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141-783: The history of the Vahika region begins in the Vedic era , where the sons of Yayati established prominent kingdoms and tribes that participated in significant events such as the Battle of the Ten Kings and the Kurukshetra War . Vahika is mentioned during this period by writers such as Pāṇini . The region is further documented during Alexander the Great 's invasion in the 5th century BCE, when various tribes, including those led by Porus and

282-440: A "hierarchical order of estates which reflected a division of labor among various social classes". The Vedic period estates were four: Brahmin priests and warrior nobility stood on top, free peasants and traders were the third, and slaves, labourers and artisans, many belonging to the indigenous people, were the fourth. This was a period where agriculture, metal, and commodity production, as well as trade, greatly expanded, and

423-424: A cradle of martial tribes who's way of life consisted of the military arts. Numerous cities lying in the Vahika country are mentioned by Panini including: Kastira, Sagala , Saubhuta, Kaukudivaha, Svavidgarta, Srigalagarta and Vrikagarta. According to Rigvedic tradition , Yayati was the progenitor of the prominent Udichya tribes and had numerous sons, including Anu, Puru, and Druhyu. The lineage of Anu gave rise to

564-495: A daily basis and/or on Uposatha days, depending on the school of Buddhism. In Theravada tradition they are a part of daily chanting: The Sangha: The Sangha of the Blessed One's disciples ( sāvakas ) is: That is, the four pairs of persons, the eight types of individuals - This Sangha of the Blessed One's disciples is: The Sangha was originally established by Gautama Buddha in the fifth century BCE in order to provide

705-466: A governing assembly in a republic or a kingdom, and for a long time, it has been used by religious associations, including Buddhists , Jains and Sikhs . Given this history, some Buddhists have stated that the tradition of the sangha represents humanity's oldest surviving democratic institution. In Buddhism, sangha refers to the monastic communities of bhikkhu (monks) and bhikkhuni (nuns). These communities are traditionally referred to as

846-782: A group of people who settled in Sutlej, Ghagger, and the Upper Ganga/Yamuna Valleys, loosely classified with the early Aryans who migrated to India in the beginning of the Vedic period. It's also thought that the groups that introduced the painted grey ware culture also brought iron technology to the Indo-gangetic plains, making this pottery a momentous mark of the Northern Indian Iron Age. The style of grey-ware often includes clay wheel-thrown into

987-468: A king would treat another king". Impressed, Alexander indeed treated him like a king, allowing him to retain his lands. Following the battle, Alexander founded two cities called Boukephala and Nikaia , the latter at the site of the battle and named after the Greek for Victory, in commemoration of his success, and the former on the opposite bank to honour his faithful steed Bucephalus , who died during or after

1128-558: A longstanding animosity towards Porus who governed the region encompassed by the Chenab and Jhelum River . Omphis, in a gesture of goodwill, presented Alexander the great with significant gifts, esteemed among the Indian populace, and subsequently accompanied him on the expedition crossing the Indus . His territory stretched from between the Indus and Jhelum Rivers . Porus ruled over

1269-527: A means for those who wish to practice full-time in a direct and highly disciplined way, free from the restrictions and responsibilities of the household life. The Sangha also fulfils the function of preserving the Buddha's original teachings and of providing spiritual support for the Buddhist lay-community. The Sangha has historically assumed responsibility for maintaining the integrity of the doctrine as well as

1410-633: A purely indigenous origin of the Indo-Aryans is outside the academic mainstream. The knowledge about the Aryans comes mostly from the Rigveda - samhita , i.e. the oldest layer of the Vedas , which was composed c.  1400–1000 BCE. They brought with them their distinctive religious traditions and practices. The Vedic beliefs and practices of the pre-classical era were closely related to

1551-507: A rebellion of the citizens of Taxila against the usurpers. With fervent support from the populace, Phraotes led a triumphant entry into the residence of the usurpers, whilst the citizens brandished torches, swords, and bows in a display of unified resistance. During this period in the 1st century CE, Pliny the Elder notes a list of tribes in the Punjab region spanning from the lower Indus to

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1692-537: A small kingdom to the east of Magadha (on the door step of modern-day West Bengal ), formed the eastern boundary of the Vedic culture. Yadavas expanded towards the south and settled in Mathura . To the south of their kingdom was Vatsa which was governed from its capital Kausambi . The Narmada River and parts of North Western Deccan formed the southern limits. The newly formed states struggled for supremacy and started displaying imperial ambitions. The end of

1833-406: A smooth texture, ash-grey in color, and often decorated with black ink, creating small circular patterns, sometimes spirals, swastikas, or sigmas. Grey-ware pottery is almost exclusively drinking ware, and tends to have three different forms: narrow-waisted, tall drinking glasses, middle-sized drinking goblets, and drinking vases with outturned lips. There was a distinct grey ware culture surrounding

1974-544: A year. The horse was followed by a chosen band of warriors. The kingdoms and chiefdoms in which the horse wandered had to pay homage or prepare to battle the king to whom the horse belonged. This sacrifice put considerable pressure on inter-state relations in this era. This period saw also the beginning of the social stratification by the use of varna , the division of Vedic society in Brahmins , Kshatriya , Vaishya and Shudra . The Kuru kingdom declined after its defeat by

2115-502: Is a bhikkhu in Pali , Sanskrit bhikṣu , while a nun is a bhikkhuni , Sanskrit bhikṣuṇī . These words literally mean "beggar" or "one who lives by alms ", and it was traditional in early Buddhism for the Sangha to go on "alms round" for food, walking or standing quietly in populated areas with alms bowls ready to receive food offerings each day. Although in the vinaya laid down by

2256-475: Is derived from the Sanskrit verb yaj, which has a three-fold meaning of worship of deities (devapujana), unity (saògatikaraña) and charity (dána). An essential element was the sacrificial fire—the divine Agni —into which oblations were poured, as everything offered into the fire was believed to reach God. People prayed for abundance of rain, cattle, sons, long life and gaining 'heaven'. Vedic people believed in

2397-559: Is difficult to "pin down" whether the Kurus were a true "state" or a complex chiefdom , as the Kuru kings notably never adopted royal titles higher than "rājan," which means "chief" rather than "king" in the Vedic context. The Middle Vedic Period is also characterized by a lack of cities; Bellah compares this to early state formation in ancient Hawaii and "very early Egypt," which were "territorial states" rather than "city-states," and thus "it

2538-475: Is donated to them by laypeople, except that they may not eat meat if they know or suspect the animal was killed specifically for them. Consequently, the Theravada tradition does not practice strict vegetarianism, although an individual may do so as his or her personal choice. Both Mahayana and Vajrayana traditions vary depending on their interpretation of their scriptures. In some Mahayana sutras , meat-eating

2679-701: Is frequently (and according to them, mistakenly) used in the West to refer to any sort of Buddhist community. Accordingly, the Nichiren Shōshū sect maintains the traditionalist definition of the sangha as the Head Temple Taisekiji priesthood collective as the sole custodians and arbiters of Buddhist doctrine. The Soka Gakkai , a new religious movement which began as a lay organization previously associated with Nichiren Shōshū in Japan, disputes

2820-450: Is greatly important to this culture, as pottery was often used as a "grave good", being buried with the bodies of the dead. Buried alongside the skeletons, we typically see various pots on top of the body, averaging at about 5 or less pieces of pottery per grave. Within this culture we typically see two kinds of pottery: gray ware, or red ware. Black and red ware culture was coined as a term in 1946 by Sir Mortimer Wheeler. The pottery, as

2961-401: Is heard"). The mode of worship was the performance of sacrifices ( Yajna ) which included the chanting of Rigvedic verses (see Vedic chant ), singing of Samans and 'mumbling' of sacrificial mantras ( Yajus ). Yajna involved sacrifice and sublimation of the havana sámagri (herbal preparations) in the fire accompanied by the chanting of the Vedic mantras. The sublime meaning of the word yajna

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3102-472: Is mentioned in some hymns, there is no indication of the use of coins. Metallurgy is not mentioned in the Rigveda , but the word ayas and instruments made from it such as razors, bangles, axes are mentioned. One verse mentions purification of ayas . Some scholars believe that ayas refers to iron and the words dham and karmara refer to iron-welders. However, philological evidence indicates that ayas in

3243-708: Is strongly discouraged and it is stated that the Buddha did not eat meat. In particular, East Asian sangha members take on the Bodhisattva Precepts originating in the Brahmajāla Sūtra , which has a vow of vegetarianism as part of the Triple Platform Ordination, where they receive the three sets of vows: śrāmaṇera / śrāmaṇerī (novitiate), monastic, and then the Brahmajāla Sūtra Bodhisattva Precepts, whereas

3384-638: The Aditya gods or sometimes the cow). Rivers, especially Saraswati , were also considered goddesses. Deities were not viewed as all-powerful. The relationship between humans and the deity was one of transaction, with Agni (the sacrificial fire) taking the role of messenger between the two. Strong traces of a common Indo-Iranian religion remain visible, especially in the Soma cult and the fire worship, both of which are preserved in Zoroastrianism . Ethics in

3525-549: The Gita of Mahabharata , are essential parts of these later developments. The reconstruction of the history of Vedic India is based on text-internal details, but can be correlated to relevant archaeological details. Linguistically, the Vedic texts could be classified in five chronological strata: In northern India, some very early depictions of deities appear in the art of the Indus Valley Civilisation , but

3666-648: The Hunnic era dated to between the 4th-7th centuries CE attest to numerous tribal republics of the region. In the 7th century CE the region came under the control of the Taank Kingdom . Multiple names have been used in ancient times to refer to the region of Punjab , such as Pentapotamia , in Greek , and Panchanada, in Sanskrit ; however, the definition of Vahika has been understood to mean 'the outsiders' in which

3807-678: The Indus and entering a country named as ‘Bida’ in the Punjab in which Buddhism was flourishing. The region of Bhida has been described as residing near the Jhelum River . Song Yun was another Chinese Buddhist monk who was contemporary to the Alchon Hunnic rule of Mihirakula and describes his visit with the king c. 520 CE. He states that Mihirakula's rule was cruel and vindictive with barborous atrocities taking place. He further explains that Mihirakula abode with his troops on his frontier and never returned to his kingdom in which

3948-538: The Madra of Vahika based on the Allahabad Pillar inscription. His successful military campaigns in the region of Āryāvarta greatly enhanced his reputation and it is believed that his conquests and the resulting fame were significant factors in persuading frontier rulers and tribes to submit to his authority willingly, without engaging in any hostilities. (Lines 22–23) ( Samudragupta , whose) formidable rule

4089-411: The Madra republic among others lived by the title of Raja . According to Buddhist texts , Chanakya was born in the city of Taxila in which he had brought Chandragupta Maurya to educate him in numerous arts such as military strategy. This is also confirmed by Plutarch in which he states that Alexander the Great had met with Chandragupta during his invasions. According to J. W. McCrindle and

4230-683: The Madra , Kekaya , Sivi and Uśīnara kingdoms, while the Druhyu tribe has been associated with the Gandhara kingdom. An important event of the Rig Vedic era was the " Battle of Ten Kings " which was fought on the banks of the Ravi river in central Punjab, c. 14th century BCE, between the Bharata clan led by Sudas on the one hand and a confederation of ten tribes on the other. The ten tribes were

4371-627: The Mahabharata speaks of the region with contempt. They were further referred to as Arattas, which translates to 'Kingless', denoting the republican form of governments that dominated the region. During the creation of the Mahabharata , according to the Karna Parva , Vahika was referred to the area between the Indus and the Sutlej rivers and is referred to by Patanjali as Vahikagrama, located in modern-day Punjab . The core Janapadas of

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4512-618: The Mudrarakshasa , the army that initially partook in the invasion of the Nanda Empire consisted of tribes and kingdoms of the North-Western region of South Asia in which Justin , a Greek writer from the 2nd century BCE, states that the army of Chandragupta consisted of 'robbers'. McCrindle, hypothesises that these robbers mentioned by Justin to be the republican tribes of the Vahika region and Chanakya even notes that

4653-653: The Ochre Coloured Pottery culture , the Gandhara grave culture , the Black and red ware culture and the Painted Grey Ware culture. Ochre coloured pottery culture was first found approximately between 1950 and 1951, in western Uttar Pradesh, in the Badaun and Bisjuar district. It is thought that this culture was prominent during the latter half of the 2nd millennium, within the transition between

4794-667: The Punjab such as that of the Shiladas and Gadaharas who ruled in central Punjab based on numesmatic evidence. They appear to have ruled successively for nearly a century before being subdued by the Kidarite Huns . Of their coinage, numerous kings have been named, for instance, the Shilada coinage notes the kings Bhadra, Bacharna and Pasana whilst the Gadaharas name Peraya and Kirada. These dynasties origins are not known however

4935-797: The Puranas note that after the fall of the Satavahana dynasty 'eight Yavana , fourteen Tushara and thirteen Murunda (Saka) chiefs ruled' though the lack of credibility of the Yavana chiefs rule has been acknowledged by scholars such as R. C. Majumdar . These Tushara chiefs may also refer to the Little Kushans of the later Kushan empire whilst the Murunda may refer to the Western Satraps who are accredited with regaining power after

5076-616: The Puranas , envisions a much older chronology for the Vedic culture. In this view, the Vedas were received by the seven rishis thousands of years ago. The start of the reign of Vaivasvata Manu , the Manu of the current kalpa (aeon) and the progenitor of humanity, is dated by some as far back 7350 BCE. The Kurukshetra War , the background-scene of the Bhagavad Gita , which may relate historical events taking place ca. 1000 BCE at

5217-603: The Rigveda refers only to copper and bronze, while iron or śyāma ayas , literally "black metal", first is mentioned in the post-Rigvedic Atharvaveda , and therefore the Early Vedic Period was a Bronze Age culture whereas the Late Vedic Period was an Iron Age culture. The transition of Vedic society from semi-nomadic life to settled agriculture in the later Vedic age led to an increase in trade and competition for resources. Agriculture dominated

5358-399: The Rigveda refers to both eastern and western oceans. Individual property ownership did not exist and clans as a whole enjoyed rights over lands and herds. Enslavement ( dasa , dasi ) in the course of war or as a result of non-payment of debt is mentioned. However, slaves worked in households rather than production-related activities. Texts considered to date to the Vedic period are mainly

5499-431: The Rigveda , such as 3.44–45, indicate the absence of strict social hierarchy and the existence of social mobility: O, Indra, fond of soma , would you make me the protector of people, or would you make me a king, would you make me a sage who has drunk soma , would you impart to me endless wealth. The institution of marriage was important and different types of marriages— monogamy, polygyny and polyandry are mentioned in

5640-451: The Rigveda . Both women sages and female gods were known to Vedic Aryans. Women could choose their husbands and could remarry if their husbands died or disappeared. The wife enjoyed a respectable position. People consumed milk, milk products, grains, fruits and vegetables. Meat eating is mentioned; however, cows are labeled aghnya (not to be killed). Clothes of cotton, wool and animal skin were worn. Soma and sura were popular drinks in

5781-578: The Sintashta culture , from which arose the subsequent Andronovo horizon. The Indo-Aryans migrated through the adjacent Bactria – Margiana area (present-day northern Afghanistan ) to northwest India, followed by the rise of the Iranian Yaz culture at c.  1500 BCE, and the Iranian migrations into Iran at c.  800 BCE. Some Indian writers and archaeologists have opposed

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5922-584: The Three Refuges —with a few exceptions reserving "sangha" for its original use in the Pāli Canon —the ideal ( arya ) and the conventional. The two meanings overlap but are not necessarily identical. Some members of the ideal Sangha are not ordained; some monastics have yet to acquire the Dharma-eye. Unlike the present Sangha, the original Sangha viewed itself as following the mission laid down by

6063-584: The Upanishads , the final phase of the Vedic era, was approximately contemporaneous with a new wave of state formations, linked to the beginning of urbanization in the Ganges Valley: along with the growth of population and trade networks, these social and economic changes put pressure on older ways of life, setting the stage for the Upanishads and the subsequent śramaṇa movements, and the end of

6204-587: The Vedas are based on the concepts of Satya and Rta . Satya is the principle of integration rooted in the Absolute. Whereas, Ṛta is the expression of Satya, which regulates and coordinates the operation of the universe and everything within it. Conformity with Ṛta would enable progress whereas its violation would lead to punishment. Around the beginning of the Common Era, the Vedic tradition formed one of

6345-487: The Vedic age ( c.  1500  – c.  500 BCE ), is the period in the late Bronze Age and early Iron Age of the history of India when the Vedic literature, including the Vedas ( c.  1500 –900 BCE), was composed in the northern Indian subcontinent , between the end of the urban Indus Valley Civilisation and a second urbanisation , which began in the central Indo-Gangetic Plain c.  600 BCE. The Vedas are liturgical texts which formed

6486-503: The Vedic tradition formed one of the main constituents of " Hindu synthesis ". Archaeological cultures identified with phases of Indo-Aryan material culture include the Ochre Coloured Pottery culture , the Gandhara grave culture , the black and red ware culture and the Painted Grey Ware culture (PGW). The early Vedic age is historically dated to the second half of the second millennium BCE. Historically, after

6627-505: The bhikkhu-sangha or the bhikkhuni-sangha . As a separate category, those Buddhists who have attained any of the four stages of enlightenment , whether or not they are members of the monastic community, are referred to as the āryasaṅgha ("noble Sangha"). According to the Theravada school and Nichiren Shoshu Buddhism , the term sangha does not refer to the community of unenlightened sāvakas (lay followers) nor does it refer to

6768-445: The rajan was to protect the tribe. He was aided by several functionaries, including the purohita (chaplain), the senani (army chief), dutas (envoys) and spash (spies). Purohita performed ceremonies and spells for success in war and prosperity in peace. In the later Vedic period, the tribes had consolidated into small kingdoms, which had a capital and a rudimentary administrative system. To aid in governing these new states,

6909-495: The sangha , but in Theravada suttas it is clearly recorded that the Buddha's uncle, a lay follower, reached enlightenment by hearing the Buddha's discourse, and there are many other such instances described in the Pāli Canon. Accordingly, emphasis on lay persons, as well as Sangha members, practicing the Buddhist path of morality, meditation, and wisdom is present in all major Buddhist schools. Some liberal scholars opine that sangha

7050-699: The transmigration of the soul , and the peepul tree and cow were sanctified by the time of the Atharvaveda . Many of the concepts of Indian philosophy espoused later like Dharma , Karma etc. trace their root to the Vedas . The main deities of the Vedic pantheon were Indra , Agni (the sacrificial fire ), and Soma and some deities of social order such as Mitra – Varuna , Aryaman , Bhaga and Amsa, further nature deities such as Surya (the Sun), Vayu (the wind) and Prithivi (the earth). Goddesses included Ushas (the dawn), Prithvi and Aditi (the mother of

7191-426: The "surface" level, in which graves are covered with huge stone slabs. In the lower stage, excavators found that these graves are typically 2–3 feet deep, and covered with stones on top. After digging out the stones, skeletons were found facing southwest to northeast, with the head facing one direction, and the hands laying on top of one another. Female skeletons were often found wearing hair pins and jewelry. Pottery

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7332-439: The 1st century CE, he describes the old territory of Porus being under the control of Phraotes , the King of Taxila , which reached the Chenab River of Punjab and Xuanzang 's visit in the 7th century CE, states that the Taank Kingdom was located south of Kashmir and north of Sindh extending from the Indus river in the west to the Beas river in the east, centred in Sagala , modern day Sialkot . The Udichya region

7473-439: The 1st century CE, with the most significant being the silver coin of Virayasa disputed to have been dated between the 1st century CE and the 3rd century CE due to the coinage series produced in the Brahmi script with some Kharosthi remnants. The coinage finds display the names of multiple other rulers such as Vijayamitra, Arya and Satyamitra, whilst also containing the Swastika and Nandipada symbols. The Varāhamihira notes

7614-450: The Buddha’s followers, lay or ordained, who have at least attained the level of srotāpanna ; (2) on the conventional ( saṃvṛti ) level, it denotes the orders of the Bhikṣus and Bhikṣunis. Mahayana practitioners may use the word "sangha" as a collective term for all Buddhists, but the Theravada Pāli Canon uses the word parisā (Sanskrit pariṣad ) for the larger Buddhist community—the monks, nuns, lay men, and lay women who have taken

7755-429: The Cathaean tribe, offered substantial resistance to the Greek conquest. In the first century CE, additional details emerge from the visit of Apollonius of Tyana to Vahika, where he encountered Phraotes , the king of Taxila , who ruled over the former territory of Porus. Following the decline of the Kushan Empire in the 3rd century CE, coinage from the Shilada and Gadahara tribes are discovered, and numerous texts from

7896-425: The Cathaeans and other allied tribes had prepared themselves in front of the city upon a hill and after having been defeated encamped themselves in the city leading to a siege and later their eventual defeat. Strabo describes the culture of the Cathaeans in which they were prized for having beautiful horses and dogs and for choosing the 'handsomest person' as king. The marriage customs were also noted as peculiar to

8037-408: The Cathaeans in that the bride and groom chose their spouse, recounted as the law of the land. During the formation of the Maurya Empire in the 3rd century BCE numerous mentions of the Vahika republics are stated, most notably in the Arthashastra , written by Chanakya in which he describes the horses coming from the Aratta as of the highest quality of the South Asian nations. He also states that

8178-411: The Erythraean Sea dated to the late 1st century CE mentions that the country inland from Bharuch , in modern-day Gujarat , was inhabited by numerous tribes and proceeds to name the Poclais who resided in Boukephala ( Jhelum ), and the Aratti of Vahika whilst also naming the Gandaraei of Gandhara . The book also describes that Spikenard came through the Poclais to reach Bharuch . In ancient times,

8319-418: The Gautama Buddha, the sangha was not allowed to engage directly in agriculture, this later changed in some Mahayana schools when Buddhism moved to East Asia, so that in the East Asian cultural sphere , the monastic community traditionally has engaged in agriculture. An emphasis on working for food is attributed to additional training guidelines laid down by a Chan Buddhist master, Baizhang Huaihai , notably

8460-409: The Hunnic period mentions numerous kingdoms of Vahika such as that of the Madra , the people of Sagala , the Salwa and the Hunas, describing them as enhabiting their borders happy and properous. It was during this era that many notable Chinese Buddhists visited the region such as Faxian c. 399 CE and Xuanzang c. 627 CE who documented their travels. In the travels of Faxian he describes crossing

8601-402: The Indus Valley civilization and the end of Harrapan culture. This pottery is typically created with wheel ware, and is ill-fired, to a fine to medium fabric, decorated with a red slip, and occasional black bands1. When this pottery was worked with, it often left an ochre color on the hands, most likely because of water-logging, bad firing, wind action, or a mixture of these factors. This pottery

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8742-411: The Kingdoms of the Indo-Greeks , Indo-Scythians , and Indo-Parthians . This period culminated with the Kushan and Gupta Empire , which resulted in the "Hindu Synthesis". While Vedic society was relatively egalitarian in the sense that a distinct hierarchy of socio-economic classes or castes was absent, the Vedic period saw the emergence of a hierarchy of social classes . Political hierarchy

8883-458: The Kshatriya and Shudra. The Purusha Sukta visualised the four varnas as hierarchical, but inter-related parts of an organic whole. Despite the increasing social stratification in the later Vedic times, hymns like Rigveda IX.112 suggest some amount of social mobility: "I am a reciter of hymns, my father a physician, and my mother grinds (corn) with stones. We desire to obtain wealth in various actions." Household became an important unit in

9024-410: The Kuluta formed a tribal republic situated around the Vahika region with coinage that displays notable similarities to that of the Audumbara and Kuninda tribes, this numismatic resemblance suggests close geographic proximity among the republics, typically associated with the Eastern Punjab. In Taxila , however, excavated coinage reflects a succession of Kuluta rulers following the Apracharajas in

9165-474: The Kuru-Panchala region but were not the only Indo-Aryan people in northern India, transitioned from semi-nomadic life to settled agriculture in north-western India. Possession of horses remained an important priority of Vedic leaders and a remnant of the nomadic lifestyle, resulting in trade routes beyond the Hindu Kush to maintain this supply as horses needed for cavalry and sacrifice could not be bred in India. The Gangetic plains had remained out of bounds to

9306-402: The Master, viz, to go forth "…on tour for the blessing of the manyfolk, for the happiness of the manyfolk out of compassion for the world, for the welfare, the blessing, the happiness of deva and men". The Sangha is the third of the Three Refuges in Buddhism. Common over all schools is that the āryasaṅgha is the foremost form of this third jewel. As for its recognizable contemporary forms,

9447-413: The North-West, situated around Taxila, and the North-East in the Kulu valley as two regions named as Kuluta strongholds, though it is also noted that after the Kushan Empire advance, the coinage of the Taxila Kulutas ceised to exist and the coinage of Virayasa continued in the North-East Punjab . Following the downfall of the Kushan Empire in the 3rd century CE, numerous dynasties regained power in

9588-505: The Organagae, the Abortae, the Bassuertae, and, after these last, deserts similar to those previously 'mentioned. We then come to the peoples of the Sorofages, the Arbae, the Marogomatrae, the Umbrittae, of whom there are twelve nations, each with two cities, and the Asini, a people who dwell in three cities, their capital being Bucephala, which was founded around the tomb of the horse belonging to king Alexander, which bore that name. Above these peoples there are some mountain tribes, which lie at

9729-474: The Purus, Druhyus, Anus, Turvasas and the Yadus in addition to five minor ones. Sudas was supported by the sage Rishi Vasishtha , while his former Purohita (family priest) Viswamitra , sided with the confederation of ten tribes. A second battle, referred to as the Mahabharat in ancient texts, was fought in Punjab on a battlefield known as Kurukshetra . In the 5th century BCE, the sovereign of Taxila , Omphis , formed an alliance with Alexander, motivated by

9870-426: The Tibetan lineages transmit a tradition of Bodhisattva Precepts from Asanga 's Yogācārabhūmi-Śāstra , which do not include a vow of vegetarianism. According to Mahayana sutras, Shakyamuni Buddha always maintained that lay persons were capable of great wisdom and of reaching enlightenment. In some areas there has been a misconception that Theravada regards enlightenment to be an impossible goal for those outside

10011-589: The Vedic Period, which was followed by the Mahajanapada period. According to George Erdosy, archaeological data for the period from 1000 to 600 BCE shows a two-tiered settlement pattern in the Ganges Valley, with some "modest central places," suggestive of the existence of simple chiefdoms , with the Kurukshetra district itself displaying a more complex (albeit not yet urbanized) three-tiered hierarchy. Subsequently, (after 600 BCE) there are four tiers of site sizes, including large towns and fortified cities, consistent with an urbanized state-level society. Economy in

10152-425: The Vedic era texts including the early Upanishads and many Sutras important to later Hindu culture were completed. The Kuru Kingdom , the earliest Vedic "state", was formed by a "super-tribe" which joined several tribes in a new unit. To govern this state, Vedic hymns were collected and transcribed, and new rituals were developed, which formed the now orthodox Śrauta rituals. Two key figures in this process of

10293-524: The Vedic period is marked by linguistic, cultural and political changes. The grammar of Pāṇini marks a final apex in the codification of Sutra texts, and at the same time the beginning of Classical Sanskrit . Meanwhile, in the Kosala-Magadha region, the shramana movements (including Jainism and Buddhism ) objected the self-imposed authority and orthodoxy of the intruding Brahmins and their Vedic scriptures and ritual. According to Bronkhorst,

10434-411: The Vedic period was sustained by a combination of pastoralism and agriculture. There are references, in the Rigveda , to the leveling of fields, seed processing, and storage of grains in large jars. War bounty was also a major source of wealth. Economic exchanges were conducted by gift giving, particularly to kings ( bali ) and priests ( dana ), and barter using cattle as a unit of currency. While gold

10575-401: The Vedic period witnessed the rise of true cities and large states (called mahajanapadas ) as well as śramaṇa movements (including Jainism and Buddhism ) which challenged the Vedic orthodoxy. The Vedic period saw the emergence of a hierarchy of social classes that would remain influential. Vedic religion developed into Brahmanical orthodoxy , and around the beginning of the Common Era,

10716-432: The Vedic society, of which soma was sanctified by religion. Flute ( vana ), lute ( vina ), harp, cymbals and drums were the musical instruments played and a heptatonic scale was used. Dancing, dramas, chariot racing and gambling were other popular pastimes. The emergence of monarchical states in the later Vedic age led to a distancing of the rajan from the people and the emergence of a varna hierarchy. The society

10857-597: The Vedic tribes because of thick forest cover. After 1000 BCE, the use of iron axes and ploughs became widespread and the jungles could be cleared with ease. This enabled the Vedic Aryans to extend their settlements into the western area of the Ganga-Yamuna Doab. Many of the old tribes coalesced to form larger political units. The Vedic religion was further developed with the emergence of the Kuru kingdom, systematising its religious literature and developing

10998-530: The banks of the river Parushni (modern day Ravi ). The battle was fought between the tribe Bharatas , led by their chief Sudas , against a confederation of ten tribes. The Bharatas lived around the upper regions of the river Saraswati , while the Purus, their western neighbours, lived along the lower regions of Saraswati. The other tribes dwelt north-west of the Bharatas in the region of Punjab . Division of

11139-712: The basis of the influential Brahmanical ideology, which developed in the Kuru Kingdom , a tribal union of several Indo-Aryan tribes . The Vedas contain details of life during this period that have been interpreted to be historical and constitute the primary sources for understanding the period. These documents, alongside the corresponding archaeological record, allow for the evolution of the Indo-Aryan and Vedic culture to be traced and inferred. The Vedas were composed and orally transmitted with precision by speakers of an Old Indo-Aryan language who had migrated into

11280-573: The battle. Following Alexander's battle with Porus , the Greeks had received information of a tribe known as the Cathaeans preparing for war alongside neighbouring tribes and who were considering taking battle in Sagala , modern day Sialkot . Arrian states that the Cathaeans were skillfull in war and were known to Porus after having successfully defeated him previously. Arrian further states that

11421-451: The clearing of forests and the adoption of a more settled, agricultural way of life. The second half of the Vedic period was characterised by the emergence of towns, kingdoms , and a complex social differentiation distinctive to India, and the Kuru Kingdom 's codification of orthodox sacrificial ritual . During this time, the central Ganges Plain was dominated by a related but non-Vedic Indo-Aryan culture, of Greater Magadha . The end of

11562-469: The collapse of the Indus Valley Civilisation , which occurred around 1900 BCE, groups of Indo-Aryan peoples migrated into north-western India and started to inhabit the northern Indus Valley . The Indo-Aryans represented a sub-group that diverged from other Indo-Iranian tribes at the Andronovo horizon before the middle of the 2nd millennium BCE. The Indo-Iranians originated in

11703-496: The commandments of gods ( avrata ). Their speech is described as mridhra which could variously mean soft, uncouth, hostile, scornful or abusive. Other adjectives which describe their physical appearance are subject to many interpretations. However, some modern scholars such as Asko Parpola connect the Dasas and Dasyus to Iranian tribes Dahae and Dahyu and believe that Dasas and Dasyus were early Indo-Aryan immigrants who arrived into

11844-399: The community of Buddhists as a whole. The Theravada school uses the term parisā ("assembly") or catuparisā ("fourfold assembly") to refer to the bhikkhu , bhikkhunī , upāsaka , and upāsikā . In a glossary of Buddhist terms, Richard Robinson et al. define sangha as: Sangha. Community. This word has two levels of meaning: (1) on the ideal ( arya ) level, it denotes all of

11985-558: The culture. Gandhara grave culture refers to the protohistoric cemeteries found in the Gandhara region, stretching all the way from Bajuar to the Indus. These cemeteries seem to follow a set grave structure and "mortuary practice", such as inflexed inhumation and cremation. This culture is thought to occur in 3 stages: the lower, in which burials take place in masonry lined pits, the upper, in which urn burials and cremations are added, and

12126-456: The development of the Kuru state were the king Parikshit and his successor Janamejaya , transforming this realm into the dominant political and cultural power of northern Iron Age India . The most well-known of the new religious sacrifices that arose in this period were the Ashvamedha (horse sacrifice). This sacrifice involved setting a consecrated horse free to roam the kingdoms for

12267-749: The duties for members of the sangha . Transgression of rules carries penalties ranging from confession to permanent expulsion from the sangha . Saichō , the founder of the Japanese school of Tendai , decided to reduce the number of rules down to about 60 based on the Bodhisattva Precepts. In the Kamakura , many Japanese schools that originated in or were influenced by the Tendai such as Zen , Pure Land Buddhism and Nichiren Buddhism abolished traditional ordination in favor of this new model of

12408-834: The economic activity along the Ganges valley during this period. Agricultural operations grew in complexity and usage of iron implements ( krishna–ayas or shyama–ayas , literally black metal or dark metal) increased. Crops of wheat, rice, and barley were cultivated. Surplus production helped to support the centralised kingdoms that were emerging at this time. New crafts and occupations such as carpentry, leather work, tanning, pottery, astrology, jewellery, dying, and winemaking arose. Apart from copper, bronze, and gold, later Vedic texts also mention tin, lead, and silver. Panis in some hymns refers to merchants, in others to stingy people who hid their wealth and did not perform Vedic sacrifices. Some scholars suggest that Panis were semitic traders, but

12549-455: The establishment of the pottery, but while the culture is significant, grey ware has only made up 10–15% of found Vedic pottery, a majority of the pottery red ware, as grey ware pottery was seen as a "highly valued luxury". The Puranic chronology , the timeline of events in ancient Indian history and mythology as narrated in post-Vedic Hindu texts such as the Mahabharata , the Ramayana and

12690-411: The evidence for this is slim. Professions of warriors, priests, cattle-rearers, farmers, hunters, barbers, vintners and crafts of chariot-making, cart-making, carpentry, metal working, tanning, making of bows, sewing, weaving, making mats of grass and reed are mentioned in the hymns of the Rigveda . Some of these might have needed full-time specialists. There are references to boats and oceans. Book X of

12831-436: The exact signification of these artifacts, or even the culture and the periodization to which they belonged. Some examples of artistic expression also appear in abstract pottery designs during the Black and red ware culture (1450–1200 BCE) or the Painted Grey Ware culture (1200–600 BCE), with finds in a wide area, including the area of Mathura. Archaeological cultures identified with phases of Vedic material culture include

12972-695: The fall of the Satavahanas beginning with Rudrasena II. In the 4th century CE various Mahajanapadas in the former territories of the Kushans emerged and it was during this time the Kidarites initiated incursions into South Asia, beginning with the conquest of Gandhara . Concurrently, the Gupta Empire , under the leadership of Samudragupta , annexed several northern kingdoms, resulting in various north-western republics paying tribute to him such as

13113-648: The following millennium, coinciding with the Indo–Aryan migration during the Vedic period, is devoid of such remains. It has been suggested that the early Vedic religion focused exclusively on the worship of purely "elementary forces of nature by means of elaborate sacrifices", which did not lend themselves easily to anthropomorphological representations. Various artefacts may belong to the Copper Hoard culture (2nd millennium CE), some of them suggesting anthropomorphological characteristics. Interpretations vary as to

13254-1088: The foot of Caucasus, the Soseadae and the Sondrae, and, after passing the Indus and going down its stream, the Samarabriae, the Sambraceni, the Bisambritae, the Orsi, the Anixeni, and the Taxilae, with a famous city, which lies on a low but level plain, the general name of the district being Amenda: there are four nations here, the Peucolaitae, the Arsagalitae, the Geretae, and the Assoi. The Periplus of

13395-549: The four Vedas , but the Brahmanas , Aranyakas and the older Upanishads as well as the oldest Śrautasutras are also considered to be Vedic. The Vedas record the liturgy connected with the rituals and sacrifices performed by the 16 or 17 Śrauta priests and the purohitas . The rishis , the composers of the hymns of the Rigveda , were considered inspired poets and seers (in post-Vedic times understood as "hearers" of an eternally existing Veda , Śruti means "what

13536-775: The head, and a water filter. In practice, they often have a few additional personal possessions. Traditionally, Buddhist monks, nuns, and novices eschew ordinary clothes and wear robes. Originally the robes were sewn together from rags and stained with earth or other available dyes. The color of modern robes varies from community to community: saffron is characteristic for Theravada groups; blue, grey or brown for Mahayana Sangha members in Vietnam , maroon in Tibetan Buddhism , grey in Korea , and black in Japan . A Buddhist monk

13677-405: The heartland of Āryāvarta , is dated in this chronology at c.  3100 BCE . Sangha Sangha ( IPA: [sɐnɡʱɐ] ) is a Pali word used in many Indian languages, including Sanskrit which means "association", "assembly", "company" or "community"; in these languages, sangha is frequently used as a surname. In a political context, it was historically used to denote

13818-651: The hypothesised Proto-Indo-European religion and the Indo-Iranian religion. Funeral sacrifices from the Sintashta culture show close parallels to the sacrificial funeral rites of the Rigveda , while, according to Anthony, the Old Indic religion probably emerged among Indo-European immigrants in the contact zone between the Zeravshan River (present-day Uzbekistan ) and (present-day) Tajikistan. It

13959-581: The increasing power of the king, their influence declined. By the end of the later Vedic age, different kinds of political systems such as monarchical states ( rajya ), oligarchical states ( gana or sangha ), and tribal principalities had emerged in India. According to Michael Witzel 's analysis of the Kuru Kingdom , it can be characterized as the earliest Vedic "state", during the Middle Vedic Period. However, Robert Bellah observes that it

14100-579: The interpretation of what is the Jewel is often dependent on how a school defines Sangha. In many schools, for example, monastic life is considered to provide the safest and most suitable environment for advancing toward enlightenment and liberation due to the temptations and vicissitudes of life in the world. In Buddhism , Gautama Buddha , the Dharma and the Sangha each are described as having certain characteristics. These characteristics are chanted either on

14241-510: The king Janaka , whose court provided patronage for Brahmin sages and philosophers such as Yajnavalkya , Uddalaka Aruni , and Gargi Vachaknavi ; Panchala also remained prominent during this period, under its king Pravahana Jaivali . By the 6th century BCE, the political units consolidated into large kingdoms called Mahajanapadas . The process of urbanisation had begun in these kingdoms, commerce and travel flourished, even regions separated by large distances became easy to access. Anga ,

14382-494: The king as an Indian. He describe Phraotes' residence, Taxila , as being the same size as Nineveh , being walled like a Greek city whilst also being shaped with Narrow roads, and further describe Phraotes kingdom as containing the old territory of Porus which spanned between the Jhelum and Chenab Rivers . Following an exchange with the king, Phraotes is reported to have subsidized both barbarians and neighboring states, with

14523-564: The king situated beyond the Hydaspes (Jhelum) River , in modern-day Punjab , a ruler esteemed greater than Phraotes' father. Moreover, Phraotes states that his father, received an education facilitated by the Brahmins upon request to the king and married the daughter of the Hydaspian king, whilst having one son that was Phraotes himself. Phraotes proceeds to narrate the opportune moment he seized to reclaim his ancestral kingdom, sparked by

14664-423: The kings and their Brahmin priests arranged Vedic hymns into collections and developed a new set of rituals (the now orthodox Śrauta rituals) to strengthen the emerging social hierarchy . The rajan was seen as the custodian of social order and the protector of rashtra (polity). Hereditary kingship started emerging and competitions like chariot races, cattle raids, and games of dice, which previously decided who

14805-449: The later Vedic age. The variety of households of the Vedic era gave way to an idealised household which was headed by a grihapati . The relations between husband and wife, father and son were hierarchically organised and the women were relegated to subordinate and docile roles. Polygyny was more common than polyandry and texts like Tattiriya Samhita indicate taboos around menstruating women. Various professions women took to are mentioned in

14946-462: The later Vedic texts. Women tended to cattle, milked cows, carded wool; were weavers, dyers, and corn grinders. Women warriors such as Vishpala , who lost a leg in battle, are mentioned. Two female philosophers are mentioned in the Upanishads. Patrick Olivelle , in his translation of the Upanishads, writes that "the fact that these women are introduced without any attempt to justify or to explain how women could be engaged in theological matters suggests

15087-426: The main constituents of the " Hindu synthesis ". Vedic religion survived in the srayta ritual, whereas ascetic and devotional traditions like Yoga and Vedanta acknowledge the authority of the Vedas , but interpret the Vedic pantheon as a unitary view of the universe with 'God' (Brahman) seen as immanent and transcendent in the forms of Ishvara and Brahman . Later texts such as the Upanishads and epics, namely

15228-629: The merchant calls its king malik at-taqa and further notes that he was in good terms with the Arabs and the Rashtrakuta Empire of the Deccan . Ibn Khordadbeh mentions the king of the confederacy as next in eminence to the Balhara , and Kazwini mentions a fort named Taifand, the location of which agrees with the account of the hill of Sangala . Vedic era The Vedic period , or

15369-476: The monastic regulations. The Order of Interbeing , established in 1964 and associated with the Plum Village Tradition , has fourteen precepts observed by all monastics. They were written by Thích Nhất Hạnh . Monks and nuns generally own a minimum of possessions due to their samaya as renunciants, including three robes, an alms bowl, a cloth belt, a needle and thread, a razor for shaving

15510-966: The mountain tribes near the Hindu Kush . After passing this island, the other side of the Indus is occupied, as we know by clear and undoubted proofs, by the Athoae, the Bolingae, the Gallitalutae, the Dimuri, the Megari, the Ardabae, the Mesae, and after them, the Uri and the Silae; beyond which last there are desert tracts, extending a distance of two hundred and fifty miles. After passing these nations, we come to

15651-419: The name suggests, typically has a black rim/inside surface, and a red lower half on the outside of the piece. Red-ware pottery tends to fall into two categories: offering stands, or cooking vessels. Most of these pieces of pottery were open-mouthed bowls that were burnished, painted, or slipped on one side; however, jars, pots and dishes-on-stands have also been found in small quantities. Black and red ware, and

15792-617: The non-Vedic Salva tribe , and the political center of Vedic culture shifted east, into the Panchala kingdom on the Ganges, under King Keśin Dālbhya (approximately between 900 and 750 BCE). Later, in the 8th or 7th century BCE, the kingdom of Videha emerged as a political center farther to the East, in what is today northern Bihar of India and southeastern Nepal , reaching its prominence under

15933-633: The north whilst the Usinaras were located in the south and are stated to have been associated with the neighbouring Sivi Kingdom whose capital was centred in Shorkot . Patanjali also makes reference to the Audumbara capital, Pathankot , residing in the Vahika region whom were closely associated to the Trigarta kingdom based on ancient texts. During Apollonius of Tyana 's travels to the region in

16074-511: The northwestern regions of the Indian subcontinent early in this period. The Vedic society was patriarchal and patrilineal . Early Indo-Aryans were a Late Bronze Age society centred in the Punjab , organised into tribes rather than kingdoms, and primarily sustained by a pastoral way of life. Around c.  1200 –1000 BCE the Aryan culture spread eastward to the fertile western Ganges Plain. Iron tools were adopted, which allowed for

16215-466: The notion of a migration of Indo-Aryans into India, and argued for an indigenous origin of the Indo-Aryans . In this view, "the Indian civilization must be viewed as an unbroken tradition that goes back to the earliest period of the Sindhu-Sarasvati (or Indus) tradition (7000 or 8000 BCE)." Though popular in India, and reflecting Indian views on Indian history and religion, the idea of

16356-512: The objective of averting incursions into his kingdom. Phraotes also recounts that his father, being the son of a king, had become an orphan from a young age. In accordance with Indian customs, two of his relatives assumed responsibility for his upbringing until they were killed by rebellious nobles during a ritualistic ceremony along the Indus River . This event led to the usurpation of the throne, compelling Phraotes' father to seek refuge with

16497-532: The old had to labour and the common people were oppressed. His capital was also stated to have been at Sagala in Sialkot in which he struck his coins. Kalhana in his Rajatarangini describes how Mihirakula oppressed the local Brahmins of South Asia and imported Gandharan Brahmins into Kashmir and India whilst stating that he had given thousands of villages to these Brahmins in Kashmir. The Taank Kingdom

16638-592: The phrase, "A day without work is a day without food" ( Chinese : 一日不做一日不食 ). The idea that all Buddhists, especially sangha members, practice vegetarianism is a Western misperception. In the Pali Canon, the Buddha rejected a suggestion by Devadatta to impose vegetarianism on the sangha . According to the Pali Texts, the Buddha ate meat as long as the animal was not killed specifically for him. The Pāli Canon allowed Sangha members to eat whatever food

16779-671: The region included the Madra , Kekaya and Uśīnara in which a further tribal republic noted as the Savasa were also located in the area. The Savasa were described as residing between the Jhelum and Chenab Rivers in the north with their capital in Taxila as noted in the Divyavadana whilst the Kekaya resided in the South. The nearby Madras resided between the Chenab and Ravi Rivers in

16920-517: The region. The earliest Muslim author who mentions the kingdom is a merchant named Sulaiman. He visited the area before 851 AD. In his account, the kingdom is mentioned as Táfak . In 915 AD, the Arab historian Al-Masudi mentions it as at-Tákin , referring to the hills of the Punjab region. The name is read as Tákin by Sir Henry Elliott , and also as Táfan based on Masudi. The account of Sulaimān

17061-426: The relatively high social and religious position of at least women of some social strata during this period." Early Vedic Aryans were organised into tribes rather than kingdoms. The chief of a tribe was called a rajan . The autonomy of the rajan was restricted by the tribal councils called sabha and samiti . The two bodies were, in part, responsible for the governance of the tribe. The rajan could not accede to

17202-560: The service of the higher varnas . The effects of Rajasuya sacrifice depended on the varna of the sacrificer. Rajasuya endowed Brahmana with lustre, Kshatriya with valour, Vaishya with procreative power and Shudra with stability. The hierarchy of the top three varnas is ambiguous in the later Vedic texts. Panchavamsha Brahmana and verse 13.8.3.11 of the Shatapatha Brahmana place Kshatriya over Brahmana and Vaishya, whereas, verse 1.1.4.12 places Brahmana and Vaishya over

17343-605: The source of the army were 'Choras' or 'robbers' and described them as the most heroic. In the 1st century CE, Phraotes , a Greek-speaking king of the city of Taxila , was met by the philosopher Apollonius of Tyana dated approximately to 46 CE, according to the Life of Apollonius Tyana written by Philostratus . The king who fits this date is Sases who is also the nephew of the Apracharaja , Aspavarma, and whose coinage has been dated to between 40 and 78 CE. Apollionus describes

17484-552: The sramana culture arose in " Greater Magadha ," which was Indo-European, but not Vedic. In this culture, kshatriyas were placed higher than Brahmins, and it rejected Vedic authority and rituals. Greater Magadha reached its zenith under the Maurya Empire . Meanwhile, the Achaemenid invasion of Cyrus and Darius I of the Indus valley in the early 6th century BCE marks the beginning of outside influence, which continued in

17625-407: The subcontinent before the Vedic Aryans. Likewise, Bronkhorst has argued that the central Ganges Plain was dominated by a related but non-Vedic Indo-Aryan culture, a difference also noted by Samuel. Accounts of military conflicts in between the various tribes of Vedic Aryans are also described in the Rigveda . Most notable of such conflicts was the Battle of the Ten Kings , which took place on

17766-441: The surrounding culture, began its spread during the neolithic period and continues until the early medieval period in India, as well as being found in parts of West Asia and Egypt. There are many theories about the process of its creation, the most popular being the use of an inverted firing technique, or a simultaneous oxidation and reduction firing. Painted grey ware culture is a significant pottery style that has been linked to

17907-494: The throne without their approval. The distinction between the two bodies is not clear. Arthur Llewellyn Basham , a noted historian and indologist , theorises that sabha was a meeting of great men in the tribe, whereas, samiti was a meeting of all free tribesmen. Some tribes had no hereditary chiefs and were directly governed by the tribal councils. Rajan had a rudimentary court which was attended by courtiers ( sabhasad ) and chiefs of sects ( gramani ). The main responsibility of

18048-503: The tracts between the Hydaspes (Jhelum) river and Chenab River and Strabo noted his territory to contain almost three hundred cities whilst also describing his land as fertile and extensive. He is most notable for opposing Alexander in the Battle of the Hydaspes which proved to be one of Alexander the Great's most challenging battles. After his defeat, when asked by Alexander how he wished to be treated, Porus replied "Treat me as

18189-573: The traditional definition of sangha. The organization interprets the meaning of the Three Jewels of Buddhism, in particular the "treasure of the Sangha", to include all people who practice Buddhism according to its own interpretation within their organization, whether lay or clerical. After its formal expulsion from its parent religion in December 1991 due to conflicts of religious doctrine, the organization re—published newer literature which revised

18330-469: The translation and propagation of the teachings of the Buddha. The key feature of Buddhist monasticism is the adherence to the vinaya which contains an elaborate set of "227 main rules of conduct" (known as Patimokkha in Pāli) including complete chastity, eating only before noon, and not indulging in malicious or salacious talk. Between midday and the next day, a strict life of scripture study, chanting, meditation , and occasional cleaning forms most of

18471-408: The waters of Ravi could have been a reason for the war. The confederation of tribes tried to inundate the Bharatas by opening the embankments of Ravi, yet Sudas emerged victorious in the Battle of Ten Kings. The Bharatas and the Purus merged into a new tribe, the Kuru , after the war. After the 12th century BCE, as the Rigveda had taken its final form, the Vedic society, which is associated with

18612-466: The Śrauta ritual. It is associated with the Painted Grey Ware culture (c.1200–600 BCE), which did not expand east of the Ganga-Yamuya Doab. It differed from the related, yet markedly different, culture of the Central Ganges region, which was associated with the Northern Black Polished Ware and the Mahajanapadas of Kosala and Magadha . In this period the varna system emerged, state Kulke and Rothermund, which in this stage of Indian history were

18753-417: Was "a syncretic mixture of old Central Asian and new Indo-European elements", which borrowed "distinctive religious beliefs and practices" from the Bactria–Margiana culture , including the god Indra and the ritual drink Soma . The Rigveda contains accounts of conflicts between the Aryas and the Dasas and Dasyus. It describes Dasas and Dasyus as people who do not perform sacrifices ( akratu ) or obey

18894-440: Was a kingdom based in Punjab , between the 7th and 9th centuries ruled by the Takkas who are identified as ancient inhabitants of Punjab . The main source regarding the kingdom are the chronicles of Xuanzang as well as other Arab writers. The kingdom was located south of Kashmir and north of Sindh extending from the Indus river in the west to the Beas river in the east, centred in Sagala based on Xuanzang's description of

19035-542: Was another region mentioned in ancient texts and is noted by Pāṇini as comprising both the regions of Vahika and Gandhara . The first mention of the Vahikas comes from the Gandharan grammarian Pāṇini based in the 6th century CE in which he describes the region as a territory of Sanghas which denotes a republic form of government. He then further describes the ruling class of the Vahika republics with some dominated by Brahmins and others of ‘Rajanyas’ otherwise known as Kshatriyas . In some Sutras they are recounted as

19176-423: Was determined by rank, where rājan (tribal king or chieftain) and rājanya (tribal nobility) stood at the top, the viś (the common people) in the middle, and the dāsa and dasyu (non-Indo-Aryan servants) at the bottom. The words Brahamana and Kshatriya occur in various family books of the Rigveda , but they are not associated with the term varna . The words Vaishya and Shudra are absent. Verses of

19317-493: Was divided into four social groups— Brahmanas , Kshatriyas , Vaishyas and Shudras . The later Vedic texts fixed social boundaries, roles, status and ritual purity for each of the groups. The Shatapatha Brahmana associates the Brahmana with purity of parentage, good conduct, glory, teaching or protecting people; Kshatriya with strength, fame, ruling, and warfare; Vaishya with material prosperity and production-related activities such as cattle rearing and agriculture; Shudras with

19458-428: Was found all throughout the doab, most of it found in the Muzaffarnagar, Meerut, and Bulandshahr districts, but also existing outside these districts, extending north and south of Bahadrabad. This pottery does, however, seem to exist within different time frames of popularity, ochre colored pottery seeming to occur in areas such as Rajasthan earlier than we see it in the doab, despite the doab being heavily associated with

19599-420: Was propitiated with the payment of all tributes, execution of orders and visits (to his court) for obeisance by such frontier rulers as those of Samataṭa , Ḍavāka , Kāmarūpa , Nēpāla , and Kartṛipura , and, by the Mālavas , Ārjunāyanas , Yaudhēyas , Mādrakas , Ābhīras , Prārjunas, Sanakānīkas, Kākas, Kharaparikas and other ( tribes )." The Vishnu Purana dated to between the 5th and 7th century CE during

19740-449: Was the court, not the city, that provided the center, and the court was often peripatetic." Romila Thapar characterizes Vedic-era state formation as being in a condition of "arrested development," because local chiefs were relatively autonomous, and because surplus wealth that could have been directed towards state-building was instead used for the increasingly grandiose rituals that also served to structure social relations. The period of

19881-475: Was worthy of becoming a king, became nominal. Rituals in this era exalted the status of the king over his people. He was occasionally referred to as samrat (supreme ruler). The rajan's increasing political power enabled him to gain greater control over the productive resources. The voluntary gift offering ( bali ) became compulsory tribute; however, there was no organised system of taxation. Sabha and samiti are still mentioned in later Vedic texts, though, with

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