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100-607: Valerio or Valério is a male given name in several languages, derived from the Roman surname Valerius, which itself is derived from the Latin verb valere , meaning "to be strong". Valerio is a relatively common given name in Italy , while its incidence is less common in the Spanish and Croatian Sprachraum . The Portuguese form of the name is Valério. The form of Valerio is Valeriu in

200-467: A dithematic naming system. But a markedly different system of nomenclature arose in Italy, where the personal name was joined by a hereditary surname. Over time, this binomial system expanded to include additional names and designations. The most important of these names was the nomen gentilicium , or simply nomen , a hereditary surname that identified a person as a member of a distinct gens . This

300-464: A battle in which a man had fought ( Regillensis ), a town captured ( Coriolanus ); or a miraculous occurrence ( Corvus ). The late grammarians distinguished certain cognomina as agnomina . Although originally a personal name, the cognomen frequently became hereditary, especially in large families, or gentes , in which they served to identify distinct branches, known as stirpes . Some Romans had more than one cognomen, and in aristocratic families it

400-456: A combination of both. The Roman grammarians came to regard the combination of praenomen, nomen, and cognomen as a defining characteristic of Roman citizenship, known as the tria nomina . However, although all three elements of the Roman name existed throughout most of Roman history, the concept of the tria nomina can be misleading, because not all of these names were required or used throughout

500-547: A combination of nomen and cognomen. Praenomina could still be given when necessary, and as with men's praenomina the practice survived well into imperial times, but the proliferation of personal cognomina eventually rendered women's praenomina obsolete. In the later empire, members of the Roman aristocracy used several different schemes of assuming and inheriting nomina and cognomina, both to signify their rank, and to indicate their family and social connections. Some Romans came to be known by alternative names, or signa , and due to

600-411: A common ancestor. Particularly in the early Republic, the gens functioned as a state within the state, observing its own sacred rites and establishing private laws, which were binding on its members, although not on the community as a whole. The cognomen, the third element of the tria nomina , began as an additional personal name. It was not unique to Rome, but Rome was where the cognomen flourished, as

700-461: A danger to society, might be sentenced to labor in the mines, where they suffered under inhumane conditions. Slave owners were allowed to return their slaves for their money back if they were found to be defective, or if the seller had concealed anything that would affect the slave's productivity. Slaves that were found to be sick or defective would often be sold for very little, if anything. Masters would occasionally manumit sick or elderly slaves as

800-525: A habit of choosing unusual names; in particular the Fabii , Aemilii , Furii , Claudii , Cornelii , and Valerii all used praenomina that were uncommon amongst the patricians, or which had fallen out of general use. In the last two centuries of the Republic, and under the early Empire, it was fashionable for aristocratic families to revive older praenomina. About three dozen Latin praenomina were in use at

900-496: A mother as a citizen affected her son's citizenship. The phrase ex duobus civibus Romanis natos (“children born of two Roman citizens”) indicates that a Roman woman was regarded as having citizen status, in specific contrast to a peregrina . Slaves ( servi ) were not citizens, and lacked even the legal standing accorded free-born foreigners. Slaves were seen as property, and they were bought and sold like any other good in Rome. For

1000-405: A person's physical features, personal qualities, occupation, place of origin, or even an object with which a person was associated. Some cognomina were derived from the circumstance of a person's adoption from one family into another, or were derived from foreign names, such as when a freedman received a Roman praenomen and nomen. Other cognomina commemorated important events associated with a person;

1100-403: A promise of support if the patron went to war. This patronage system was one of the class relations that most tightly bound Roman society together, while also protecting patrician social privileges. Clientela continued into the late Roman society, spanning almost the entirety of the existence of ancient Rome. Patricians also exclusively controlled the office of the censor , which controlled

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1200-467: A raven; Titus Manlius Torquatus , who likewise defeated a Gaulish giant, and took his name from the torque that he claimed as a prize; Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus , who carried the Second Punic War to Africa, and defeated Hannibal . The examples most often described in scholarship on the subject regarding this class of cognomen come from the period of the Republic, centuries before

1300-463: A result, by the third century the cognomen became the most important element of the Roman name, and frequently the only one that was useful for distinguishing between individuals. In the later empire, the proliferation of cognomina was such that the full nomenclature of most individuals was not recorded, and in many cases the only names surviving in extant records are cognomina. By the sixth century, traditional Roman cognomina were frequently prefixed by

1400-483: A series of names with Christian religious significance. As Roman institutions vanished, and the distinction between nomen and cognomen ceased to have any practical importance, the complex system of cognomina that developed under the later empire faded away. The people of the western empire reverted to single names, which were indistinguishable from the cognomina that they replaced; many former praenomina and nomina also survived in this way. The proliferation of cognomina in

1500-647: A way to save money if they would not fetch enough money from their sale because it was cheaper than feeding and housing a useless slave. Since slaves were legally property, they could be disposed of by their owners at any time. All children born to female slaves were slaves. Slaves who had the education or skills to earn a living were often manumitted upon the death of their owner as a condition of his will. Slaves who conducted business for their masters were also permitted to earn and save money for themselves, and some might be able to buy their own freedom, while still others were granted their freedom by their owners — though this

1600-638: Is lost in prehistory, but it appears to have been established in Latium and Etruria by at least 650 BC. In written form, the nomen was usually followed by a filiation , indicating the personal name of an individual's father, and sometimes the name of the mother or other antecedents. Toward the end of the Roman Republic , this was followed by the name of a citizen's voting tribe . Lastly, these elements could be followed by additional surnames, or cognomina , which could be either personal or hereditary, or

1700-447: The clientela system of patronage that saw plebeians assisting their patrician patrons in war, augmenting their social status, and raising dowries or ransoms. Plebeians were barred from marrying patricians in 450 BC but this law was annulled five years later in 445 BC by a tribune of the plebs . In 444 BC, the office of military tribune with consular powers was created. The plebeians who filled this office were then entitled to join

1800-503: The Constitutio Antoniniana seem to have dispensed with praenomina altogether, and by the end of the western empire, only the oldest Roman families continued to use them. The nomen gentilicium , or "gentile name", designated a Roman citizen as a member of a gens. A gens, which may be translated as "clan", constituted an extended Roman group of individuals, all of whom shared the same nomen and claimed descent from

1900-665: The Early Middle Ages , the names themselves exerted a profound influence on the development of European naming practices, and many continue to survive in modern languages . The distinguishing feature of Roman nomenclature was the use of both personal names and regular surnames . Throughout Europe and the Mediterranean, other ancient civilizations distinguished individuals using single personal names. These names usually combined two elements or themes which allowed for hundreds or even thousands of possible combinations -

2000-454: The Republic was established by: The different Roman classes allowed for different rights and privileges, including voting rights, marriage rights, and more. Traditionally, patrician refers to members of the upper class, while plebeian refers to lower class. Economic differentiation saw a small number of families accumulate most of the wealth in Rome, thus giving way to the creation of

2100-422: The census , appointed senators, and oversaw other aspects of social and political life. Through the censors, patricians were able to maintain their status over the plebeians. Plebeians were the lower class of Rome, laborers and farmers who mostly worked land owned by the patricians . Some plebeians owned small plots of land, but this was rare until the second century BC. Plebeians were tied to patricians through

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2200-438: The filiation was the oldest element of the Roman name. Even before the development of the nomen as a hereditary surname, it was customary to use the name of a person's father as a means of distinguishing him or her from others with the same personal name, like a patronymic ; thus Lucius, the son of Marcus, would be Lucius, Marci filius ; Paulla, the daughter of Quintus, would be Paulla, Quinti filia . Many nomina were derived in

2300-1045: The filiation , which in later times, once the nomen had become fixed, nearly always followed the nomen. Other nomina were derived from names that later came to be regarded as cognomina, such as Plancius from Plancus or Flavius from Flavus ; or from place-names, such as Norbanus from Norba . The binomial name consisting of praenomen and nomen eventually spread throughout Italy. Nomina from different languages and regions often have distinctive characteristics; Latin nomina tended to end in -ius, -us, -aius, -eius, -eus , or -aeus , while Oscan names frequently ended in -is or -iis ; Umbrian names in -as, -anas, -enas , or -inas , and Etruscan names in -arna, -erna, -ena, -enna, -ina , or -inna . Oscan and Umbrian forms tend to be found in inscriptions; in Roman literature these names are often Latinized. Many individuals added an additional surname, or cognomen , which helped to distinguish between members of larger families. Originally these were simply personal names, which might be derived from

2400-416: The tria nomina . Although not all Romans possessed three names, the practice of using multiple names having different functions was a defining characteristic of Roman culture that distinguished citizens from foreigners. The praenomen was a true personal name , chosen by a child's parents, and bestowed on the dies lustricus , or "day of lustration ", a ritual purification performed on the eighth day after

2500-484: The tribes making up the comitia tributa , or "tribal assembly". This was the most democratic of Rome's three main legislative assemblies of the Roman Republic , in that all citizens could participate on an equal basis, without regard to wealth or social status. Over time, its decrees (known as plebi scita , or " plebiscites ") became binding on the whole Roman people. Although much of the assembly's authority

2600-502: The Empire, the number of cognomina increased dramatically. Where once only the most noble patrician houses used multiple surnames, Romans of all backgrounds and social standing might bear several cognomina. By the third century, this had become the norm amongst freeborn Roman citizens. The question of how to classify different cognomina led the grammarians of the fourth and fifth centuries to designate some of them as agnomina . For most of

2700-549: The Oscan, Umbrian, and Etruscan-speaking peoples of Italy, and many of these also had regular abbreviations. (Lists of praenomina used by the various people of Italy, together with their usual abbreviations, can be found at praenomen .) Roman men were usually known by their praenomina to members of their family and household, clientes and close friends; but outside of this circle, they might be called by their nomen, cognomen, or any combination of praenomen, nomen, and cognomen that

2800-482: The Republic as their number increased. Through their military service, and through other endeavours such as craftsmanship and business ventures, freedmen often accumulated vast fortunes in the later Republic. Despite the fortunes of these many liberti, throughout ancient Rome the majority of freedmen were plebeians and worked as farmers or tradesmen. Latin rights ( jus Latii ) were the rights given to Latin allies and Latin colonies of Rome. Latin allies were given

2900-427: The Republic, the usual manner of distinguishing individuals was through the binomial form of praenomen and nomen. But as the praenomen lost its value as a distinguishing name, and gradually faded into obscurity, its former role was assumed by the versatile cognomen, and the typical manner of identifying individuals came to be by nomen and cognomen; essentially one form of binomial nomenclature was replaced by another, over

3000-450: The Roman system of adoption. Since the primary purpose of adoption was to preserve the name and status of the adopter, an adopted son would usually assume both the praenomen and nomen of his adoptive father, together with any hereditary cognomina, just as an eldest son would have done. However, adoption did not result in the complete abandonment of the adopted son's birth name. The son's original nomen (or occasionally cognomen) would become

3100-593: The Romanian language. Valerio is also a surname . Roman naming conventions Over the course of some fourteen centuries, the Romans and other peoples of Italy employed a system of nomenclature that differed from that used by other cultures of Europe and the Mediterranean Sea , consisting of a combination of personal and family names . Although conventionally referred to as the tria nomina ,

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3200-468: The antiquity of the period to which the Romans themselves ascribed the adoption of hereditary surnames. In Latin, most nomina were formed by adding an adjectival suffix, usually -ius , to the stem of an existing word or name. Frequently this required a joining element, such as -e-, -id-, -il- , or -on- . Many common nomina arose as patronymic surnames ; for instance, the nomen Marcius was derived from

3300-412: The basis of a new surname, formed by adding the derivative suffix -anus or -inus to the stem. Thus, when a son of Lucius Aemilius Paullus was adopted by Publius Cornelius Scipio , he became Publius Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus ; in his will, the dictator Gaius Julius Caesar adopted his grandnephew, Gaius Octavius, who became known as Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus . Apart from the praenomen,

3400-550: The bearer the greatest prestige. Following the promulgation of the Constitutio Antoniniana in AD 212, granting Roman citizenship to all free men living within the Roman Empire, the praenomen and nomen lost much of their distinguishing function, as all of the newly enfranchised citizens shared the name of Marcus Aurelius . The praenomen and sometimes the nomen gradually disappeared from view, crowded out by other names indicating

3500-439: The bearer's rank and social connections. Surviving inscriptions from the fifth century rarely provide a citizen's full nomenclature. In the final centuries of the Empire, the traditional nomenclature was sometimes replaced by alternate names, known as signa . In the course of the sixth century, as central authority collapsed and Roman institutions disappeared, the complex forms of Roman nomenclature were abandoned altogether, and

3600-584: The beginning of the Republic, although only about eighteen were common. This number fell gradually, until by the first century AD, about a dozen praenomina remained in widespread use, with a handful of others used by particular families. The origin and use of praenomina was a matter of curiosity to the Romans themselves; in De Praenominibus , Probus discusses a number of older praenomina and their meanings. Most praenomina were regularly abbreviated, and rarely written in full. Other praenomina were used by

3700-402: The best-recorded periods of Roman history possessed all three names, the tria nomina remains the most familiar conception of the Roman name. For a variety of reasons, the Roman nomenclature system broke down in the centuries following the collapse of imperial authority in the west. The praenomen had already become scarce in written sources during the fourth century, and by the fifth century it

3800-436: The birth of a girl, or the ninth day after the birth of a boy. Normally all of the children in a family would have different praenomina. Although there was no law restricting the use of specific praenomina, the choice of the parents was usually governed by custom and family tradition. An eldest son was usually named after his father, and younger sons were named after their father's brothers or other male ancestors. In this way,

3900-417: The classical concept of the tria nomina . Originally Roman women shared the binomial nomenclature of men; but over time the praenomen became less useful as a distinguishing element, and women's praenomina were gradually discarded, or replaced by informal names. By the end of the Republic, the majority of Roman women either did not have or did not use praenomina. Most women were called by their nomen alone, or by

4000-434: The cognomen — thus, no later than the second century BC. However, in both writing and inscriptions, the tribus is found with much less frequency than other parts of the name; so the custom of including it does not seem to have been deeply ingrained in Roman practice. As with the filiation, it was common to abbreviate the name of the tribe. For the names of the thirty-five tribes and their abbreviations, see Roman tribe . In

4100-406: The combination of praenomen , nomen , and cognomen that have come to be regarded as the basic elements of the Roman name in fact represent a continuous process of development, from at least the seventh century BC to the end of the seventh century AD. The names that developed as part of this system became a defining characteristic of Roman civilization, and although the system itself vanished during

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4200-500: The combined lower classes who only had 95 votes. This was a means for the wealthier classes to maintain control over the army and social life. Roman society was patriarchal in the purest sense; the male head of household was the pater familias , he held special legal powers and privileges that gave him jurisdiction ( patria potestas ) over all the members of his familia. Fathers were in charge of educating their sons. Additionally, adult sons would often marry and continue to live in

4300-443: The concept of the agnomen was formulated. Adoption was a common and formal process in Roman culture. Its chief purpose had nothing to do with providing homes for children; it was about ensuring the continuity of family lines that might otherwise become extinct. In early Rome, this was especially important for the patricians, who enjoyed tremendous status and privilege compared with the plebeians. Because few families were admitted to

4400-415: The course of several centuries. The very lack of regularity that allowed the cognomen to be used as either a personal or a hereditary surname became its strength in imperial times; as a hereditary surname, a cognomen could be used to identify an individual's connection with other noble families, either by descent, or later by association. Individual cognomina could also be used to distinguish between members of

4500-641: The development of the gens and the gradual decline of the praenomen as a useful means of distinguishing between individuals made the cognomen a useful means of identifying both individuals and whole branches of Rome's leading families. In the early years of the Republic, some aristocratic Romans had as many as three cognomina, some of which were hereditary, while others were personal. Like the nomen, cognomina could arise from any number of factors: personal characteristics, habits, occupations, places of origin, heroic exploits, and so forth. One class of cognomina consisted largely of archaic praenomina that were seldom used by

4600-502: The earliest period, the binomial nomenclature of praenomen and nomen that developed throughout Italy was shared by both men and women. Most praenomina had both masculine and feminine forms, although a number of praenomina common to women were seldom or never used by men. Just as men's praenomina, women's names were regularly abbreviated instead of being written in full. (A list of women's praenomina can be found at praenomen .) Roman aristocracy The status of freeborn Romans during

4700-454: The emperor's praenomen and nomen. Yet another common practice beginning in the first century AD was to give multiple sons the same praenomen, and distinguish them using different cognomina; by the second century this was becoming the rule, rather than the exception. Another confusing practice was the addition of the full nomenclature of maternal ancestors to the basic tria nomina , so that a man might appear to have two praenomina, one occurring in

4800-712: The end of the Latin War . The rest of the Latin allies were given limited Roman citizenship, receiving the privileges of the Old Latin Rights, but not being granted the right to vote or obtain Roman property unless they relocated permanently to the city of Rome. Free-born foreign subjects were known as peregrini . Peregrini operated under the laws that were in effect in their provinces when they were captured by Rome. Augustus (27 B.C. – 14 AD) instituted laws that allowed peregrini to become citizens through serving in

4900-399: The end of the Republic the cognomen was regarded as somewhat less than an official name. By contrast, in imperial times the cognomen became the principal distinguishing element of the Roman name, and although praenomina never completely vanished, the essential elements of the Roman name from the second century onward were the nomen and cognomen. Naming conventions for women also varied from

5000-437: The exception rather than the rule. Cognomina are known from the beginning of the Republic, but were long regarded as informal names, and omitted from most official records before the second century BC. Later inscriptions commemorating the early centuries of the Republic supply these missing surnames, although the authenticity of some of them has been disputed. Under the Empire, however, the cognomen acquired great importance, and

5100-443: The exclusiveness of their social status. Of course, there were many exceptions to these general practices. A son might be named in honour of one of his maternal relatives, thus bringing a new name into the gens. Because some gentes made regular use of only three or four praenomina, new names might appear whenever a family had more than three or four sons. Furthermore, a number of the oldest and most influential patrician families made

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5200-524: The family household under their pater familias , until their father died and they took over the responsibility of pater familias . The pater familias could also perform an emancipatio (emancipation) ritual - a process that set the son free, three times in a row - to grant the son his own legal authority, free from the pater familias . Free-born women in ancient Rome were citizens (cives) , but could not vote or hold political office . Women were under exclusive control of their pater familias , which

5300-512: The feminine praenomen Gaia , here used generically to mean any woman; and there are a few examples of an inverted "M", although it is not clear whether this was used generically, or specifically for the feminine praenomen Marca or Marcia . An example of the filiation of slaves and freedmen would be: Alexander Corneli L. s. , "Alexander, slave of Lucius Cornelius", who upon his emancipation would probably become L. Cornelius L. l. Alexander , "Lucius Cornelius Alexander, freedman of Lucius"; it

5400-399: The filiation Aug. l. , Augusti libertus . Although filiation was common throughout the history of the Republic and well into imperial times, no law governed its use or inclusion in writing. It was used by custom and for convenience, but could be ignored or discarded, as it suited the needs of the writer. From the beginning of the Roman Republic , all citizens were enumerated in one of

5500-417: The four urban tribes, thus concentrating their votes and limiting their influence on the comitia tributa . Perhaps for similar reasons, when large numbers of provincials gained the franchise, certain rural tribes were preferred for their enrollment. Citizens did not normally change tribes when they moved from one region to another; but the censors had the power to punish a citizen by expelling him from one of

5600-741: The fourth century AD, making it easier to distinguish between nomina and cognomina until the final centuries of the western empire. Unlike the nomen, which was passed down unchanged from father to son, cognomina could appear and disappear almost at will. They were not normally chosen by the persons who bore them, but were earned or bestowed by others, which may account for the wide variety of unflattering names that were used as cognomina. Doubtless some cognomina were used ironically, while others continued in use largely because, whatever their origin, they were useful for distinguishing among individuals and between branches of large families. New cognomina were coined and came into fashion throughout Roman history. Under

5700-402: The lack of surviving epigraphic evidence, the full nomenclature of most Romans, even among the aristocracy, is seldom recorded. Thus, although the three types of names referred to as the tria nomina existed throughout Roman history, the period during which the majority of citizens possessed exactly three names was relatively brief. Nevertheless, because most of the important individuals during

5800-423: The later Republic, although as cognomina these names persisted throughout Imperial times. Many cognomina had unusual terminations for Latin names, ending in -a, -o , or -io , and their meanings were frequently obscure, even in antiquity; this seems to emphasize the manner in which many cognomina originally arose from nicknames. The -ius termination typical of Latin nomina was generally not used for cognomina until

5900-470: The later centuries of the Empire led some grammarians to classify certain types as agnomina . This class included two main types of cognomen: the cognomen ex virtute , and cognomina that were derived from nomina, to indicate the parentage of Romans who had been adopted from one gens into another. Although these names had existed throughout Roman history, it was only in this late period that they were distinguished from other cognomina. The cognomen ex virtute

6000-428: The legal jurisdictions of their new husbands or their fathers. They controlled their own property (usually their dowry) after the death of their father. Men still had to sign any paperwork on behalf of their women, but there were now two economic units in the marriage. Moreover, divorce could be initiated by either man or woman, often by saying "I divorce you" three times while in front of witnesses. The legal status of

6100-426: The less-fortunate plebeian families, plebeians and patricians among the senatorial class were often equally wealthy. As civil rights for plebeians increased during the middle and late Roman Republic , many plebeian families had attained wealth and power while some traditionally patrician families had fallen into poverty and obscurity. Regardless of how rich a plebeian family became, they would not rise to be included in

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6200-431: The man would not become her pater familias . The last form of marriage, confarreatio , was the closest to modern marriage. Confarreatio was a religious ceremony that consisted of the bride and groom sharing bread in front of religious officials and other witnesses. By the end of the second century CE, marriages sine manu were the standard form of marriage. Through a marriage sine manu , women did not fall under

6300-449: The middle of his name. Under the weight of these practices and others, the utility of the praenomen to distinguish between men continued to decline, until only the force of tradition prevented its utter abandonment. Over the course of the third century, praenomina become increasingly scarce in written records, and from the fourth century onward their appearance becomes exceptional. The descendants of those who had been granted citizenship by

6400-489: The most part, slaves descended from debtors and from prisoners of war, especially women and children captured during sieges and other military campaigns in Greece, Italy, Spain, and Carthage. In the later years of the Republic and into the Empire, more slaves came from newly conquered areas of Gaul , Britain , North Africa , and Asia Minor . Many slaves were created as the result of Rome's conquest of Greece, but Greek culture

6500-553: The name of the mother, in which case gnatus would follow the mother's name, instead of filius or filia . This is especially common in families of Etruscan origin. The names of married women were sometimes followed by the husband's name and uxor for "wife". N. Fabius Q. f. M. n. Furia gnatus Maximus means "Numerius Fabius Maximus, son of Quintus, grandson of Marcus, born of Furia", while Claudia L. Valeri uxor would be "Claudia, wife of Lucius Valerius". Slaves and freedmen also possessed filiations, although in this case

6600-478: The names that had originated as part of the tria nomina were adapted to this usage, and survived into modern times. As in other cultures, the early peoples of Italy probably used a single name, which later developed into the praenomen. Marcus Terentius Varro wrote that the earliest Italians used simple names. Names of this type could be honorific or aspirational, or might refer to deities, physical peculiarities, or circumstances of birth. In this early period,

6700-516: The nomen and any cognomina, and abbreviated using the typical abbreviations for praenomina, followed by f. for filius or filia , and sometimes n. for nepos (grandson) or neptis (granddaughter). Thus, the inscription S. Postumius A. f. P. n. Albus Regillensis means "Spurius Postumius Albus Regillensis, of Aulus the son, of Publius the grandson". "Tiberius Aemilius Mamercinus, the son of Lucius and grandson of Mamercus" would be written Ti. Aemilius L. f. Mam. n. Mamercinus . The more formal

6800-640: The nomen as the second element of the Italic name cannot be attributed to a specific period or culture. From the earliest period it was common to both the Indo-European speaking Italic peoples and the Etruscans . The historian Livy relates the adoption of Silvius as a nomen by the kings of Alba Longa in honour of their ancestor, Silvius . As part of Rome's foundation myth, this statement cannot be regarded as historical fact, but it does indicate

6900-441: The number of cognomina assumed by the Roman aristocracy multiplied exponentially. Adding to the complexity of aristocratic names was the practice of combining the full nomenclature of both one's paternal and maternal ancestors, resulting in some individuals appearing to have two or more complete names. Duplicative or politically undesirable names might be omitted, while the order of names might be rearranged to emphasize those giving

7000-489: The number of personal names must have been quite large; but with the development of additional names the number in widespread use dwindled. By the early Republic, about three dozen Latin praenomina remained in use, some of which were already rare; about eighteen were used by the patricians . Barely a dozen praenomina remained in general use under the Empire, although aristocratic families sometimes revived older praenomina, or created new ones from cognomina. The development of

7100-400: The patrician and plebeian classes. After this initial distinction, however, the divide between patrician and plebeian families was strictly hereditary, based on social status. The plebeians constituted the majority of Roman citizens after a series of political conflicts and equalization. Although patricians are often represented as rich and powerful families who managed to secure power over

7200-439: The patriciate after the expulsion of the kings , while the number of plebeians continually grew, the patricians continually struggled to preserve their wealth and influence. A man who had no sons to inherit his property and preserve his family name would adopt one of the younger sons from another family. In time, as the plebeians also acquired wealth and gained access to the offices of the Roman state, they too came to participate in

7300-528: The people of Italy and western Europe reverted to single names. Modern European nomenclature developed independently of the Roman model during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance . However, many modern names are derived from Roman originals. The three types of names that have come to be regarded as quintessentially Roman were the praenomen, nomen , and cognomen . Together, these were referred to as

7400-437: The person referred to is usually the slave's owner, rather than his or her father. The abbreviations here include s. for servus or serva and l. for libertus or liberta . A slave might have more than one owner, in which case the names could be given serially. In some cases the owner's nomen or cognomen was used instead of or in addition to the praenomen. The liberti of women sometimes used an inverted "C", signifying

7500-450: The plebs by their dyed and ornamented shoes ( calceus patricius ). A common type of social relation in ancient Rome was the clientela system that involved a patron and client(s) that performed services for one another and who were engaged in strong business-like relationships. Patricians were most often the patrons, and they would often have multiple plebeian clients. Patrons provided many services to their clients in exchange for

7600-645: The practices of the aristocracy. The emperors usually prefixed Imperator to their names as a praenomen, while at the same time retaining their own praenomina; but because most of the early emperors were legally adopted by their predecessors, and formally assumed new names, even these were subject to change. Several members of the Julio-Claudian dynasty exchanged their original praenomina for cognomina, or received cognomina in place of praenomina at birth. An emperor might emancipate or enfranchise large groups of people at once, all of whom would automatically receive

7700-467: The praenomen Marcus , and originally signified Marci filius , "son of Marcus". In the same way, Sextius , Publilius , and Lucilius arose from the praenomina Sextus , Publius , and Lucius . This demonstrates that, much like later European surnames, the earliest nomina were not necessarily hereditary, but might be adopted and discarded at will, and changed from one generation to the next. The practice from which these patronymics arose also gave rise to

7800-494: The purchase of the bride. This oldest form of marriage required five witnesses and an official, and was treated as a business transaction. The second, usus, occurred after one year of intimacy between a man and a woman. If the woman did not leave the man for three nights following the year, she became the man's possession and he became her pater familias. If the woman left before the three nights were over, she would return to her family. The relationship would still be valid, but

7900-446: The ranks of the patricians. By the second century BC , the divide between patricians and plebeians had lost most of its distinction and began to merge into one class. Patricians were considered the upper class in early Roman society. They controlled the best land and made up the majority of the Roman senate . It was rare—if not impossible—for a plebeian to be a senator until 444 BC. In appearance, they were chiefly distinguished from

8000-627: The right to intermarry, conduct business, and enter into contracts with full Roman citizens, and the right to move from an allied Latin city to Rome (or vice versa). Children of full Roman citizens and Latin mothers could inherit the Roman property and citizenship of their fathers through the Latin League, before 338 BC. Those with Latin rights had a privileged status above other Roman allies who were not full Roman citizens. The citizens of 5 Latin towns (Aricia, Lanuvium, Pedum , Nomentum, and Antium) were given full Roman citizenship in 338 BC, after

8100-415: The rural tribes and assigning him to one of the urban tribes. In later periods, most citizens were enrolled in tribes without respect to geography. Precisely when it became common to include the name of a citizen's tribus as part of his full nomenclature is uncertain. The name of the tribe normally follows the filiation and precedes any cognomina, suggesting that its addition preceded formal recognition of

8200-516: The same family; even as siblings came to share the same praenomen, they bore different cognomina, some from the paternal line, and others from their maternal ancestors. Although the nomen was a required element of Roman nomenclature down to the end of the western empire, its usefulness as a distinguishing name declined throughout imperial times, as an increasingly large portion of the population bore nomina such as Flavius or Aurelius , which had been granted en masse to newly enfranchised citizens. As

8300-410: The same praenomina were passed down in a family from one generation to the next. Not only did this serve to emphasize the continuity of a family across many generations, but the selection of praenomina also distinguished the customs of one gens from another. The patrician gentes in particular tended to limit the number of praenomina that they used far more than the plebeians, which was a way of reinforcing

8400-432: The same way, and most praenomina have at least one corresponding nomen, such as Lucilius, Marcius, Publilius, Quinctius, or Servilius. These are known as patronymic surnames, because they are derived from the name of the original bearer's father. Even after the development of the nomen and cognomen, filiation remained a useful means of distinguishing between members of a large family. Filiations were normally written between

8500-520: The senate after their one-year term was completed. For the most part, however, plebeians remained dependent on those of higher social class for the entirety of the existence of ancient Rome. Roman society was also divided based on property in the Centuriate Assembly , and later on in the republic, membership of the senatorial class was also based on property. The senatorial class had the highest property threshold. The Centuriate Assembly

8600-551: The total number of tribes to thirty-five; except for a brief experiment at the end of the Social War in 88 BC, this number remained fixed. The nature of the tribes was mainly geographic, rather than ethnic; inhabitants of Rome were, in theory, assigned to one of the four "urban" tribes, while the territory beyond the city was allocated to the "rural" or "rustic" tribes. Geography was not the sole determining factor in one's tribus ; at times efforts were made to assign freedmen to

8700-414: The whole of Roman history. During the period of the Roman Republic, the praenomen and nomen represented the essential elements of the name; the cognomen first appeared among the Roman aristocracy at the inception of the Republic, but was not widely used among the plebeians , who made up the majority of the Roman people, until the second century BC. Even then, not all Roman citizens bore cognomina, and until

8800-421: The writing, the more generations might be included; a great-grandchild would be pron. or pronep. for pronepos or proneptis , a great-great-grandchild abn. or abnep. for abnepos or abneptis , and a great-great-great-grandchild adnepos or adneptis . However, these forms are rarely included as part of a name, except on the grandest of monumental inscriptions. The filiation sometimes included

8900-476: Was a surname derived from some virtuous or heroic episode attributed to the bearer. Roman history is filled with individuals who obtained cognomina as a result of their exploits: Aulus Postumius Albus Regillensis , who commanded the Roman army at the Battle of Lake Regillus ; Gaius Marcius Coriolanus , who captured the city of Corioli ; Marcus Valerius Corvus , who defeated a giant Gaul in single combat, aided by

9000-410: Was considered in some respects superior to that of Rome: hence Horace's famous remark Graecia capta ferum victorem cepit ("Captured Greece took her savage conqueror captive"). The Roman playwright Terence is thought to have been brought to Rome as a slave. Thus slavery was regarded as a circumstance of birth, misfortune, or war; it was defined in terms of legal status, or rather the lack thereof, and

9100-407: Was customary for a freedman to take the praenomen of his former owner, if he did not already have one, and to use his original personal name as a cognomen. Another example might be Salvia Pompeia Cn. Ɔ. l. , "Salvia Pompeia, freedwoman of Gnaeus (Pompeius) and Gaia"; here Gaia is used generically, irrespective of whether Pompeius' wife was actually named Gaia . A freedman of the emperor might have

9200-565: Was either their father, husband, or sometimes their eldest brother. Women, and their children, took on the social status of their pater familias. Women were not included in the political sphere, and they had little influence outside the home. However, women of wealthier families had more political power than poorer women as they were able to exert their influence behind the scenes of public, political actions. There were three early forms of marriage that transferred Roman women from one pater familias to another. The first, coemptio , represented

9300-468: Was neither limited to or defined by ethnicity or race, nor regarded as an inescapably permanent condition. Slavery was more prominent in Roman antiquity than anywhere else in the ancient world, save for Greece. Slaves who lacked skills or education performed agricultural or other forms of manual labor. More slaves were tasked with agricultural labour than any other form of work. Those who were violent or disobedient, or who for whatever reason were considered

9400-521: Was not unheard of for individuals to have as many as three, of which some might be hereditary and some personal. These surnames were initially characteristic of patrician families, but over time cognomina were also acquired by the plebeians . However, a number of distinguished plebeian gentes, such as the Antonii and the Marii , were never divided into different branches, and in these families cognomina were

9500-486: Was preceded by the praenomen , or "forename", a personal name that served to distinguish between the different members of a family. For example, a Roman named Publius Lemonius might have sons named Publius Lemonius , Lucius Lemonius , and Gaius Lemonius . Here, Lemonius is the nomen , identifying each person in the family as a member of the gens Lemonia; Publius , Lucius , and Gaius are praenomina used to distinguish between them. The origin of this binomial system

9600-494: Was rare. Freedmen ( liberti ) were freed slaves who, once freed, became full Roman citizens, however they were not considered equal to other citizens because of their former status as slaves or their descent from former slaves, thus they joined the ranks of the lower-class plebeians. Only after a few generations would the descendants of former slaves be able to rise through the ranks of the classes (sometimes becoming equites or senators). The status of liberti developed throughout

9700-537: Was responsible for declaring war, for electing magistrates with imperium, and for trying select cases. Only Romans who were wealthy enough to afford their own armour were allowed to serve in the army, which consisted of both patricians and plebeians. As long as a citizen could afford armour, he was able to be a soldier. The Centuriate Assembly was divided into groups based on how wealthy one was and one’s ability to provide his armour and weapons. The Equestrians and Class I held 98 votes between them, thus they could outvote

9800-470: Was retained only by the most conservative elements of the old Roman aristocracy, such as the Aurelii Symmachi . Over the course of the sixth century, as Roman institutions and social structures gradually fell away, the need to distinguish between nomina and cognomina likewise vanished. By the end of the seventh century, the people of Italy and western Europe had reverted to single names. But many of

9900-424: Was sufficient to distinguish them from other men with similar names. In the literature of the Republic, and on all formal occasions, such as when a senator was called upon to speak, it was customary to address a citizen by praenomen and nomen; or, if this were insufficient to distinguish him from other members of the gens, by praenomen and cognomen. In imperial times, the praenomen became increasingly confused by

10000-509: Was usurped by the emperors, membership in a tribe remained an important part of Roman citizenship, so that the name of the tribe came to be incorporated into a citizen's full nomenclature. The number of tribes varied over time; tradition ascribed the institution of thirty tribes to Servius Tullius , the sixth King of Rome , but ten of these were destroyed at the beginning of the Republic. Several tribes were added between 387 and 241 BC, as large swaths of Italy came under Roman control, bringing

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