The Vaccine Revolt ( Portuguese : Revolta da Vacina ) was a popular riot that took place between 10 and 16 November 1904 in the city of Rio de Janeiro , then the capital of Brazil. Its immediate pretext was a law that made vaccination against smallpox compulsory, but it is also associated with deeper causes, such as the urban reforms being carried out by mayor Pereira Passos and the sanitation campaigns led by physician Oswaldo Cruz .
167-463: At the beginning of the 20th century, the urban planning of the city of Rio de Janeiro, inherited from the colonial period and the Brazilian Empire , no longer matched its status as a capital and center of economic activities. In addition, the city suffered from serious public health problems. Diseases such as smallpox , bubonic plague and yellow fever ravaged the population and worried
334-535: A broader and deeper protest movement. The skirmishes continued into the night, with the city partly in darkness as a result of the broken lights. There were shootouts and thieves took advantage to rob passers-by. The owner of a warehouse on Rua do Hospício was arrested, accused of supplying kerosene for demonstrators to burn trams. At the end of the night, Companhia Carris Urbanos already had 22 destroyed trams. The Gas Company informed that more than 100 combustors had been damaged and more than 700 were rendered unusable. At
501-400: A cosmopolitan and modern capital. He banned stray dogs and dairy cows from the streets; ordered the beggars to be collected in asylums; prohibited the cultivation of vegetable gardens and grasslands, the raising of pigs, the itinerant sale of lottery tickets; he also ordered people not to spit on the streets and inside vehicles, not to urinate outside urinals, and not to fly kites. The works on
668-434: A coup d'état in the early hours of 14 to 15 November, which, however, was defeated. On 16 November, a state of emergency was decreed and mandatory vaccination was suspended. Given the systematic repression and extinguished the triggering cause, the movement ebbed. In the repression that ensued, police forces arrested a number of suspects and individuals considered to be troublemakers, regardless of whether they were involved in
835-555: A distilled spirit derived from sugarcane, and shells, for slaves. This comprised what is now known as the triangular trade between Europe, Africa and the Americas during the colonial period. Merchants during the sugar age were crucial to the economic development of the colony, the link between the sugar production areas, coastal Portuguese cities, and Europe. Merchants in the early came from many nations, including Germans, Flemings, and Italians, but Portuguese merchants came to dominate
1002-513: A few months before Cabral landed, Spanish navigator Vicente Yáñez Pinzón came to the northeastern coast of Brazil and deployed many armed men ashore with no means of communicating with the indigenous people. One of his ships and captains was captured by indigenous people and eight of his men were killed. Cabral no doubt learned from this to treat communication with the utmost priority. Cabral left two degredados (criminal exiles) in Brazil to learn
1169-551: A figurehead status among Rodrigues Alves' opposition. The military uprising, in turn, had repercussions in Bahia , where a garrison rose up and was promptly neutralized. In Recife , the agitation of the press favorable to the revolt provoked some innocuous marches through the city. In Rio de Janeiro, the Military School of Praia Vermelha was closed and its students exiled to Brazil's remote border regions and then dismissed from
1336-523: A kind of parasitic economy where proximity to settled areas were usually prerequisites for their long-term success. Unlike the palenque in Spanish America or maroon settlements in the West Indies , Portuguese officials rebuked any kind of agreements to standardize the quilombos out of the fear of drawing even more fugitive slaves to their communities. The largest of the quilombos was
1503-412: A large fleet led by Tomé de Sousa set sail to Brazil to establish a central government in the colony. Tomé de Sousa, the first Governor-General of Brazil, brought detailed instructions, prepared by the king's aides, about how to administer and foster the development of the colony. His first act was the foundation of the capital city, Salvador , in northeastern Brazil, in today's state of Bahia . The city
1670-428: A large majority at the end of October, becoming law on the 31 of that month. The project generated a heated debate between legislators and the population. While government legislators argued that vaccination was of undeniable and essential interest for public health, opponents considered that the methods of applying the vaccination decree were truculent, and that serums and, above all, their applicators, were unreliable. In
1837-512: A large majority in Congress, Rodrigues Alves soon took action to make the sanitation and urban reform works in the city viable. He attributed the task of reforming the port, with discretionary powers and resources, to Lauro Müller , then Minister of Industry, Transport and Public Works. The budget law of 30 December 1902 provided the Ministry of Transport with substantial resources, destined for
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#17327650071292004-419: A larger set of defenses against slave uprisings that had been orchestrated by cities and towns. At the same time, some Amerindians resisted the colonizers’ efforts to prevent uprisings by surreptitiously incorporating into their villages those who had escaped slavery. Many of the details surrounding the inner political and social structure of the quilombos remain a mystery, and the information available today
2171-659: A nzumbi "was the priest responsible for the spiritual defense of the community." The Dutch and later the Portuguese attempted several times to conquer Palmares, until an army led by famed São Paulo-born Domingos Jorge Velho managed to destroy the great quilombo and kill Zumbi in 1695. Brazilian feature film director Carlos Diegues made a film about Palmares called simply Quilombo . Of the many quilombos that once existed in Brazil, some have survived to this day as isolated rural communities. Portuguese colonists sought to destroy these fugitive communities because they threatened
2338-530: A role in colonial Brazil. Their "importance in the colonial may be one explanation why the Inquisition was not permanently established in Brazil during the Iberian Union ." New Christians were well integrated into institutional life, serving in civil as well as ecclesiastical offices. The relative lack of persecution and abundance of opportunity allowed them to have a significant place in society. With
2505-717: A sedentary farming lifestyle. The Jesuits had frequent disputes with other colonists who wanted to enslave the natives, but also with the hierarchy of the Catholic Church itself. Following the creation of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of São Salvador da Bahia by the Pope, Bishop Pero Fernandes Sardinha arrived in Bahia in 1552 and took issue with the Jesuit mission led by Manoel da Nóbrega. Sardinha opposed
2672-595: A single administrative unit under a monarch as the Empire of Brazil , giving rise to the largest country in Latin America. Just as Spanish and Roman Catholicism were a core source of cohesion among Spain's vast and multi-ethnic territories, Brazilian society was united by the Portuguese language and Roman Catholicism. As the only Lusophone polity in the Americas, the Portuguese language was - and remains - particularly important to Brazilian identity. Portugal pioneered
2839-481: A special forum, with a specially appointed judge to resolve issues and overcome resistance. First, Oswaldo Cruz faced yellow fever, tackling the disease by eliminating mosquitoes and isolating patients in hospitals. He structured his campaign on military bases, using legal instruments of coercion and, to a lesser extent, means of persuasion, such as the "Councils to the People", published in the government press. The city
3006-454: A strong opposition campaign, was approved on 31 October. The trigger for the revolt was the publication of a bill to regulate the application of the mandatory vaccine in the newspaper A Notícia , on 9 November 1904. The bill would create a requirement of proof of vaccination for enrollment in schools, obtaining jobs, traveling, getting accommodations, and weddings. It also provided for the payment of fines for those who resisted vaccination. When
3173-493: A temporarily stabilized economy from Campos Sales after the Encilhamento crisis, thanks to the recovery of coffee prices on the international market and Sales' austere and unpopular financial policy. Without significantly changing the financial policy of his predecessor, Rodrigues Alves embarked on an intensive program of public works, financed by external resources, which managed to start the economic recovery. Relying on
3340-411: A vaccination certificate would be required for enrollment in schools, access to government jobs, employment in factories, accommodation in hotels and guesthouses, travel, marriage and voting. There was a violent reaction on the part of the population, and on the following day large gatherings took over Rua do Ouvidor, Praça Tiradentes and Largo de São Francisco de Paula, where popular speakers spoke against
3507-404: Is debated whether previous Portuguese explorers had already been in Brazil, this date is widely and politically accepted as the day of the discovery of Brazil by Europeans. The place where Álvares Cabral arrived is now known as Porto Seguro , in northeastern Brazil . Cabral was leading a large fleet of 13 ships and more than 1,000 men following Vasco da Gama 's way to India, around Africa. Cabral
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#17327650071293674-812: Is limited by the fact that it usually comes from colonial accounts of their destruction. More is known about the Quilombo dos Palmares because it was "the longest-lived and largest fugitive community" in Colonial Brazil. Like any polity, Palmares and other quilombos changed over time. Quilombos drew on both African and European influences, often emulating the realities of colonial society in Brazil. In Palmares, slavery, which also existed in Africa, continued. Quilombos , like plantations, were most likely composed of people from different African groups. Religious syncretism, combining African and Christian elements,
3841-637: Is the third-busiest port in Brazil, and it is managed by Companhia Docas do Rio de Janeiro . In the 1870s, with the construction of the Doca da Alfândega, the first projects for the development of the Port of Rio de Janeiro emerged. Decrees in 1890 authorized the companies Industrial de Melhoramentos do Brasil and The Rio de Janeiro Harbor and Docks to build a set of berths, warehouses and porches. The stretches were chosen between Ilha das Cobras and Arsenal de Marinha, and from Arsenal de Marinha to Ponta do Caju. In 1903,
4008-564: The Dutch West India Company in Brazil were in a constant state of siege, in spite of the presence of the count John Maurice of Nassau as governor (1637–1644) in Recife (renamed Mauritstaad ). Nassau invited scientific commissions to research the local flora and fauna, resulting in added knowledge of the territory. Moreover, he set up a city project for Recife and Olinda, which was partially accomplished. Remnants survive into
4175-510: The Quilombo dos Palmares , located in today's Alagoas state, which grew to many thousands during the disruption of Portuguese rule with the Dutch incursion. Palmares was governed by leaders Ganga Zumba and his successor, Zumbi . The terminology for the settlements and leaders come directly from Angola, with quilombo, an Angolan word for military villages of diverse settlers, and the nganga
4342-546: The Tupi language was compiled by Joseph of Anchieta and printed in Coimbra in 1595. The Jesuits often gathered the aborigines into communities of resettlement called aldeias , similar in intent to the reductions implemented by Francisco de Toledo in southern Peru during the 1560s. where the natives worked for the community and were evangelized. Founded in the aftermath of the campaign undertaken by Mem de Sá from 1557 to force
4509-463: The aldeias by colonists eager to steal laborers for themselves thus causing natives to flee the settlements. The aldeia model would again be used, though also unsuccessfully, by the Governor of the captaincy of São Paulo, Luís António de Sousa Botelho Mourão [ pt ] , in 1765, in order to encourage mestizos , natives, and mulattoes to abandon slash-and-burn agriculture and adopt
4676-612: The "disorderly" could be treated with the "maximum rigor". Faced with the generalization of the conflict and by understandings between the Ministers of Justice, the Navy and the Army, the city was divided into three policing zones, with the entire coastline falling to the Navy, the Army to the part north of Avenida Passos, including São Cristóvão and Vila Isabel; and to the police the part south of Avenida Passos. The Army's 38th Infantry Battalion
4843-676: The 15th and continuing throughout the day. The main centers of revolt were concentrated in Saúde and Sacramento. In the first, from the top of a trench, in front of Mortona Hill, a red flag was flying. In the vicinity of the second, on Rua Frei Caneca, there was a large trench. Around six hundred workers from the Corcovado and Carioca textile factories and the São Carlos sock factory, all in Jardim Botânico, set up barricades and attacked
5010-469: The 19th Police Station was abandoned by the police. The Confiança Industrial fabric factory in Vila Isabel was attacked. Shortly before the final assault on the Saúde neighborhood, to be carried out by land by the 7th Infantry Battalion and by sea by the battleship Deodoro , Horácio José da Silva, known as Prata Preta, was arrested. A stevedore and practitioner of capoeira , Prata Preta was one of
5177-577: The 19th Urban Police Station, shouting "die" to the government and the police. A corporal of the guard was killed and the three factories were also attacked and had their windows broken. Attacks continued on police stations, on the gasometer, on weapons stores and even on a funeral home in Frei Caneca. There were disturbances in Méier, Engenho de Dentro , Encantado , Catumbi, São Diogo, Vila Isabel, Andaraí , Matadouro, Aldeia Campista and Laranjeiras. On
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5344-537: The Americas. For example, the Brazilian colony was at first thought of as a commercial asset that would facilitate trade between the Portuguese and India and not a place to be settled to develop a society. The social model of conquest in Brazil was one geared toward commerce and entrepreneurial ideals rather than conquest as was the case in the Spanish realm. As time progressed, the Portuguese crown found that having
5511-444: The Army. Among the civilians, only four were prosecuted – Alfredo Varela, Vicente de Souza, Pinto de Andrade and Arthur Rodrigues. In all, 945 people were arrested. Of these, 461 had a criminal record and were deported. The remaining 481 were released. Seven foreigners were deported. The poor rank-and-file of the revolt were much less fortunate, as many hundreds were deported to both the offshore detention facility of Ilha das Cobras and
5678-553: The Centro das Classes Operárias, with the signatures of Vicente de Souza, the president, Jansen Tavares, the first secretary, and all the other members of the board. In another list, 78 military personnel appeared, mostly ensign-students at the Military School of Praia Vermelha. In all, 15 thousand signatures were added against the project. After the approval of the bill, the League Against Mandatory Vaccine
5845-527: The Crown not having a strong administrative hold due to Brazil's reliance on its exportation economy. Pernambuco, the most successful captaincy, belonged to Duarte Coelho , who founded the city of Olinda in 1536. His captaincy prospered with engenhos , sugarcane mills, installed after 1542 producing sugar. Sugar was a very valuable good in Europe, and its production became the main Brazilian colonial product for
6012-527: The Dutch controlled a long stretch of the coast most accessible to Europe ( Dutch Brazil ), without, however, penetrating the interior. The large Dutch ships were unable to moor in the coastal inlets where lighter Portuguese shipping came and went. Ironically, the result of the Dutch capture of the sugar coast was a higher price of sugar in Amsterdam . During the Nieuw Holland episode, the colonists of
6179-470: The European charting of sea routes that were the first and only channels of interaction between all of the world's continents, thus beginning the process of globalization . In addition to the imperial and economic undertaking of discovery and colonization of lands distant from Europe, these years were filled with pronounced advancements in cartography , shipbuilding and navigational instruments , of which
6346-532: The Federal District, attributing broad powers to the mayor. The law foresaw that the judicial, federal or local authorities could not revoke administrative measures and acts of the municipality, nor grant possessory interdicts against acts of the municipal government exercised for imperative reasons; it ended any bureaucratic control or postponement of the reforms and, in cases of demolition, eviction or interdiction, there would be only one notice posted in
6513-986: The Federal Government hired the firm C.H. Walker & Co. Ltda., To carry out construction works and improvements in the wharf areas. Subsequently, the Gamboa Wharf and seven warehouses were implemented. The official opening of the port took place on July 20, 1910. In 2014 the elevated highway, Elevado da Perimetral , was destroyed as part of the Porto Maravilha redevelopment. The port operates with loads such as: general containerized cargo, electronics, rubber, petrochemicals, vehicle parts, coffee, steel products, press paper rolls and solid bulk, such as wheat and pig iron. The port has road access through BR-040 , BR-101 , BR-116 , RJ-071 and RJ-083; rail access via Arará Terminal, operated by MRS Logística S / A, in wide gauge (1.60m), suitable for use also in
6680-521: The French were again expelled from São Luís by the Portuguese. Since the initial attempts to find gold and silver failed, the Portuguese colonists adopted an economy based on the production of agricultural goods that were to be exported to Europe. Tobacco and cotton and some other agricultural goods were produced, but sugar became by far the most important Brazilian colonial product until the early 18th century. The first sugarcane farms were established in
6847-625: The Iberian Union (1580–1640), many migrated to Spanish America. In 1580, a succession crisis led to the union of Portugal and Spain being ruled by the Habsburg king Philip II . The unification of the crowns of the two Iberian kingdoms, known as the Iberian Union, lasted until 1640 when the Portuguese revolted. During the union the institutions of both kingdoms remained separate. For Portuguese merchants, many of whom were Christian converts from Judaism ("New Christians") or their descendants,
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7014-529: The Jesuit mission at São Vicente in late 1552 to return only at the conclusion of the Sardinha's tenure. The action of the Jesuits saved many natives from slavery , but also disturbed their ancestral way of life and inadvertently helped spread infectious diseases against which the aborigines had no natural defenses. Slave labour and trade were essential for the economy of Brazil and other American colonies, and
7181-464: The Jesuits taking part in indigenous dances and playing indigenous instruments since he viewed these activities had little effect on conversion. The use of interpreters at confession by the Jesuits was also railed against by Sardinha who opposed the appropriation of indigenous culture for evangelization. Sardinha also challenged the Jesuit prohibition on waging war against and enslaving the indigenous population, eventually forcing Nóbrega to leave Bahia for
7348-723: The Jesuits usually did not object to the enslavement of African people. The potential riches of tropical Brazil led the French, who did not recognize the Tordesillas Treaty that divided the world between the Spanish and the Portuguese, to attempt to colonize parts of Brazil. In 1555, the Nicolas Durand de Villegaignon founded a settlement within Guanabara Bay , in an island in front of today's Rio de Janeiro. The colony, named France Antarctique , led to conflict with Governor General Mem de Sá, who waged war against
7515-470: The Military School of Praia Vermelha without major difficulties. Warned, the government concentrated troops from the Army, Navy, Brigade and Firefighters around the Catete Palace and sent a contingent to face the school, which had set off at ten o'clock with about three hundred cadets. The two troops met and exchanged fire on Rua da Passagem, which was completely dark because of the broken lamps. During
7682-590: The Portuguese Crown's point of view, its realm was expanded with relatively little cost to itself. On the Atlantic islands of the Azores , Madeira , and São Tomé , the Portuguese began plantation production of sugarcane using forced labor, a precedent for Brazil's sugar production in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The Portuguese discovery of Brazil was preceded by a series of treaties between
7849-434: The Portuguese crown from the high costs of colonization. The captaincies granted control over large areas of land and all that resided upon it. Furthermore, the splitting of land highlights the economic importance a large amount of land would have for red-dye producing trees and sugar plantations. Thus, between 1534 and 1536 king John III divided the land into 15 captaincy colonies, which were given to those who wanted and had
8016-423: The Portuguese expel the French from a colony they had established at present-day Rio de Janeiro . The first attempt to colonize Brazil followed the system of hereditary captaincies ( Capitanias Hereditárias ), which had previously been used successfully in the colonization of Madeira. These captaincies were granted by royal decree to private owners, namely to merchants, soldiers, sailors, and petty nobility, saving
8183-646: The Portuguese explorers took advantage. In 1494, the two kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula divided the New World between them in the Treaty of Tordesillas , and in 1500 navigator Pedro Álvares Cabral landed in what is now Brazil and laid claim to it in the name of king Manuel I of Portugal . The Portuguese identified in Portuguese brazilwood as a valuable red dye source and an exploitable product, and attempted to force indigenous groups in Brazil to cut
8350-601: The Portuguese frequently relied on the help of Europeans who lived together with the indigenous people and knew their languages and culture. The most famous of these were João Ramalho , who lived among the Guaianaz tribe near today's São Paulo , and Diogo Álvares Correia, who acquired the name Caramuru , who lived among the Tupinambá natives near today's Salvador. Over time, the Portuguese realized that some European countries, especially France, were also sending excursions to
8517-502: The Portuguese monarchy beginning to move from a crusading and looting-centric attitude, to a trade-centric attitude when approaching new lands. The latter attitude required communication and cooperation with indigenous people, thus, interpreters. This informed Cabral's actions in Brazil. As Cabral realized that no one in his convoy spoke the language of the indigenous people in Brazil, he took every effort to avoid violence and conflict and used music and humor as forms of communication. Just
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#17327650071298684-419: The Portuguese. By 1580, as many as 40,000 natives could have been taken from the interior to toil as slaves on Brazil's interior, and this enslavement of indigenous people continued right throughout the colonial period. The period of sugar-based economy (1530 – c. 1700) is known as the sugar cycle in Brazil. The development of the sugar complex occurred over time, with a variety of models. The dependencies of
8851-495: The Sacramento district, near Tiradentes square, São Jorge, Sacramento, Regente, Conceição, Senhor dos Passos streets and Passos avenue; and the other in Saúde, extending to Gamboa and Cidade Nova . During the early hours of the morning, two hundred men tried to rob the 3rd Urban Police Station on Rua da Saúde. Nearby, the 2nd Police Station, on Rua Estreita de São Joaquim, was taken over by protesters and soon after abandoned with
9018-604: The Senate, the biggest opponent of the project was lieutenant-colonel Lauro Sodré, while in the Chamber major Barbosa Lima stood out, both positivist and florianist soldiers. Outside Congress, the fight against mandatory vaccines took place mainly in the press, especially in Correio da Manhã and Commercio do Brazil . During the discussion, several lists of anti-mandatory signatures were sent to Congress. Two of them were organized by
9185-405: The arrival of Army troops. In Saúde, there were shootings all day long. At night, still in Saúde, large groups got together and began to break gas burners, destroy telephone lines and erect barricades. The police force had to be withdrawn and replaced by a contingent of 150 Marines. In Gamboa, Moinho Inglês was attacked, with its gates and glass broken and machinery damaged. On Rua do Regente, there
9352-413: The authorities. In order to modernize the city and control such epidemics, president Rodrigues Alves initiated a series of urban and sanitary reforms that changed the city's geography and the daily life of its population. The architectural changes in the city were the responsibility of engineer Pereira Passos, appointed mayor of the then Federal District . Streets were widened, tenements were destroyed and
9519-468: The beating of the population by the police cavalry. At eight, everyone headed to the Center. According to Correio da Manhã , around four thousand people from all social classes were present at the meeting, from merchants, workers, military men and students. Lauro Sodré and Barbosa Lima tried to secure the leadership of the popular movement for themselves, giving a political meaning to the revolt. Together with
9686-522: The bubonic plague. To this end, he demanded from Rodrigues Alves the most complete freedom of action, in addition to resources for the application of his measures. In 1904, the sanitary services were reformed, suppressing the dual attributions between the municipal and federal governments after the approval of a bill that had already been in process since the previous year. Thus, the DGSP could invade, inspect and demolish houses and buildings, in addition to having
9853-475: The campaign to attract capital, immigrants, technicians and foreign equipment with the improvement of the port could be effectively carried out, it was essential to proceed with the sanitation of the city. Thus, sanitation in Rio de Janeiro maintained an intimate relationship with the improvement of the port and also with urban reform, since the sanitation problem was considered to depend on an architectural remodeling of
10020-487: The capital and center of economic activities in Brazil of that period. In this context, Rodrigues Alves was inaugurated president of Brazil in November 1902. In his first message to Congress , Alves declared that problems in the capital affected and disturbed national development as a whole, and adopted sanitation and improvement of the port of Rio de Janeiro as priorities for his government. Rodrigues Alves had inherited
10187-860: The capital of the State of Brazil was transferred from Salvador to Rio de Janeiro. In 1775 all Brazilian States (Brasil, Maranhão and Grão-Pará) were unified into the Viceroyalty of Brazil , with Rio de Janeiro as capital, and the title of the king's representative was officially changed to that of Viceroy of Brazil. As in Portugal, each colonial village and city had a city council ( câmara municipal ), whose members were prominent figures of colonial society (land owners, merchants, slave traders). Colonial city councils were responsible for regulating commerce, public infrastructure, professional artisans, prisons etc. Tomé de Sousa, first Governor General of Brazil, brought
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#173276500712910354-553: The central region and peripheral neighborhoods. In Saúde and Gamboa, the repressive forces were summarily expelled by the residents. At that moment, the speeches and slogans against the vaccine, as well as the attacks on government action symbols in the area of public health, were disappearing. The popular revolt began to be directed towards public services and government representatives, especially against repressive forces. The reaction to mandatory vaccination, interpreted as an attempt to invade private space by public authorities, triggered
10521-499: The city and, consequently, the opening of double access roads and airy communications, replacing the narrow streets, overloaded with intense traffic, without enough ventilation, without trees and flanked by buildings that were considered unhygienic. Doctor Oswaldo Cruz was in charge of sanitation in the city, assuming the General Directorate of Public Health (DGSP) with the intention of tackling yellow fever, smallpox and
10688-492: The coast of Africa on the way. They sought sources of gold, ivory, and African slaves, high value goods in the African trade. The Portuguese set up fortified trading feitorias (factories), whereby permanent, fairly small commercial settlements anchored trade in a region. The initial costs of setting up these commercial posts was borne by private investors, who in turn received hereditary titles and commercial advantages. From
10855-472: The coast: they sacked Salvador in 1604, from which they removed large amounts of gold and silver before a joint Spanish-Portuguese fleet recaptured the town. The city was captured again by the Dutch in May 1624 before being surrendered to a Luso-Spanish armada 11 months later. From 1630 to 1654, the Dutch set up more permanently in commercial Recife and aristocratic Olinda. With the capture of Paraíba in 1635,
11022-455: The coastal native population and the declaration of king Sebastian I 's 1570 law which proclaimed the liberty of Brazilian natives, the enslavement of indigenous people increased after 1570. A new slave trade emerged where indigenous people were brought from the sertões or "inland wilderness frontiers" by mixed-race mameluco under the loophole in the 1570 law that they were captured in just wars against native groups who "customarily" attacked
11189-474: The colony in 1560. Estácio de Sá, nephew of the Governor, founded Rio de Janeiro in 1565 and managed to expel the last French settlers in 1567. Jesuit priests Manuel da Nóbrega and Joseph of Anchieta were instrumental in the Portuguese victory by pacifying the natives who supported the French. Another French colony, France Équinoxiale , was founded in 1612 in present-day São Luís , in the North of Brazil. In 1614
11356-400: The colony of Brazil was settled mainly in the coastal area by the Portuguese and a large black slave population working on sugar plantations and mines. The boom and bust of the economic cycles were linked to export products. Brazil's sugar age, with the development of plantation slavery, merchants serving as middle men between production sites, Brazilian ports, and Europe was undermined by
11523-423: The colony serve as a trading post was not ideal for regulating land claims in the Americas, so it decided that the best way to keep control of their land was to settle it. Thus, the land was divided into fifteen private, hereditary captaincies , the most successful of which being Pernambuco and São Vicente . Pernambuco succeeded by growing sugarcane. São Vicente prospered by enslaving indigenous native people from
11690-433: The conspiracy by the press, however, forced the rebels to postpone their plans. The coup was originally scheduled to take place during the 15 November military parade. It would be up to general Silvestre Travassos, one of the leaders of the plot, to command the troops on parade. He would incite the troops to rebel, gaining the support of the officers already in alliance, imposing the consent of the vacillating ones and disarming
11857-527: The course of a few years and replace them with newly imported enslaved people. Areas where manioc , a subsistence crop, was cultivated also utilized high numbers of enslaved peoples. In these areas, 40 to 60 percent of the population was enslaved. These regions were characterized by fewer work demands and better living and working conditions for enslaved peoples as compared to labor conditions for enslaved populations in sugar regions. The Portuguese attempted to severely restrict colonial trade, meaning that Brazil
12024-468: The day before had summoned the people to wait in Praça Tiradentes, where the Ministry of Justice was located, for the results of the commission that would examine the vaccine regulation project. Still during the meeting, at two o'clock in the afternoon, police chief Cardoso de Castro had his car stoned upon arriving at the scene. The police charged into the crowd and the conflict began. Gradually,
12191-561: The decaying coffee producing zones flocked to Rio de Janeiro, then capital of Brazil. The city underwent a process of industrialization and population growth, rising from 522,651 to 811,444 inhabitants between 1890 and 1906. The pressure for housing led the owners of the large imperial and colonial buildings, which occupied the central region of the city, to divide them internally into several cubicles, transforming them into boarding houses and tenements ( cortiços ) and renting them out to entire families. The precarious sanitary conditions favored
12358-464: The defeat of the French colonists of France Antarctique by managing to pacify the Tamoio natives, who had previously fought the Portuguese. The Jesuits took part in the foundation of the city of Rio de Janeiro in 1565. The success of the Jesuits in converting the indigenous people to Catholicism is linked to their capacity to understand the native culture, especially the language. The first grammar of
12525-409: The defense against pirates. Only São Paulo was an important inland city. Unlike the network of towns and cities that developed in most areas of Spanish America, the coastal cities and their hinterlands were oriented toward Portugal directly with little connection otherwise. With sugar as the major export commodity in the early period and the necessity to process cane into exportable refined sugar on-site,
12692-603: The direction of a commission whose chief engineer was Paulo de Frontin. The expropriations for the construction of the new avenue began in December 1903 and the demolitions in February 1904, when work on the Mangue canal also began. At the same time, the city government was in charge of widening some downtown streets. By November 1904, the date of the uprising, the demolition of houses to open up Avenida Central had ended and 16 of
12859-487: The disturbances spread to adjacent streets, to Sacramento and Avenida Passos, to Largo de São Francisco, Teatro, Andradas, Assembly, Sete de Setembro, Regente, Camões and São Jorge streets. Trams were attacked, overturned and set on fire. Gas burners were broken and electric lighting wires on Avenida Central were cut. Barricades were erected on Avenida Passos and adjacent streets. On Senador Dantas Street, newly planted trees were uprooted. In São Jorge, prostitutes went out into
13026-412: The economic and social order of the slave regime in Brazil. There was a constant fear among colonists that enslaved peoples would revolt and resist slavery. Two settler objectives were to discourage enslaved peoples from trying to escape and to close down their options for escape. Strategies used by Portuguese colonists to prevent enslaved people from fleeing included apprehending escapees before they had
13193-435: The end of the conflict, several civilians and twelve police officers were injured and there was at least one dead. The Army and Navy began to man buildings and strategic locations. Even when they came forward to disperse the demonstrators, the Army troops were met with great applause by the demonstrators. Already at dawn on the 14th, the agitation resumed. Throughout the day, it tended to concentrate in two strongholds, one in
13360-737: The enslavement of indigenous people continued. The Portuguese had established several commercial facilities in West Africa , where West African slaves were bought from African slave traders. The enslaved West Africans were then sent via slave ships to Brazil, chained and in crowded conditions. Enslaved West Africans were more desirable and practical because many came from sedentary, agriculture-based societies and did not require as much training in how to farm as did members of Amerindian societies, which tended to not be primarily agricultural. Africans were also less vulnerable to disease than Amerindians were. The importation of enslaved Africans into Brazil
13527-536: The farm included a casa-grande (big house) where the owner of the farm lived with his family, and the senzala , where the slaves were kept. A notable early study of this complex is by Brazilian sociologist Gilberto Freyre . This arrangement was depicted in engravings and paintings by Frans Post as a feature of an apparently harmonious society. Initially, the Portuguese relied on enslaved Amerindians to work on sugarcane harvesting and processing, but they soon began importing enslaved Africans from West Africa, though
13694-439: The fathers' honor by forcing their daughters and wives to undress in front of strangers for the application of the vaccine. On 9 November 1904, the newspaper A Notícia (Rio de Janeiro) published a plan to regulate the application of the mandatory vaccine. The project offered the option of vaccination by a private physician, but the certificate would have to be notarized. In addition, there would be fines for refractory workers and
13861-470: The first group of Jesuits to the colony. More than any other religious order, the Jesuits represented the spiritual side of the enterprise and were destined to play a central role in the colonial history of Brazil. The spreading of the Catholic faith was an important justification for the Portuguese conquests, and the Jesuits were officially supported by the king, who instructed Tomé de Sousa to give them all
14028-502: The frontier region of Acre, although their participation was not always proven. Those transported to this distant territory were shipped aboard "coastal packet-boats", where it was claimed that they faced egregious conditions. In addition to the fierce repression launched by the government, the population of Rio de Janeiro would have to endure a smallpox epidemic in 1908, in which almost 6,400 people died. Colonial Brazil Colonial Brazil ( Portuguese : Brasil Colonial ) comprises
14195-550: The growth of the sugar industry in the Caribbean on islands that European powers seized from Spain. Gold and diamonds were discovered and mined in southern Brazil through the end of the colonial era. Brazilian cities were largely port cities and the colonial administrative capital was moved from Salvador to Rio de Janeiro in response to the rise and fall of export products' importance. Unlike Spanish America, which fragmented into many republics upon independence , Brazil remained
14362-480: The houses for disinfection, or even to abandon the dwelling when condemned to demolition. The fight against smallpox, in turn, depended on vaccination. A bill that made smallpox vaccination mandatory throughout Brazil was presented on 29 June 1904 by senator Manuel José Duarte from Alagoas . The project was approved with 11 votes against, on 20 July, entering the Chamber of Deputies on 18 August and being approved by
14529-441: The houses with sulfur and pyrethrum, after covering them with huge cotton cloths to kill adult mosquitoes. Soon after, Oswaldo Cruz turned to the bubonic plague, which required the extermination of rats and fleas and the cleaning and disinfection of streets and houses. The de-rat control of the city resulted in the issuance of hundreds of subpoenas to property owners requesting them to remove rubble and carry out renovations, especially
14696-481: The indigenous people and severe disputes with other colonizers and the bishop. Wars against the natives around Salvador consumed much of his government. The fact that the first bishop of Brazil, Pero Fernandes Sardinha , was killed and eaten by the Caeté natives after a shipwreck in 1556 illustrates how strained the situation was between the Portuguese and many indigenous communities. The third Governor-General of Brazil
14863-421: The intention of agitating the working class and ordered that measures be taken to prevent disembarkation. As a final act, on the 23rd, the police raided Favela Hill, mobilizing 180 soldiers. The huts on the hill were swept away. On the way back, the troops searched tenement houses and arrested several people. By then, there were more than seven hundred prisoners on the island. Despite its relatively swift downfall,
15030-436: The justifications of the petitions sent to the Chamber by workers, the invasion of houses, the demand for residents to leave for disinfection, and the damage caused to domestic utensils were mentioned more than once as a reason for complaints. There was also a certain fear about the vaccine itself, and the opposition sought to give the anti-vaccination campaign a moralistic tone, exploiting the idea of house invasions and offending
15197-611: The kings of Portugal and Castile , following Portuguese sailings down the coast of Africa to India and the voyages to the Caribbean of the Genoese mariner sailing for Castile, Christopher Columbus . The most decisive of these treaties was the Treaty of Tordesillas, signed in 1494, which created the Tordesillas Meridian, dividing the world between the two kingdoms. All land discovered or to be discovered east of that meridian
15364-412: The land to extract brazilwood. Worried about foreign incursions and hoping to find mineral riches, the Portuguese crown decided to send large missions to take possession of the land and fight the French. In 1530, an expedition led by Martim Afonso de Sousa arrived in Brazil to patrol the entire coast, expel the French, and create the first colonial villages like São Vicente on the coast. Because Brazil
15531-452: The land. The other thirteen captaincies failed, leading the king to make colonization a royal effort rather than a private one. In 1549, Tomé de Sousa sailed to Brazil to establish a central government. He brought along Jesuit priests, who set up missions , forbidding natives to express their own cultures, and converting many to Catholicism. The Jesuits' work to dominate the indigenous native’s cultural expression and way of living helped
15698-530: The law and vaccine regulations. The disturbances started around six in the afternoon, when a group of students started a demonstration in the São Francisco square, where the Polytechnic School was located, making humorous and rhyming speeches. The group walked down Rua do Ouvidor, where the speaker, student Jayme Cohen, preached resistance to the vaccine. A police chief summoned him to go to
15865-521: The leaders of the Centro das Classes Operárias, they conspired to overthrow the government through a coup d'état. However, the movement took on an increasingly dispersive and spontaneous character. At the end of the meeting, the crowd marched to Rua do Ouvidor, where they cheered Correio da Manhã , which had its headquarters there, and booed the government newspapers. Next, a group headed to the Catete Palace , passing through Lapa and Glória . On
16032-541: The longest of any country in the Americas. African slaves had a higher monetary value than indigenous slaves largely because many of them came from agricultural societies and thus were already familiar with the work needed to maintain the profitable sugar plantations of Brazil. Also, African slaves were already immune to several of the Old World diseases that killed many indigenous people and were less likely to flee, as compared to indigenous slaves, since their place of origin
16199-399: The main and most feared leaders of the revolt, leading the protesters on the barricades of the Saúde neighborhood. Before his arrest, he also killed an Army soldier and wounded two policemen. When he was taken to the police station, he was almost lynched by the soldiers, but the chief of police stopped them. He had to be placed in a straitjacket, and even then he continued to insult and threaten
16366-402: The means to administer and explore them. The captains were granted ample powers to administer and profit from their possessions. From the 15 original captaincies, only two, Pernambuco and São Vicente, prospered. The failure of most captaincies was related to the resistance of the indigenous native people, shipwrecks and internal disputes between the colonizers. . Failure can also be attributed to
16533-476: The meeting, Vicente de Souza was arrested on Rua do Passeio. At night, part of the group that had participated in the meeting went to the Preparatory and Tactical School of Realengo and tried to revolt. The reaction of the commander, general Hermes da Fonseca , thwarted the plan, and major Gomes de Castro and Pinto de Andrade were arrested. The other group, made up of Lauro Sodré, Travassos and Varela, raised
16700-411: The mid-16th century and were the key for the success of the captaincies of São Vicente and Pernambuco, leading sugarcane plantations to quickly spread to other coastal areas in colonial Brazil. Initially, the Portuguese attempted to utilize Indian slaves for sugar cultivation, but shifted to the use of black African slave labor. While the availability of Amerindians did decrease due to epidemics afflicting
16867-422: The modern era. After several years of open warfare, the Dutch finally withdrew in 1654; the Portuguese paid off a war debt in payments of salt. Few Dutch cultural and ethnic influences remain, but Albert Eckhout 's paintings of amerindians and slaves, as well as his still lifes are important works of baroque art. Unlike neighboring Spanish America, Brazil was a slave society from its outset. The African slave trade
17034-418: The most common forms of resistance involved engaging in sluggishness and sabotage . Other ways these enslaved peoples resisted was by exacting violence upon themselves and their babies, often to the point of death, and by seeking revenge against their masters. Another type of resistance to slavery was flight and, with the dense vegetation of the tropics, runaway slaves fled in numbers and for slave owners, this
17201-533: The native languages and to serve as interpreters in the future. The practice of leaving degredados in new lands to serve as interpreters came straight from the colonization of the islands off of the West African coast 80 years before Cabral landed in Brazil. After Cabral's voyage, the Portuguese focused their efforts on their possessions in Africa and India and showed little interest in Brazil. Between 1500 and 1530, relatively few Portuguese expeditions came to
17368-408: The necessary reforms. Knowing the extent and urgency of the works he had to carry out and prefiguring the resistance and reactions of the population to the demolitions, Passos demanded full freedom of action to accept the position, without being subject to legal, budgetary or material embarrassments. Rodrigues Alves, through the law of 29 December 1902, created a new statute of municipal organization for
17535-467: The new buildings were under construction. The avenue's central axis was inaugurated on 7 September , amidst large parties, already with tram service and electric lighting. The demolition of around 640 buildings had torn, through the most inhabited part of the city, a corridor that ran from the beach to the Passeio Público. Part of the rubble still covered the sides of the avenue. On the same date,
17702-422: The new land to chart the coast and to obtain brazilwood. In Europe, this wood was used to produce a valuable red dye to luxury textiles. To extract brazilwood from the tropical rainforest, the Portuguese and other Europeans relied on the work of the natives, who initially worked in exchange for European goods like mirrors, scissors, knives and axes. In this early stage of the colonization of Brazil, and also later,
17869-419: The next 150 years. The captaincy of São Vicente, owned by Martim Afonso de Sousa, also produced sugar but its main economic activity was capturing indigenous native people to trade them as slaves. With the failure of most captaincies and the menacing presence of French ships along the Brazilian coast, the government of king John III decided to turn the colonization of Brazil back into a royal enterprise. In 1549,
18036-477: The opportunity to band together. Slave catchers mounted expeditions with the intent to destroy fugitive communities. These expeditions destroyed mocambos and either killed or re-enslaved inhabitants These expeditions were conducted by soldiers and mercenaries, many of whom were supported by local people or by the government's military. As a result, many fugitive communities were heavily fortified. Amerindians were sometimes utilized as ‘slave catchers’ or as part of
18203-482: The opposing ones. The Vaccine Revolt, however, caused the parade to be suspended. Thus, on the 14th, a meeting was held at the Military Club, attended by Lauro Sodré, Travassos, major Gomes de Castro, deputy Varela, Vicente de Souza and Pinto de Andrade. The Minister of War became aware of the meeting and ordered the president of the club, general Leite de Castro, to dissolve it. On his way to the city center after
18370-487: The period from 1500, with the arrival of the Portuguese , until 1815, when Brazil was elevated to a kingdom in union with Portugal . During the 300 years of Brazilian colonial history, the main economic activities of the territory were based first on brazilwood extraction (brazilwood cycle), which gave the territory its name; sugar production ( sugar cycle ); and finally on gold and diamond mining ( gold cycle ). Slaves, especially those brought from Africa , provided most of
18537-443: The pier and the shallow depth prevented the docking of large international transatlantic ships, which were anchored offshore, forcing a complicated, time-consuming and costly system of transhipment of goods and passengers to smaller vessels. Once the goods were transported to land, the problems continued. The space on the docks was too small to store items intended for the national and international market. The products had to be taken to
18704-425: The place, providing for penalties against disobedience; it also provided for the eviction of residents in the buildings to be demolished, as well as the removal of their furniture and belongings, which would be done by the police. At the same time that he led the works, Pereira Passos also took a series of measures aimed at prohibiting and changing the forms of work, leisure and sociability considered incompatible with
18871-420: The police station. There was popular backlash against the arrest. Upon arriving near Tiradentes Square, the group came face to face with police cavalry soldiers, erupting in boos and shouts of "Die the police! Down with the vaccine!". There was, then, conflict with the police forces and attempts to snatch Cohen away. In the end, fifteen people were arrested, including five students and two civil servants. At 7:30 PM
19038-464: The police tried to make the arrests, clashes broke out. Protesters used rubble from the ongoing renovations and armed themselves with iron, sticks and stones. There was a rush and pursuit by the police, extending to Praça Tiradentes and Largo do Rosário. Eighteen people were arrested for using illegal weapons. On the 12th, there was a new meeting to discuss and approve the bases of the League. The meeting
19205-453: The poor were removed from their former homes. Doctor Oswaldo Cruz, who took over the General Directorate of Public Health in 1903, was responsible for the sanitation campaign in the city, which aimed to eradicate epidemics. To this end, in June 1904, the government proposed a law that made vaccinatation mandatory. The law generated heated debates between legislators and the population, and, despite
19372-628: The port were contracted in 1903 with the English firm C. H. Walker, which had built the docks in Buenos Aires , and began in March 1904, comprising in its first part the 600-meter stretch that went from the Mangue to the Gamboa pier. Complementary works on Avenida Central, Avenida do Cais (now Avenida Rodrigues Alves) and the Mangue canal were the responsibility of the federal government itself, under
19539-476: The proliferation of diseases such as the bubonic plague, smallpox and yellow fever, endemic in Rio de Janeiro, especially in the poorest regions. Epidemics gave Rio de Janeiro the reputation of being a plague-ridden and deadly city, driving away foreigners, fearful of contracting diseases, and the urban planning inherited from the colonial period and the Brazilian Empire no longer matched its condition as
19706-479: The proposal leaked to the press, the indignant and upset people started a series of conflicts and demonstrations that lasted for about a week. Although mandatory vaccination triggered the revolt, protests soon began to target public services in general and government representatives, in particular against repressive forces. A group of florianist and positivist soldiers, with the support of some civil sectors, tried to take advantage of popular discontent to carry out
19873-402: The railway junctions, which connected Rio de Janeiro to the rest of the country, in coordination with cabotage navigation. The city streets, however, were still colonial alleys, narrow, tortuous, dark and with very steep slopes. Thus, the improvement of the port of Rio de Janeiro also implied a broad urban reform. Engineer Pereira Passos was nominated as mayor of the Federal District to carry out
20040-554: The re-imposition of lawful authority, as the processes of unequal economic development and gentrification continued to accelerate following the uprising. Trade unions were severely marginalized, increasingly dismissed by political elites and middle-class professionals as an unsophisticated reaction against modernization. Moreover, the economic power of these native-born Brazilian workers was further diminished as increasingly large quantities of foreign laborers arrived in Rio de Janeiro on an annual basis. Senator Lauro Sodré subsequently enjoyed
20207-662: The rebels had cannons and dynamite. On the 16th, a state of emergency was declared. The repressive operations focused on the Saúde neighborhood, which the government newspaper O Paiz called "the last stronghold of anarchism". In the center of the city, especially in the Sacramento stronghold, skirmishes between the population and the police continued, although with less intensity than in the previous days. The clashes resulted in several injuries. At nightfall, large barricades appeared on Frei Caneca. The actions persisted in Cidade Nova as well. In Jardim Botânico , trams were robbed and
20374-455: The resistance. President Rodrigues Alves turned down the proposal. Soon after, it was reported that the students had also backed out and returned to school. On the morning of the 15th, the cadets surrendered without resistance and were arrest and sent to prison. The rebelling side suffered more casualties, with three killed and several wounded. Among the government troops, thirty-two were wounded. The popular protests continued, starting at dawn on
20541-399: The restructuring and expansion works of the port, which, in addition to modernizing the existing pier, intended to expand the port facilities of Prainha, passing through Praia de São Cristóvão, to Ponta do Caju. The same law authorized the issuance of bonds aiming at increasing the capital intended for investment. It also released any loan that came to be arranged by the contractors in charge of
20708-400: The revolt convinced the mayor and his cabinet to abandon the forced-vaccination program for the time being. This concession was ultimately demonstrated to have been quite superficial, however, as the policy was re-instated several years later. Whatever popular frustrations or progressive ideals that the anti-vaccination movement and its allies might have expressed were thoroughly swept aside with
20875-648: The revolt or not. On the 19th, the Luz Steárica factory was attacked and several lamps were broken in São Cristóvão, Bonfim and Ponta do Caju. On the 20th, there were a large number of arrests in Gávea . The following day, the number of prisoners on Ilha das Cobras already reached 543. On that day, the Minister of Justice received a complaint that "three dangerous anarchists" had been sent to Rio de Janeiro with
21042-528: The revolt or not. The total balance was 945 people arrested on Ilha das Cobras , 30 dead, 110 injured and 461 deported to the remote state of Acre . At the turn of the 19th century, at the same time as the abolitionist movements that put an end to slavery and the monarchy took place, in addition to the revolts that convulsed the first years of the First Brazilian Republic , large contingents of European immigrants and former slaves from
21209-460: The same day, army battalions from Minas Gerais and São Paulo arrived. Two battalions of the Public Force of São Paulo also arrived. The government of the state of Rio de Janeiro offered assistance from its police force. In Saúde, the police ordered the Navy to attack the rebels by sea, while families began to leave the neighborhood, fearful of a possible naval bombardment. Rumors circulated that
21376-693: The sites of institutional life of church and state, as well as urban groups of merchants. Unlike many areas of Spanish America, there was no dense, sedentary indigenous population which had already created settlements, but cities and towns in Brazil were similar to those in Spanish Colonial Venezuela . Port cities allowed Portuguese trade goods to enter, including African slaves, and export goods of sugar and later gold and coffee to be exported to Portugal and beyond. Coastal cities of Olinda (founded 1537), Salvador (1549), Santos (1545), Vitória (1551), and Rio de Janeiro (1565) were also vital in
21543-430: The situation returned to normal, with the police remaining on guard at Praça Tiradentes. On the 11th, demonstrators gathered again in the São Francisco square, summoned by the League Against Mandatory Vaccine. When the League's leaders did not attend, popular speakers gave impromptu speeches. Police authorities were ordered to intervene and, as they approached the demonstration, they were the target of boos and taunts. When
21710-474: The skirmish, part of the government troops went over to the side of the rebels, general Travassos fell wounded, Lauro Sodré disappeared and, finally, both sides fled, without knowing what was happening to the other. General Piragibe went to Catete to announce the disbandment of his troops, causing fear in Catete. It was suggested to the president that he retire to a warship anchored in the bay and from there organize
21877-559: The soldiers. Around three in the afternoon, troopa landed near the Moinho Inglês and took a first trench. The battleship Deodoro then approached, while the Army troops advanced along the Mortona hill. By this time, the trenches had been completely abandoned. It was also verified that the dynamites and cannons were nothing more than a decoy. The first ones were, in fact, pieces of wood wrapped in silver paper, suspended by wires around
22044-576: The states of Brasil , with Salvador as capital, and Maranhão , with its capital in São Luís . The state of Maranhão was still further divided in 1737 into the Maranhão e Piauí and Grão-Pará e Rio Negro , with its capital in Belém do Pará . Each state had its own Governor. After 1640, the governors of Brazil coming from the high nobility started to use the title of Vice-rei ( Viceroy ). In 1763
22211-415: The street and confronted the police, one of them getting injured in the face. There were attacks on police stations and the cavalry barracks on Frei Caneca. There were also attacks on the gasometer and on the tram companies. The conflicts spread, reaching Praça Onze, Tijuca , Gamboa , Saúde , Prainha , Botafogo , Laranjeiras , Catumbi , Rio Comprido and Engenho Novo . The authorities lost control of
22378-418: The streets of Acre (formerly Prainha), São Bento, Visconde de Inhaúma, Assembleia and Sete de Setembro were being widened. Rua do Sacramento was extended to Avenida Marechal Floriano Peixoto, with the new part named Avenida Passos. The demolition of the old buildings, by then almost all converted into boarding houses and tenements, caused a housing crisis that raised rents and pressured the popular classes towards
22545-432: The submission of Salvadoran natives, the aldeias marked the transition of Jesuit policy from conversion by persuasion alone to the acceptance of force as a means of organizing natives with a means to then evangelizing them. Nevertheless, these aldeias were unattractive to the natives due to the introduction of epidemic diseases to the communities, the forced settlement of aldeia natives elsewhere to labor, and raiding of
22712-446: The suburbs and up the hills that surround the city. In the early 1900s, Rio de Janeiro was an endemic focus for several diseases, including yellow fever, typhoid fever , malaria , smallpox, bubonic plague and tuberculosis . Of these, yellow fever and smallpox caused the greatest number of victims in the capital. The crews and passengers arriving at the port often did not even get off the ships to avoid contracting such diseases. So that
22879-403: The sugar engenhos had resident artisans and barber-surgeons, and functioned in some ways as small towns. Also unlike most Spanish settlements, Brazilian cities and towns did not have a uniform lay-out of central plaza and a check board pattern of streets, often because the topography defeated such an orderly layout. Converted Jews, so-called New Christians , many of whom were merchants, played
23046-535: The support needed to Christianise the indigenous people. The first Jesuits, guided by Father Manuel da Nóbrega and including prominent figures like Juan de Azpilcueta Navarro, Leonardo Nunes and later Joseph of Anchieta , established the first Jesuit missions in Salvador and in São Paulo dos Campos de Piratininga , the settlement that gave rise to the city of São Paulo . Nóbrega and Anchieta were instrumental in
23213-677: The trade in Brazil. During the union of the Spanish and Portuguese crowns (1580–1640), to be active in Spanish America as well, especially trading African slaves. Even though Brazilian sugar was reputed as being of high quality, the industry faced a crisis during the 17th and 18th centuries when the Dutch and the French started producing sugar in the Antilles , located much closer to Europe, causing sugar prices to fall. Brazil had coastal cities and towns, which have been considered far less important than colonial settlements in Spanish America, but like Spanish America, urban settlements were important as
23380-721: The trees. Portuguese seafarers in the early fifteenth century, as an extension of the Portuguese Reconquista , began to expand from a small area of the Iberian Peninsula, to seizing the Muslim fortress of Ceuta in North Africa. Its maritime exploration then proceeded down the coast of West Africa and across the Indian Ocean to the south Asian subcontinent, as well as the Atlantic islands off
23547-526: The trenches, while the cannons were nothing more than a public lighting pipe placed on two wagon wheels. Until the 20th, there were isolated outbreaks of revolt. On the 18th, there was a shooting at a quarry in Catete , which resulted in the death of one civilian and two soldiers, in addition to 80 prisoners. Police chiefs began to sweep the territories under their jurisdiction, arresting suspects and those they considered troublemakers, whether they were related to
23714-531: The troops to charge at them. During the day there were rumors that the Minister of Justice 's house had been stoned, which did not happen. However, his house was guarded by the police, as was Oswaldo Cruz's. Soon the Army came into readiness and cavalry and infantry soldiers were sent to guard Catete. On Sunday 13th, the conflict became generalized and took on a more violent character. A notice in Correio da Manhã
23881-503: The union of crowns presented commercial opportunities in the slave trade to Spanish America. The Seventeen Provinces obtained independence from Spain in 1581, leading Philip II to prohibit commerce with Dutch ships, including in Brazil. Since the Dutch had invested large sums in financing sugar production in the Brazilian Northeast and were important as shippers of sugar, a conflict began with Dutch privateers plundering
24048-459: The victims of this raiding were not white sugar planters but blacks who sold produce grown on their own plots. Other accounts document the actions of members of quilombos to successfully prospect gold and diamonds and to engage in trade with white-controlled cities. While the reasons for fugitive settlement are varied, quilombos were rarely wholly self-sufficient and although inhabitants may have engaged in agricultural pursuits, they depended on
24215-485: The waterproofing of the ground and the suppression of basements. To prevent resistance from residents, the brigades were always accompanied by police soldiers. The preferred targets for visits were the poorest and most densely populated areas. DGSP's actions were not well received by the population, especially by the owners of pension houses and tenements considered unhygienic, forced to renovate or demolish them, and by tenants forced to receive public health employees, to leave
24382-471: The way, they booed the Minister of War's car, applauded the Army's 9th Cavalry Regiment, booed and shot the Police Brigade commander's car, general Piragibe. The palace was heavily guarded. The crowd turned around and returned to the center. In Glória, Alfredo Varela spoke from the window of his house, advising the protesters to disperse. In Lapa, demonstrators fired again at Piragibe's car, who ordered
24549-508: The workforce of the Brazilian export economy after a brief initial period of Indigenous slavery to cut brazilwood. In contrast to the neighboring Spanish possessions , which had several viceroyalties with jurisdiction initially over New Spain (Mexico) and Peru , and in the eighteenth century expanded with the viceroyalties of the Río de la Plata (Argentina, Uruguay and Bolivia) and New Granada (Colombia, Venezuela, Panama, Ecuador and Guyana),
24716-530: The works, under any terms and with any credit agencies, and even agreed with the demolitions and construction of works parallel to the pier, surrounding or connected to the port facilities, which ensured storage and free and rapid circulation of exchanged goods. Despite being the most important in the country and one of the busiest in the Americas at the time, the port of Rio de Janeiro still had an old-fashioned and restricted structure, incompatible with its fundamental role in Brazilian economic activity. The limits of
24883-461: Was Mem de Sá (1557–1573). He was an efficient administrator who managed to defeat the indigenous people and, with the help of the Jesuits, expel the French ( Huguenots and some previous Catholic settlers) from their colony of France Antarctique . As part of this process, his nephew, Estácio de Sá , founded the city of Rio de Janeiro there in 1565. The huge size of Brazil led to the colony being divided in two after 1621 when king Philip II created
25050-424: Was a result of the planters' preference for male labor, and men in quilombos not only raided for crops and goods, but for women; the women taken back to the quilombos were often black or mulatto . Port of Rio de Janeiro The Port of Rio de Janeiro ( Portuguese : Porto do Rio de Janeiro ) is a seaport in the city of Rio de Janeiro , Brazil located in a cove on the west shore of Guanabara Bay . It
25217-439: Was a shootout between civil guards and Army soldiers, commanded by lieutenant Varela, from the 22nd Infantry Battalion. Soldiers arrested and wounded some guards to the cheers of protesters. City Improvements company employees, with a red flag, tried to stop the police assistance wagon and one of them was injured. During the day, bulletins issued by the chief of police asked "the peaceful population" to return to their homes so that
25384-414: Was able to safely enter and leave Brazil in ten days, despite having no means of communication with the indigenous people there, due to the experience Portuguese explorers, such as Gama, had been amassing over the past few decades in interacting with foreign peoples. The Portuguese colonization, around 80 years earlier, of islands off West Africa such as São Tomé and Príncipe , were the first examples of
25551-658: Was an "endemic problem." The realities of being on a frontier that was policed in less than optimal ways fostered the successful escapes of enslaved people. Since the early 17th century there are indications of runaway slaves organizing themselves into settlements in the Brazilian hinterland. These settlements, called mocambos and quilombos , were usually small and relatively close to sugar fields, and attracted not only African slaves but also people of indigenous origin. Quilombos were often viewed by Portuguese colonists as "parasitic," relying upon theft of livestock and crops, "extortion, and sporadic raiding" for sustenance. Often,
25718-470: Was an item of dispute for more than two and a half centuries but clearly established the Portuguese in America. It was replaced by the Treaty of Madrid in 1750, and both reflect the present extent of Brazil's coastline. On 22 April 1500, during the reign of king Manuel I , a fleet led by navigator Pedro Álvares Cabral landed in Brazil and took possession of the land in the name of the king. Although it
25885-481: Was built on a slope by a bay ( All Saints Bay ) and was divided into an upper administrative area and a lower commercial area with a harbour. Tomé de Sousa also visited the captaincies to repair the villages and reorganise their economies. In 1551, the Diocese of São Salvador da Bahia was established in the colony, with its seat in Salvador. The second Governor General, Duarte da Costa (1553–1557), faced conflicts with
26052-407: Was called from Niterói . Trains left to pick up the 12th Battalion from Lorena , in São Paulo , and the 28th Battalion from São João del-Rei , Minas Gerais . At the same time, Lauro Sodré and other seditious soldiers were plotting a coup d'état. At first, the coup had been planned for the night of 17 October 1904, the birthday of Lauro Sodré, who would be given the presidency. The denunciation of
26219-458: Was divided into ten health districts, with health departments, whose personnel were responsible for receiving notifications of patients, administering serums and vaccines, fining and subpoenaing property owners and detecting epidemic outbreaks. The section in charge of maps and epidemiological statistics provided coordinates to the mosquito killer brigades, which roamed the streets neutralizing water deposits with mosquito larvae. Another section purged
26386-536: Was founded on 5 November, in a meeting at the Centro das Classes Operárias presided over by Lauro Sodré and Vicente de Souza and with the presence of two thousand people. The League was formed by a coalition of radical republican politicians, ideological factions within the Brazilian Army , and journalists. There was great popular irritation with the government's actions in the area of public health, especially with regard to house inspections and disinfections. In
26553-416: Was heavily influenced by the rise of sugar and gold industries in the colony; from 1600 until 1650, sugar accounted for 95% of Brazil's exports. Slave labor demands varied based on region and on the type of harvest crop. In the Bahia region, where sugar was the main crop, conditions for enslaved peoples were extremely harsh. It was often cheaper for slaveowners to literally work enslaved peoples to death over
26720-530: Was inherent to the economic and social structure of the colony. Years before the North American slave trade got underway, more slaves had been brought to Brazil than would ever reach the Thirteen Colonies . It can be estimated that around 35% of all Africans captured in the Atlantic slave trade were sent to Brazil. The slave trade in Brazil would continue for nearly two hundred years and last
26887-583: Was intense conflict between demonstrators and cavalry, resulting in three deaths. In Prainha, the ferry from Petrópolis was attacked by a group of more than two thousand people, who destroyed the station without disturbing the passengers. There were also attempts to rob gun stores. At night, the Luz Steárica candle factory in São Cristóvão was attacked. The same happened with the gasometers at Mangue, Vila Isabel and Botafogo. On Avenida Central, Public Works wagons were overturned. In Visconde de Itaúna, there
27054-562: Was not home to larger civilizations like the Aztec and the Inca in Mexico and Peru, the Portuguese could not place themselves on an established social structure. This, coupled with the fact that tangible material wealth was not found until the 18th century, made the relationship between the Portuguese and the Brazilian colony very different from the relationship of the Spanish to their possessions in
27221-419: Was only allowed to export and import goods from Portugal and other Portuguese colonies. Brazil exported sugar, tobacco, cotton and native products and imported from Portugal wine , olive oil , textiles and luxury goods – the latter imported by Portugal from other European countries. Africa played an essential role as the supplier of slaves, and Brazilian slave traders in Africa frequently exchanged cachaça ,
27388-436: Was prevalent. The Bahian quilombo of Buraco de Tatu is described as a "well-organized" village in which people probably practiced monogamy and lived on rectangular-shaped houses that made up neat rows, emulating a plantation senzala . Quilombos were often well fortified, with swampy dikes and false roads leading to "covered traps" and "sharpened stakes," like those used in Africa. The gender imbalance among African slaves
27555-413: Was scheduled for eight in the evening, at the headquarters of the Centro das Classes Operárias on Rua do Espírito Santo, close to Praça Tiradentes. From five in the afternoon, demonstrators began to gather in the São Francisco square. A group of working-class boys playfully started the demonstrations. Mounted on pieces of wood removed from the works, they began to play the events of the day before, simulating
27722-560: Was so inaccessible. However, many African slaves did in fact flee and created their own communities of runaway slaves called quilombos , which often became established political and economic entities. Work on the sugarcane plantations in Northeast Brazil and other areas relied heavily on slave labor , mostly of west African origin. Tijmen vd P. Had a immense role in slave oppression and torture of escaped africans These enslaved people worked to resist slavery in many ways. Some of
27889-478: Was to be the property of Portugal, and everything to the west of it went to Spain. The Tordesillas Meridian divided South America into two parts, leaving a large chunk of land to be exploited by the Spaniards. The Treaty of Tordesillas has been called the earliest document in Brazilian history, since it determined that part of South America would be settled by Portugal instead of Spain. The Treaty of Tordesillas
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