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55-421: The programme carried out six crewed spaceflights between 1961 and 1963. The longest flight lasted nearly five days, and the last four were launched in pairs, one day apart. This exceeded Project Mercury's demonstrated capabilities of a longest flight of just over 34 hours, and of single missions. Vostok was succeeded by two Voskhod programme flights in 1964 and 1965, which used three- and two-man modifications of

110-517: A 22-day mission in 1966. Voskhod development was both a follow-on to the Vostok programme and a recycling of components left over from that programme's cancellation following its first six flights. The Voskhod programme was superseded by the Soyuz programme . The Voskhod spacecraft was basically a Vostok spacecraft that had a backup, solid-fueled retrorocket added to the top of the descent module. As it

165-566: A crewed flight in December 1960. A major setback occurred on October 24, when a rocket explosion killed over 100 people, including Chief Marshal of Artillery Mitrofan Nedelin , in what is now called the Nedelin catastrophe . This was one of the worst disasters in the history of spaceflight . It involved a rocket that was not designed by Korolev, and was not necessary for the Vostok programme;

220-501: A draft plan for the first Vostok spacecraft, called Vostok 1K . This design would be used for testing purposes; also in their plan was Vostok 2K , a spy satellite that would later become known as Zenit 2 , and Vostok 3K , which would be used for all six crewed Vostok missions. Despite the very large geographical size of the Soviet Union, there were obvious limitations to monitoring orbital spaceflights from ground stations within

275-497: A few days, the dogs were both recovered alive, and the spacecraft was returned to Moscow a few weeks later. Despite Korolev's desire to announce this failure to the press, the State Commission vetoed the idea. The two uncrewed missions immediately preceding the first human flight used the same spacecraft design as in the crewed missions, a design called Vostok 3KA (or 3A ). The only differences were that they would carry

330-416: A functioning SK-1 spacesuit . The dog was contained in a small pressurized sphere, which also contained 80 mice, several guinea pigs , and other biological specimens. Additional mice, guinea pigs, and other specimens were placed within the mannequin. After one orbit, the descent module successfully re-entered the atmosphere, the mannequin was safely ejected, and the dog and other specimens landed separately in

385-666: A second female flight. However, there were delays preparing for Voskhod 3, and during that time the Gemini programme accomplished most of what had been planned for future Voskhods. In the end, the Voskhod programme was abandoned, aided by a change in Soviet leadership which was less concerned about stunt and prestige flights, and this allowed the Soviet designers to concentrate on the Soyuz programme . Cervical vertebrae In tetrapods , cervical vertebrae ( sg. : vertebra ) are

440-416: A single dog into orbit, a life-size mannequin would be strapped into the main ejection seat, and (unlike the crewed missions) they had a self-destruct system. The recent failures of Vostok 1K were not encouraging, but it was decided to proceed with launches of an automated variant of Vostok 3KA , the spacecraft design that would conduct a human spaceflight. The approval of a crewed mission was contingent upon

495-465: A softer landing at touchdown. This was necessary because, unlike the Vostok, the Voskhod descent module landed with the crewmen still inside. Unlike Vostok and the later Soyuz, Voskhod had no launch abort system, meaning that the crew lacked any means of escape from a malfunctioning launch vehicle. Voskhod had a solid-fueled backup retrorocket on top of the capsule in case the main one failed (as it did on Voskhod 2 ). While Vostok lacked this feature, it

550-559: A variety of other biological specimens such as mice, insects, and strips of human skin. This mission was successful, and Belka and Strelka became the first living beings recovered from orbit. The spacecraft was only the second object ever to have been recovered from orbit, the first being the return capsule of the American Discoverer 13 the previous week. During the mission there was some concern for Belka and Strelka's health, after images of Belka vomiting had been obtained from

605-458: Is generally smaller on one or both sides; occasionally, it is double, and sometimes it is absent. On the left side, it occasionally gives passage to the vertebral artery; more frequently, the vertebral vein traverses it on both sides, but the usual arrangement is for both artery and vein to pass in front of the transverse process, not through the foramen. The movement of nodding the head takes place predominantly through flexion and extension at

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660-424: Is palpable from the skin surface. Sometimes, the seventh cervical vertebra is associated with an abnormal extra rib, known as a cervical rib , which develops from the anterior root of the transverse process. These ribs are usually small, but may occasionally compress blood vessels (such as the subclavian artery or subclavian vein ) or nerves in the brachial plexus , causing pain, numbness, tingling, and weakness in

715-523: The Cosmonaut Training Center , whose exclusive purpose would be to prepare the cosmonauts for their upcoming flights; initially the facility would have about 250 staff. Vershinin assigned the already famous aviator Nikolai Kamanin to supervise operations at the facility. By March, most of the cosmonauts had arrived at the training facility; Vershinin gave a welcome speech on March 7, and those who were present were formally inducted into

770-457: The Vostok 1K design, equipped with life-support facilities, and planned to be recovered after orbit. The first spacecraft launched on July 28, 1960 carried two space dogs named Chayka and Lisichka. An explosion destroyed the spacecraft shortly after launch, killing both dogs, and the mission was not given a name. The next mission, designated Korabl-Sputnik 2 , was launched on August 19, 1960, carrying two more dogs, Belka and Strelka , as well as

825-434: The atlanto-occipital joint between the atlas and the occipital bone . However, the cervical spine is comparatively mobile, and some component of this movement is due to flexion and extension of the vertebral column itself. This movement between the atlas and occipital bone is often referred to as the "yes joint", owing to its nature of being able to move the head in an up-and-down fashion. The movement of shaking or rotating

880-438: The hangman's fracture , both of which are often treated with immobilization in a cervical collar or halo brace . A common practice is to immobilize a patient's cervical spine to prevent further damage during transport to hospital. This practice has come under review recently as incidence rates of unstable spinal trauma can be as low as 2% in immobilized patients. In clearing the cervical spine , Canadian studies have developed

935-464: The vertebrae of the neck , immediately below the skull . Truncal vertebrae (divided into thoracic and lumbar vertebrae in mammals ) lie caudal (toward the tail) of cervical vertebrae. In sauropsid species, the cervical vertebrae bear cervical ribs . In lizards and saurischian dinosaurs, the cervical ribs are large; in birds , they are small and completely fused to the vertebrae. The vertebral transverse processes of mammals are homologous to

990-535: The vertebral artery , vertebral veins , and inferior cervical ganglion pass. The remainder of this article focuses upon human anatomy. By convention, the cervical vertebrae are numbered, with the first one (C1) closest to the skull and higher numbered vertebrae (C2–C7) proceeding away from the skull and down the spine. The general characteristics of the third through sixth cervical vertebrae are described here. The first, second, and seventh vertebrae are extraordinary, and are detailed later. The anterior tubercle of

1045-492: The Korabl-Sputnik 5 spacecraft, also called Vostok 3KA-2 , was auctioned at Sotheby's on April 12, 2011, the 50th anniversary of the first human spaceflight, Vostok 1 . Evgeny Yurchenko, a Russian investment banker, paid $ 2,882,500 for the capsule. One different (1963) and seven original (going through to April 1966) Vostok flights were originally planned: All these original missions were cancelled in early 1964 and

1100-461: The Soviet space program, Sergei Korolev , decided that the cosmonauts must be male, between 25 and 30 years old, no taller than 1.75 meters, and weigh no more than 72 kilograms. The final specifications for cosmonauts were approved in June 1959. By September interviews with potential cosmonauts had begun. Although the pilots were not told they might be flying into space, one of the physicians in charge of

1155-610: The Vostok capsule and a larger launch rocket . The world's first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1 , had been put into orbit by the Soviets in 1957. The next milestone in the history of space exploration would be to put a human in space, and both the Soviets and the Americans wanted to be the first. By January 1959, the Soviets had begun preparations for human spaceflight. Physicians from the Soviet Air Force insisted that

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1210-458: The cabin to be destroyed upon re-entry. The next Vostok 1K spacecraft was launched on December 22, 1960, but it was unnamed because it failed to reach orbit. It carried two dogs, named Kometa and Shutka . The third stage of the launch system malfunctioned, and the emergency escape system was activated. The spacecraft landed 3,500 kilometres downrange of the launch site. The resulting rescue operation took several days, in -40 °C conditions. After

1265-459: The cervical ribs of other amniotes . Most mammals have seven cervical vertebrae, with the only three known exceptions being the manatee with six, the two-toed sloth with five or six, and the three-toed sloth with nine. In humans, cervical vertebrae are the smallest of the true vertebrae and can be readily distinguished from those of the thoracic or lumbar regions by the presence of a foramen (hole) in each transverse process, through which

1320-420: The cervical spine are common at the level of the second cervical vertebrae, but neurological injury is uncommon. C4 and C5 are the areas that see the highest amount of cervical spine trauma. If it does occur, however, it may cause death or profound disability, including paralysis of the arms, legs, and diaphragm , which leads to respiratory failure . Common patterns of injury include the odontoid fracture and

1375-471: The cervical vertebrae. For example, the cervical spinal nerve 3 (C3) passes above C3. The atlas (C1) and axis (C2) are the two topmost vertebrae. The atlas (C1) is the topmost vertebra, and along with the axis forms the joint connecting the skull and spine . It lacks a vertebral body, spinous process, and discs either superior or inferior to it. It is ring-like and consists of an anterior arch, posterior arch, and two lateral masses. The axis (C2) forms

1430-484: The components recycled into the Voskhod programme , which was intended to achieve more Soviet firsts in space. Voskhod programme The Voskhod programme ( Russian : Восход , IPA: [vɐsˈxot] , Ascent or Dawn ) was the second Soviet human spaceflight project. Two one-day crewed missions were flown using the Voskhod spacecraft and rocket , one in 1964 and one in 1965, and two dogs flew on

1485-476: The cosmonaut group. By mid-June all twenty were permanently stationed at the center. In March the cosmonauts were started on a daily fitness regime, and were taught classes on topics such as rocket space systems, navigation, geophysics, and astronomy. Owing to the initial facility's space limitations, the cosmonauts and staff were relocated to a new facility in Star City (then known as Zelenyy ), which has been

1540-424: The country. To remedy this, the Soviets stationed about seven naval vessels, or tracking ships, around the world. For each ground station or tracking ship, the duration of communications with an orbiting spacecraft was limited to between five and ten minutes. The first Vostok spacecraft was a variant not designed to be recovered from orbit; the variant was also called Vostok 1KP (or 1P ). At Korolev's suggestion,

1595-458: The descent module by parachute. The spaceflight lasted 106 minutes, and the dog was recovered alive after landing. The mission was a complete success. On March 23, before the next mission, an accident occurred during training which led to the death of cosmonaut candidate Valentin Bondarenko . He was burned in a fire in an oxygen-rich isolation chamber, and died in a hospital eight hours after

1650-563: The desired age range; hence, the age requirement was relaxed. Unlike NASA's astronaut group, this group did not particularly consist of experienced pilots; Belyayev was the most experienced with 900 flying hours. The Soviet spacecraft were more automated than the American counterparts, so significant piloting experience was not necessary. On January 11, 1960, Soviet Chief Marshal of Aviation Konstantin Vershinin approved plans to establish

1705-598: The doctors decided to remove Kartashov from the group of six. Later in July, Varlamov was involved in a swimming accident. During a dive into a lake near the training center, he hit his head on the bottom, displacing a cervical vertebra . So by the end of July, the Vanguard Six were: Gagarin, Bykovskiy, Nelyubov, Nikolayev, Popovich, and Titov. By January 1961, these six had all finished parachute and recovery training, as well as three-day regimes in simulators. On January 17,

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1760-524: The first human spaceflight in April 1961, was preceded by several preparatory flights. In mid-1960, the Soviets learned that the Americans could launch a sub-orbital human spaceflight as early as January 1961. Korolev saw this as an important deadline, and was determined to launch a crewed orbital mission before the Americans launched their human suborbital mission. By April 1960, designers at Sergei Korolev 's design bureau, then known as OKB-1 , had completed

1815-448: The formation of osteophytes . The changes are seen on radiographs , which are used in a grading system from 0–4 ranging from no changes (0) to early with minimal development of osteophytes (1) to mild with definite osteophytes (2) to moderate with additional disc space stenosis or narrowing (3) to the stage of many large osteophytes, severe narrowing of the disc space, and more severe vertebral end plate sclerosis (4). Injuries to

1870-491: The head left and right happens almost entirely at the joint between the atlas and the axis, the atlanto-axial joint . A small amount of rotation of the vertebral column itself contributes to the movement. This movement between the atlas and axis is often referred to as the "no joint", owing to its nature of being able to rotate the head in a side-to-side fashion. Cervical degenerative changes arise from conditions such as spondylosis , stenosis of intervertebral discs , and

1925-571: The home of Russia's cosmonaut training program for over 60 years. The move officially took place on June 29, 1960. At the Gromov Flight Research Institute , a spacecraft simulator had been built, called the TDK-1 . Owing to the inefficiency of training all 20 cosmonauts in the simulator, it was decided they would select six men who would go through accelerated training. This group, which would be known as The Vanguard Six ,

1980-527: The human body, Voskhod's two flights were more aimed towards spectacular firsts. Although achieving the first EVA ("spacewalk") became the main success of the programme, beating the American Project Gemini to put the first multiman crew in orbit was the objective that initially motivated the programme. After those goals were realized, the programme planned to focus on other advances the spacecraft could accomplish, such as longer duration and

2035-515: The incident. Bondarenko's death was the first known cosmonaut or astronaut fatality. It is not clear whether other cosmonauts were told of his death immediately; the media did not learn of Bondarenko's death – or even of his existence – until many years later, in 1986. Unsubstantiated reports of other cosmonaut deaths created the myth of the lost cosmonaut . Vostok 3KA-2 was the key in the door for Gagarin's flight James Oberg , spaceflight historian The next uncrewed flight, Korabl-Sputnik 5 ,

2090-414: The instruments. In the case of Voskhod 2, an inflatable exterior airlock was also added to the descent module opposite the entry hatch. The airlock was jettisoned after use. This apparatus was needed because the vehicle avionics and environmental systems were air-cooled, and depressurization in orbit would cause overheating. A solid-fueled braking rocket was also added to the parachute lines to provide for

2145-456: The media would call the spacecraft Korabl-Sputnik , ("Satellite-ship"); the name Vostok was still a secret codename at this point. This first Vostok spacecraft was successfully sent into orbit on May 15, 1960. Owing to a system malfunction, on the spacecraft's 64th orbit the thrusters fired and sent it into an even higher orbit. The orbit eventually decayed, and it re-entered the atmosphere several years later. The next six launches were all of

2200-409: The most prominent. The transverse processes are of considerable size; their posterior roots are large and prominent, while the anterior are small and faintly marked. The upper surface of each usually has a shallow sulcus for the eighth spinal nerve, and its extremity seldom presents more than a trace of bifurcation. The transverse foramen may be as large as that in the other cervical vertebrae, but it

2255-461: The onboard cameras. The spacecraft and dogs were recovered following the 26-hour spaceflight, and extensive physiological tests revealed that the dogs were in good health. This represented a significant success for the Vostok programme. The success of Korabl-Sputnik 2 gave the designers confidence to put forward a plan leading to a human spaceflight. A document regarding a plan for the Vostok programme, dated September 10, 1960, and declassified in 1991,

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2310-450: The pivot on which the atlas rotates. The most distinctive characteristic of this bone is the strong odontoid process (dens) that rises perpendicularly from the upper surface of the body and articulates with C1. The body is deeper in front than behind, and prolonged downward anteriorly so as to overlap the upper and front part of the third vertebra. The vertebra prominens , or C7, has a distinctive long and prominent spinous process, which

2365-470: The potential cosmonaut candidates be qualified Air Force pilots, arguing that they would have relevant skills such as exposure to higher g-forces , as well as ejection seat experience; also the Americans had chosen the Mercury Seven in April 1959, all of whom had aviation backgrounds. The candidates had to be intelligent, comfortable in high-stress situations, and physically fit. Chief designer of

2420-404: The rocket was by rival designer Mikhail Yangel , intended to be a new generation of intercontinental ballistic missiles . It would be two weeks before work on the Vostok programme continued, and it was realised that the original target of a December crewed launch was unrealistic. On December 1, 1960, the next Vostok 1K spacecraft, called Korabl-Sputnik 3 by the press, was launched. It carried

2475-432: The selection process believed that some pilots had deduced this. Just over 200 candidates made it through the interview process, and by October a series of demanding physical tests were conducted on those remaining, such as exposure to low pressures, and a centrifuge test . By the end of 1959, 20 men had been selected. Korolev insisted on having a larger group than NASA's astronaut team of seven. Of these 20, five were outside

2530-442: The six participated in their final exams, including time spent in a simulator, and a written test. Based on these results, a commission, supervised by Kamanin, recommended the use of the cosmonauts in the following order: Gagarin, Titov, Nelyubov, Nikolayev, Bykovskiy, Popovich. At this stage Gagarin was the clear favorite to be the first man in space, not only based on the exams, but also among an informal peer evaluation. Vostok 1 ,

2585-462: The sixth cervical vertebra is known as the carotid tubercle or Chassaignac tubercle (for Édouard Chassaignac ). This separates the carotid artery from the vertebral artery and the carotid artery can be massaged against this tubercle to relieve the symptoms of supraventricular tachycardia . The carotid tubercle is also used as a landmark for anaesthesia of the brachial plexus and cervical plexus . The cervical spinal nerves emerge from above

2640-415: The success of the two automated Vostok 3KA missions. Unlike the previous Vostok 1K flights, the two uncrewed Vostok 3KA flights were planned to last only a single orbit, to imitate the plan for the first human flight. The first of these uncrewed flights, Korabl-Sputnik 4 , was launched on March 9, 1961. It carried the dog Chernushka into orbit, as well as a mannequin called Ivan Ivanovich , who wore

2695-427: The two dogs Pchyolka and Mushka . After about 24 hours, the engines were intended to fire to begin re-entry, but they fired for less time than had been expected. This meant that the spacecraft would enter the atmosphere, but not over Soviet territory. For this reason the self-destruct system was activated, and the spacecraft and the two dogs were destroyed. At the time, the press reported that an incorrect altitude caused

2750-409: The upper limb, a condition known as thoracic outlet syndrome . Very rarely, this rib occurs in a pair. The long spinous process of C7 is thick and nearly horizontal in direction. It is not bifurcated, and ends in a tubercle that the ligamentum nuchae attaches to. This process is not always the most prominent of the spinous processes, being found only about 70% of the time, C6 or T1 can sometimes be

2805-472: Was decided on May 30, 1960, and initially consisted of Gagarin, Kartashov, Nikolayev, Popovich, Titov, and Varlamov. Alexei Leonov recalls that these six were the shortest of the group of 20. In July, shortly after relocation to Star City, two of the six were replaced on medical grounds. Firstly, during a centrifuge test of 8  g , Kartashov experienced some internal damage, causing minor hemorrhaging on his back. Despite Gagarin's requests for him to stay,

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2860-406: Was launched on March 25, two days after Bondarenko's death. Like the previous Vostok 3KA flight, it lasted for only a single orbit, carried a mannequin and many animals, which included frogs, plants, mice, rats, and a dog, Zvezdochka ("Starlet", or "Little star"). This mission was also a complete success, which was the final step required to get approval for a crewed mission. The re-entry module of

2915-505: Was much heavier, the launch vehicle would be the 11A57, a Molniya 8K78M with the Blok L stage removed and later the basis of the Soyuz booster. The ejection seat was removed and two or three crew couches were added to the interior at a 90-degree angle to that of the Vostok crew position. However, the position of the in-flight controls was not changed, so the crew had to crane their heads 90° to see

2970-411: Was not considered a problem since the spacecraft would decay from orbit within 10 days. Relatively lightweight, Voskhod was well below the 11A57 booster's lift capacity, meaning that it launched into a much higher orbit and would not decay as quickly. The Voskhod flights, with launch dates: While the Vostok programme was dedicated more toward understanding the effects of space travel and microgravity on

3025-561: Was sent to the Central Committee of the Communist Party , and approved by Premier Nikita Khrushchev . This document had been signed by the top leaders in the Soviet defence industry at the time, the most senior being Deputy Chairman Dmitriy Ustinov ; this indicated the elevated importance of the document. The plan called for one or two more Vostok 1K flights, followed by two uncrewed Vostok 3K flights, followed by

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