Vazimba of

3055-460: The intermixing of the first small founding population with African males. The closest Asian parental population of the Malagasy are found in what is now Indonesia, among the Banjar and other South Kalimantan Dayak people of south east Borneo . Language footprints of their ancestors from Southeastern Asia can be traced by the many shared words of basic vocabulary with Ma'anyan , a language from

3120-419: The island and brought their culture of zebu cattle herding with them, the Vazimba were said to have herded their zebu without eating them for meat. If the multi-wave settlement theory is correct, the indigenous (first-wave) population that the more technologically advanced second-wave settlers would have encountered upon arrival in Madagascar would provide the historic basis for stories of the primitive nature of

3185-428: The island sparsely populated by descendants of the first wave whose culture and way of life had evolved from the first settlers way of life, reflecting centuries of adaptation to local surroundings in total isolation from outside threats. According to popular belief, the Vazimba did not possess knowledge of metallurgy or rice farming and used weapons made of clay. After Bantu-speaking settlers from East Africa migrated to

3250-430: The name of Mikea living in the southwest of the island. The population is believed to have swelled during the 1947 uprising against French colonial rule , when many Malagasy families left towns and villages to hide in forests across the country. Oil exploration in the 1950s and 1960s entailed cutting paths through the formerly untouched forests of the southwest, which further contributed to the migration of villagers into

3315-655: The nature spirits is Ndrianazo, the lord of the forest. The extended family group, which spreads through multiple encampments, is united around a central priest figure, the mpitoka hazomanga , who officiates over major family ceremonies dedicated to the ancestors. In addition, within each encampment is at least one ombiasy (wiseman) who interprets the will of the ancestors and spirits, and plays important roles in such ceremonies as marriage, circumcision, blessings, ancestral rituals, funerals, and tromba and bilo spirit possession ceremonies. Some also practice sikidy and other forms of divination, and provide spiritual advice on

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3380-434: The neighbouring Betsileo people under their administration first. They later extended Merina control over the majority of the coastal areas. The neighbouring island of Moheli was also ruled by a Muslim Merina dynasty founded by Abderremane, Sultan of Mohéli , who was a brother-in-law of King Radama I . The military resistance and eventual defeat of most of the coastal communities assured their subordinate position vis-à-vis

3445-516: The quality of life they seek. While the forest has long provided for their basic needs, deforestation and population growth are straining resources. In addition, Mikea are increasingly seeking to obtain better quality material goods for themselves, such as clothing, which necessitates greater engagement with the external economy through trade and wage labor to earn local currency . Lack of access to social services such as education and health clinics are also taking their toll: with only one health clinic in

3510-427: The region of modern-day Indonesia , including the precise timing and nature of this colonization, remain a subject of ongoing debate and study. It has been theorized that there may have been successive waves of early settlement in Madagascar. According to this theory, the waves originated from the same region of southeast Asia , spoke the same language and shared the same culture. When the second wave arrived, they found

3575-467: The region of the Barito River in southern Borneo . The difference in origins remains somewhat evident between the highland and coastal regions . In addition to the distinction in term of ancestral proportion between highland and coastal Malagasy, one may speak of a political distinction as well. Merina monarchs in the late 18th and early 19th century, united the Merina principalities and brought

3640-535: The region. Many Mikea families have established ziva (a " joking relationship ", commonly found in southern and eastern Africa) with the Vohitse Vanovato clan of the Masikoro, which indicates a degree of familial closeness with this subclan. Mikea encampments are typically family groups. These consist of an elder couple, their married sons and daughters-in-law, the grandchildren of these marriages, and

3705-443: The rooftops of their houses using hollowed-out logs or transport water on foot or zebu-drawn wagon from the villages, while during the cool dry season the Mikea consume their store of water-engorged babo tubers and drink water from natural or man-made wells when possible. Key protein sources include birds and tenrecs . Mikea adults and children of both sexes use clubs to kill the small tenrec ( tambotrika , 0.4 kilograms), which

3770-478: The term describes a shared way of life rather than an ethnic group per se , and individuals from a variety of Malagasy ethnic groups are found among the Mikea. The family encampments of the Mikea shift from prime corn planting territory at the edge of the forest in the rainy season to the interior forest rich with tenrecs and other game in the dry season, when the community becomes highly dependent on spongy tubers to meet their daily demand for water. Their lifestyle

3835-423: The union. Children of the marriage are legitimized by the husband's bestowal of presents to his wife's parents. The relationship between the wife's brother ( renilahy , "male mother") and her children can be very strong in Mikea marriages, and the renilahy will commonly adopt children that his sister's husband does not legitimize. Both the husband and the wife have the right to divorce at any time and remarry. Polygamy

3900-488: The vanquishing Merina culture. The oral history of many Merina and Betsileo families speaks of intermarriage between Merina and Vazimba ancestors, and some Malagasy speculate that the hunter-gatherer Mikea peoples and the Vezo fishing tribe, both concentrated along the coastline of western and southern Madagascar, may be descended from Vazimba. There are many legends and stories in Malagasy oral history relating to important Vazimba figures. For instance, oral history tells of

3965-467: The very first non-Vazimba people (i.e. second-wave settlers) to arrive in Madagascar. They are believed to be buried in a forest near Tsirendresaka. It is said that their tomb was venerated by all the Vazimba of Betsiriry, and in return, the people of Tsirendresaka observe a fady (taboo) that forbids the killing of zebu, in homage to the Vazimba and their tradition of herding cattle without consuming them. In Madagascar today, popular belief maintains that

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4030-595: The west and southwest coast of Madagascar , with the majority living in and around the spiny Mikea Forest on the southwestern coast between Morombe and Toliara , an area extending 2500 square kilometers. Historically this main concentration of Mikea may have extended as far south as the Fiherenana River and as far north as the Mangoky River ; another main cluster of Mikea live to the west and southwest of Lake Ihotry . They are typically considered

4095-503: The western part of the island. It is commonly believed that the last of the Vazimba were annihilated during the reign of Andrianjaka (1610–1630). However, dismissing the stories of distinctive Vazimba physical appearance, Jean-Pierre Domenichini has theorized that the term Vazimba may have been more of a statement of cultural than ethnic difference and that many who had been considered Vazimba in this period did not die out, but instead may have simply chosen to become assimilated into

4160-434: Was named the Malagasy motif. The frequency varied among three ethnic groups: 50% in Merina , 22% in Vezo, and 13% in Mikea. Based on this result, a study suggested that Madagascar was settled approximately 1,200 years ago by a very small group, which consisted of approximately 30 women; 28 (93%) of them had maritime Southeast Asian descent and 2 (7%) of them were of African descent. The Malagasy population developed through

4225-424: Was taken from Madagascar to New France in 1628. Mikea The Mikea are a group of Malagasy -speaking horticulturalists and foragers who are often described as the lowland hunter-gatherers of Madagascar . They inhabit the Mikea Forest , a patch of mixed spiny forest and dry deciduous forest along the coast of southwestern Madagascar. The Mikea are predominantly of Sakalava origin, although

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