127-437: Varela is a Galician , Spanish and Portuguese surname originating from Galicia . Notable people with the surname include: Galician language Western Areas Central Areas Eastern Areas Other Areas Galician ( / ɡ ə ˈ l ɪ ʃ ( i ) ə n / gə- LISH -(ee-)ən , UK also / ɡ ə ˈ l ɪ s i ə n / gə- LISS -ee-ən ), also known as Galego ( endonym : galego ),
254-520: A dialect continuum with Portuguese in the south, and with Astur-Leonese in the east. Mutual intelligibility (estimated at 85% by Robert A. Hall Jr. , 1989) is very high between Galicians and northern Portuguese. The current linguistic status of Galician with regard to Portuguese is controversial in Galicia, and the issue sometimes carries political overtones. There are linguists who consider Galician and Portuguese as two norms or varieties of
381-571: A Celtic revival; and Manuel Curros Enríquez , a liberal and anticlerical author whose ideas and proclamations were scandalous for part of the 19th-century society. The first political manifest asking for the officialization of Galician date to the late 19th century. An important landmark was the establishment of the Royal Galician Academy , in 1906, soon followed by that of the Seminario de Estudos Galegos (1923). The Seminario
508-421: A bishop sub regula as the highest authority of the community. Other monasteries used different, sometimes antagonistic rules. The Benedictine and Augustine rules were uncommon until the 11th century. As in most of Europe, the chartulary and chronicle proceedings of monasteries and bishoprics are the most important sources for the study of local history. By the 12th century the only known bourgeois were
635-511: A document from the monastery of Melón , dated in 1231 —being Galician by far the most used language during the 13th, 14th and 15th centuries, in substitution of Latin. Galician-Portuguese lost its political unity when the County of Portugal obtained its independence from the Kingdom of León , a transition initiated in 1139 and completed in 1179, establishing the Kingdom of Portugal . Meanwhile,
762-673: A holy and atoning sacrifice, by your hands I offer to God eternal." King Reccared , Acts of the Third Council of Toledo . In 585, Liuvigild , the Visigothic king of Hispania and Septimania , annexed the Kingdom of Galicia, after defeating King Audeca , and later the pretender to the throne, Malaric . Thus the kingdom of the Suebi, which incorporated large territories of the ancient Roman provinces of Gallaecia and Lusitania, became
889-612: A language through elaboration, and not an abstand language , a language through detachment. With regard to the external and internal perception of this relation, for instance in past editions of the Encyclopædia Britannica , Galician was defined as a "Portuguese dialect" spoken in northwestern Spain. On the other hand, the director of the Instituto Camões declared in 2019 that Galician and Portuguese were close kin, but different languages. According to
1016-577: A large Suebi community, to the level of Metropolitan Bishop along with Braga. Theodemar's son and successor, King Miro , called for the Second Council of Braga , which was attended by all the bishops of the kingdom, from the Briton bishopric of Britonia in the Bay of Biscay , to Astorga in the east, and Coimbra and Idanha in the south. Five of the attendant bishops used Germanic names, showing
1143-546: A military Norman mark, as well as due to the wealth that the pilgrimages and royal grants brought to their lands. Each bishopric was divided into a number of territories or counties, named terras, condados, mandationes, commissos , or territorios in local charters, which in the north were true continuations of the Suebic dioceses which frequently preserved old tribal divisions and denominations, such as Lemabos, Celticos, Postamarcos, Bregantinos, and Cavarcos . Rights to
1270-586: A minor language with less capacity to counterbalance the influence of Spanish, the only official language between the 18th century and 1975. On the other hand, viewing Galician as a part of the Lusosphere, while not denying its own characteristics (cf. Swiss German ), shifts cultural influence from the Spanish domain to the Portuguese. Some scholars have described the situation as properly a continuum, from
1397-650: A nasal consonant in the west; reduction of the sibilant system, with the confluence (except in the Baixa Limia region) of voiced and voiceless fricatives, followed by a process of de-affrication which led to different results in the west and in the east. The most important author during this period of the language was the scholar Martín Sarmiento , unconditional defender and the first researcher of Galician language (history, evolution, lexicon, etymology, onomastics). His Elementos etimológicos segun el método de Euclides (1766), written in Spanish but dealing with Galician,
SECTION 10
#17327941342211524-404: A number of sonnets and other lyric poetry, as well as other literate productions, including the forgery of allegedly mediaeval scriptures or chronicles under diverse pretensions—usually to show the ancient nobility of the forger's family—being these writings elaborated in an archaic looking Galician which nevertheless could not conceal the state of the language during this period. Middle Galician
1651-405: A range of continental innovations and trends, from shipbuilding , to new architectural styles such as Romanesque art . The elites were composed of counts, dukes , senatores , and other high noblemen, who were frequently related by marriage with the monarch, and who usually claimed the most powerful positions in society, either as governors, bishops, or as palatine officials or companions of
1778-472: A series of collections, and belonging to four main genres: cantigas de amor , love songs, where a man sings for his ladylove; cantigas de amigo , where a woman sings for her boyfriend; cantigas de escarnio , crude, taunting, and sexual songs of scorn; cantigas de maldecir , where the poet vents his spleen openly; and also the Cantigas de Santa María , which are religious songs. The oldest known document
1905-519: A sharp reduction in monetary circulation, largely as a result of the Muslim occupations in the early 8th century in the south Mediterranean. The Gallaecia were also affected, and Fructuosus of Braga denounced the general cultural decline and loss of the momentum from previous periods, causing some discontent in the Galician high clergy. At the tenth Council of Toledo in 656, Fructuosus was appointed to
2032-583: A single surname, although noblemen frequently also used a patronymic . Muslim names and patronymics were rare amongst Galicians, as even serfs were frequently given a Germanic or Roman name, which is in contrast with the relative popularity of Muslim names amongst the Leonese. "When Fruela , king of Galicia, died (...) the Christians made king his brother Alfonso , who then found the throne disputed by his elder brother Sancho , who entered León, capital of
2159-474: A temporary peace. The Suebi maintained their independence until 585, when Leovigild, on the pretext of conflict over the succession, invaded the Suebic kingdom and finally defeated it. Audeca , the last king of the Suebi, who had deposed his brother-in-law Eboric , held out for a year before being captured in 585. This same year a nobleman named Malaric rebelled against the Goths, but he was defeated. As with
2286-429: A written pact with him. Fructuosus was later consecrated as abbot-bishop of Dumio , the most important monastery of Gallaecia—founded by Martin of Braga in the 6th century—under Suebi rule. In 656 he was appointed bishop of Braga and metropolitan of Galicia, ostensibly against his own will. During his later years the Visigothic monarchy suffered a pronounced decline, due in large part to a decrease in trade and therefore
2413-462: A year later initiated a period of chaos, with several claimants to the crown. Fruela's son, Alfonso Fróilaz , received support from Asturias, but was captured and blinded by Sancho , Alfonso IV , and Ramiro II , sons of Ordoño, with the aid of the Basque troops of Jimeno Garcés of Pamplona . Vague and conflicting historical records make it uncertain whether Alfonso Fróilaz reigned briefly as king of
2540-478: Is a Western Ibero-Romance language. Around 2.4 million people have at least some degree of competence in the language, mainly in Galicia , an autonomous community located in northwestern Spain, where it has official status along with Spanish . The language is also spoken in some border zones of the neighbouring Spanish regions of Asturias and Castile and León , as well as by Galician migrant communities in
2667-403: Is characterized by a series of phonetic processes which led to a further separation from Portuguese, and to the apparition of some of the more noteworthy dialectal features, among other phenomenons: emergence of the gheada or pronunciation of /ɡ/ as a pharyngeal fricative; denasalization of nasal vowels in most of Galicia, becoming oral vowels in the east, or a group formed by an oral vowel plus
SECTION 20
#17327941342212794-439: Is considered the dark age of Galician language. The Galician spoken and written then is usually referred to as Middle Galician . Middle Galician is known mostly through popular literature (songs, carols, proverbs, theatrical scripts, personal letters), but also through the frequent apparition of Galician interferences and personal and place names in local works and documents otherwise written in Spanish. Other important sources are
2921-767: Is different from it ]. Private cultural associations, not endorsed by Galician or Portuguese governments, such as the Galician Language Association ( Associaçom Galega da Língua ) and Galician Academy of the Portuguese Language ( Academia Galega da Língua Portuguesa ), advocates of the minority Reintegrationist movement, support the idea that differences between Galician and Portuguese speech are not enough to justify considering them as separate languages: Galician would be simply one variety of Galician-Portuguese, along with European Portuguese ; Brazilian Portuguese ; African Portuguese ;
3048-409: Is not until the 12th century that there is evidence for the identification of the local language as a language different from Latin itself. During this same 12th century there are full Galician sentences being inadvertently used inside Latin texts, while its first reckoned use as a literary language dates to the last years of this same century. The linguistic stage from the 13th to the 15th centuries
3175-597: Is part of a family which includes our brothers from Portugal, Brazil, Angola, Cape Verde, Mozambique... a territory full of possibilities also for Galician. We always said that Galician is not a regional language, but is in fact part of that international project". Galician is spoken by some three million people, including most of the population of Galicia and the numerous Galician communities established elsewhere, in Spain ( Madrid , Barcelona, Biscay ), in other European cities ( Andorra la Vella , Geneva, London, Paris), and in
3302-442: Is simply called Galician ( gallego ). Dialectal divergences are observable between the northern and southern forms of Galician-Portuguese in 13th-century texts but the two dialects were similar enough to maintain a high level of cultural unity until the middle of the 14th century, producing the medieval Galician-Portuguese lyric . The divergence has continued to this day, most frequently due to innovations in Portuguese, producing
3429-654: Is the poem Ora faz ost'o Senhor de Navarra by Joam Soares de Paiva, written around 1200. The first non-literary documents in Galician-Portuguese date from the early 13th century, the Noticia de Torto (1211) and the Testamento of Afonso II of Portugal (1214), both samples of medieval notarial prose. Its most notable patrons—themselves reputed authors—were King Dom Dinis in Portugal, and King Alfonso X
3556-530: Is their primary language, with lower numbers for the younger population. Those under 45 were more likely than those over 45 to answer that they never use Galician. Use of Galician also varies greatly depending on the regions and municipalities of Galicia. While in two areas of the Province of A Coruña ( Costa da Morte and the Southeast) more than 90% of the population always or mostly speaks in Galician, only
3683-578: Is usually known as Galician-Portuguese (or Old Portuguese , or Old Galician ) as an acknowledgement of the cultural and linguistic unity of Galicia and Portugal during the Middle Ages, as the two linguistic varieties differed only in dialectal minor phenomena. This language flourished during the 13th and 14th centuries as a language of culture, developing a rich lyric tradition of which some 2000 compositions ( cantigas , meaning 'songs') have been preserved—a few hundred even with their musical score—in
3810-618: The Astur-Leonese group on the one hand, and those defending it as clearly Galician varieties on the other (actually both views are compatible). The recent edition of the cartularies of Oscos in Old Common Council of Castropol and cartularies of Obona , Cornellana , Corias and Belmonte in middle west of Asturias have shown a huge difference in the medieval speech between both banks of the Navia river. An examination of
3937-742: The Chronicle of St. Mary of Iria , by Rui Vasques), religious books, legal studies, and a treaty on horse breeding. Most prose literary creation in Galician had stopped by the 16th century, when printing press became popular; the first complete translation of the Bible was not printed until the 20th century. As for other written uses of Galician, legal charters (last wills, hirings, sales, constitutional charters, city council book of acts, guild constitutions, books of possessions, and any type of public or private contracts and inventories) written in Galicia are to be found from 1230 to 1530—the earliest one probably
Varela - Misplaced Pages Continue
4064-564: The Eastern Roman Empire . Under King Ariamir , who called for the First Council of Braga , the conversion of the Suebi to Nicene Christianity was apparent; while this same council condemned Priscillianism , it made no similar statement on Arianism. Later, King Theodemar ordered an administrative and ecclesiastical division of his kingdom, with the creation of new bishoprics and the promotion of Lugo, which possessed
4191-545: The European Parliament , being used by some Galician representatives, among others: José Posada , Camilo Nogueira and Xosé Manuel Beiras . Controversy exists regarding the inclusion of Eonavian (spoken in the western end of Asturias , bordering Galicia ) into the Galician language, as it has some traits in common with Western Asturian (spoken in the middle west of Asturias). There are those defending these linguistic varieties as dialects of transition to
4318-542: The Fala language spoken in the northwestern corner of Extremadura (Spain), and other dialects. They have adopted slightly-modified or actual Portuguese orthography, which has its roots in medieval Galician-Portuguese poetry as later adapted by the Portuguese Chancellery. According to Reintegrationists, considering Galician as an independent language reduces contact with Portuguese culture, leaving Galician as
4445-701: The Galician Association of Language consider Galician and Portuguese two forms of the Galician-Portuguese language , and other minoritary organizations such as Galician Academy of the Portuguese Language believe that Galician should be considered part of the Portuguese language for a wider international usage and level of "normalization". Modern Galician and Portuguese originated from a common medieval ancestor designated variously by modern linguists as Galician-Portuguese (or as Medieval Galician, Medieval Portuguese, Old Galician or Old Portuguese). This common ancestral stage developed from Vulgar Latin in
4572-424: The chartulary of Celanova , year 929. "There king Don Sancho said (...) 'Don Alfonso , our father because of our sins left the land poorly divided, and he gave to Don Garcia most of the realm, and thou were left the most disinherited and with less lands; and that's why I propose to take from king Don Garcia the land our father gave to him.'" Primera Crónica General de España , 817. When Alfonso III of León
4699-468: The multinational inhabitants of Compostela, by this stage a fortified and strong city. Meanwhile, the City Council of Santiago for centuries had struggled against their bishops for the recognition of a number of liberties. In the country, most people were freemen , peasants, artisans, or infantrymen , who could freely choose a patron, or buy and sell properties, although they frequently fell prey to
4826-455: The same language . Some authors, such as Lindley Cintra , consider that they are still co-dialects of a common language in spite of differences in phonology and vocabulary, while others argue that they have become separate languages due to differences in phonetics and vocabulary usage, and, to a lesser extent, morphology and syntax. Fernández Rei in 1990 stated that the Galician language is, with respect to Portuguese, an ausbau language ,
4953-580: The 13th and 14th centuries became notable authors, such as Paio Gomes Charinho, lord of Rianxo , and the aforementioned kings. Aside from the lyric genres, Galicia developed also a minor tradition on literary prose, most notably in translation of European popular series, as those dealing with King Arthur written by Chrétien de Troyes , or those based on the war of Troy , usually paid and commissioned by noblemen who desired to read those romances in their own language. Other genres include history books (either translation of Spanish ones, or original creations like
5080-562: The 14th century, as well as by many European Christian contemporaries. During the Iron Age , and later during Roman and Germanic rule, Southern Gallaecia—today north Portugal and south Galicia—was the more dynamic, urbanized, and richest area of Gallaecia. This role was assumed by the rural north during the Early and High Middle Ages, as a consequence not only of the Islamic invasion, but as
5207-620: The 14th century. In Spanish "lenguaje gallego" is already documented in this same century, circa 1330; in Occitan circa 1290, in the Regles de Trobar by Catalan author Jofre de Foixà : " si tu vols far un cantar en frances, no·s tayn que·y mescles proençal ne cicilia ne gallego ne altre lengatge que sia strayn a aquell " [ If you want to compose a song in French, you should not admix Provençal nor Sicilian nor Galician nor other language which
Varela - Misplaced Pages Continue
5334-611: The 15,2% of the population does the same in the city of Vigo . Some authors are of the opinion that Galician possesses no real dialects. Despite this, Galician local varieties are collected in three main dialectal blocks, each block comprising a series of areas, being local linguistic varieties that are all mutually intelligible . Some of the main features which distinguish the three blocks are: Kingdom of Galicia The Kingdom of Galicia ( Galician : Reino de Galicia , or Galiza ; Spanish : Reino de Galicia ; Portuguese : Reino da Galiza ; Latin : Galliciense Regnum )
5461-441: The 9th, 10th, and 11th centuries most of these bishoprics were re-established in their historical sees, but at this time the bishops of Lugo, Mondoñedo, and Iria became major political players—not just as religious figures, but also as wealthy, and sometimes mighty, secular powers. In particular, the bishops of Iria and Compostela were notorious warlords , due to the many fortresses and military resources they controlled as heads of
5588-534: The Americas (New York, New Jersey , Buenos Aires, Córdoba/Argentina, Montevideo , Mexico City , Havana , Caracas, San Juan in Puerto Rico , São Paulo, Managua , Mayagüez , Ponce , Panama City). Galician is today official, together with the Spanish language, in the autonomous community of Galicia, where it is recognized as the autochthonous language ( lingua propia ), being by law the first language of
5715-595: The Cordoban Caliphate, reconquering Coimbra or Viseu , and even raiding Santiago de Compostela. In the 1030s, Galicia became the sole holdout to the Leonese conquests of Sancho III of Pamplona . When the Count of Castile —nominally a Leonese vassal , but de facto independent—was assassinated in León in 1029, Sancho claimed the right to name the successor, giving it to his own son Ferdinand . Taking advantage of
5842-587: The Galician culture and language) was admitted as a consultative observer of the Community of Portuguese Speaking Countries (CPLP). A "friendship and cooperation" protocol was signed between the Royal Galician Academy (RAG) and the Brazilian Academy of Letters on 10 January 2019. Víctor F. Freixanes, president of the RAG, stated during the ceremony that "there is a conscience that the Galician language
5969-554: The Galician government, universities and main cultural institutions, such as the Galician Language Institute or the Royal Galician Academy , Galician and Portuguese are independent languages that stemmed from medieval Galician-Portuguese, and modern Galician must be considered an independent Romance language belonging to the group of Ibero-Romance languages having strong ties with Portuguese and its northern dialects. The standard orthography has its roots in
6096-429: The Galician nobility through kinship, marriage and patronage, and he and his son, Ordoño III , whose mother was Galician, reigned with their support. This was not the case when Ordoño was succeeded by his half-brother Sancho I of León in 956. Sancho proved unpopular and ineffectual and the Galician nobles grew fractious, forming a coalition with Fernán González of Castile to overthrow Sancho in favor of Ordoño IV , who
6223-488: The Galician variants of Portuguese in one extreme to the Spanish language in the other (which would represent the complete linguistic shift from Galician to Spanish); reintegrationist points of view are closer to the Portuguese extreme, and so-called isolationist ones would be closer to the Spanish one; however, the major Galician nationalist parties, Anova–Nationalist Brotherhood and Galician Nationalist Bloc , do not use reintegrationist orthographical conventions. In 2014,
6350-582: The Kingdom of Galicia was united with the Kingdom of León, and later with the Kingdom of Castile, under kings of the House of Burgundy . The Galician and Portuguese standards of the language diverged over time, following independent evolutionary paths. Portuguese was the official language of the Portuguese chancellery, while Galician was the usual language not only of troubadours and peasants, but also of local noblemen and clergy, and of their officials, so forging and maintaining two slightly different standards. During
6477-479: The Kingdom of the Galicians, as an opponent (...) Until they decided to depose Sancho and to throw him from Leon, joining under the king Alfonso. Sancho then fled to the extreme of Galicia, where he was received and enthroned by the locals." Ibn Hayyan, Muqtabis , V, c. 1050. "I Answar, to you, our lord and most serene king Don Sancho , prince of all Galicia, and to our lady, your wife, queen Goto." Document from
SECTION 50
#17327941342216604-545: The Kingdom of the Suevi from Tui , which is recorded as his capital. The possibility has also been raised that the 13th-century chronicler, Lucas of Tuy , when he records that Wittiza relieved the oppression of the Jews (a fact unknown from his reign at Toledo after his father), may in fact refer to his reign at Lucas' hometown of Tui, where an oral tradition may have been preserved of the events of his Galician reign. In 702, with
6731-464: The Learned in Galicia, Castile and León, who was a great promoter of both Galician and Castilian Spanish languages. Not only the kings but also the noble houses of Galicia and Portugal encouraged literary creation in Galician-Portuguese, as being an author or bringing reputed troubadours into one's home became a way of promoting social prestige. As a result, many noblemen, businessmen and clergymen of
6858-471: The Leonese and Asturian realms through dynastic connections. Later, Ordoño II would integrate Galicia into the Kingdom of León when he inherited the latter. Though the Kingdom of Galicia had moments of semi-independence, it was typically seen as part of the Kingdom of León. Compostela became the capital of Galicia in the 11th century, while the independence of Portugal (1128) determined its southern boundary. The accession of Castilian King Ferdinand III to
6985-604: The Leonese kingdom in 1230 brought Galicia under the control of the Crown of Castile . Galicia resisted central control and supported a series of alternative claimants, including John of León, Galicia and Seville (1296), Ferdinand I of Portugal (1369) and John of Gaunt (1386) and was not brought firmly into submission until the Catholic Monarchs imposed the Santa Hermandad in Galicia. The Kingdom of Galicia
7112-510: The Lusitanian dioceses annexed by the Suevi to Galicia (Coimbra, Idanha, Lamego, Viseu, and parts of Salamanca ) were restored to Lusitania. This same reform reduced the number of mints in Galicia from a few dozen to just three, those in the cities of Lugo, Braga, and Tui. The most notable person of 7th century Galicia was Saint Fructuosus of Braga . Fructuosus was the son of a provincial Visigoth dux (military provincial governor), and
7239-733: The Metropolitan seat of Potamio after the renunciation of its previous occupier. At the same time the Will of the Bishop of Dume Recimiro was declared void after he donated the wealth of the diocese convent to the poor. The crisis at the end of the Visigoth era dates to the reign of Egica . The monarch appointed his son Wittiza as his heir, and despite the fact that the Visigothic monarchy had been traditionally elective rather than hereditary Egica associated Wittiza during his lifetime to
7366-472: The Suebi in cities such as Lugo, Porto, Tui, and Viseu, alongside the cities' Catholic bishops. These Arian bishops returned to Catholicism in 589, when King Reccared himself converted to Catholicism, along with the Goths and Suebi, at the Third Council of Toledo . The territorial and administrative organization inherited from the Suevi was incorporated into the new Provincial status, although Lugo
7493-525: The Suebi and all of Galicia under the power of the Goths." Chronicle of Fredegar , III. p 116. "Not only the conversion of the Goths is found among the favors that we have received, but also the infinite multitude of the Sueves, whom with divine assistance we have subjected to our realm. Although led into heresy by others fault, with our diligence we have brought them to the origins of truth. Therefore, most holy fathers, these most noble nations gained by us, as
7620-681: The Suebi) but later as Regnum Galliciense (Kingdom of Galicia). A century later, the differences between Gallaeci and Suebi people had faded, which led to the systematic use of terms like Galliciense Regnum (Galician Kingdom), Regem Galliciae (King of Galicia), Rege Suevorum (King of Suebi), and Galleciae totius provinciae rex (king of all Galician provinces), while bishops, such as Martin of Braga , were recognized as episcopi Gallaecia (Bishop of Galicia). The independent Suebic kingdom of Galicia lasted from 409 to 585, having remained relatively stable for most of that time. In 409 Gallaecia
7747-808: The Vandal king Gunderic and the Suebi's Hermeric . After a blockade alongside the Nervasian Mountains, the Suebi obtained Roman help, forcing the Vandals to flee into the Baetica . In the absence of competitors, the Suebi began a period of expansion, first inside Gallaecia, and later into other Roman provinces. In 438 Hermeric ratified a peace treaty with the Gallaeci , the native and partially Romanized people. Illness led Hermeric to abdicate in favor of his son, Rechila , who moved his troops to
SECTION 60
#17327941342217874-409: The Visigothic language, there are only traces of the Suebi tongue remaining, as they quickly adopted the local vulgar Latin . Some words of plausible Suebi origin are the modern Galician and Portuguese words laverca ( lark ), meixengra or mejengra ( titmouse ), lobio (vine), escá (a measure, formerly "cup"), groba (ravine), and others. Much more significant was their contribution to names of
8001-400: The army of Ramiro in the battle of Portela de Areas and eventually made himself undisputed ruler of the Leonese kingdom. Once in control, Bermudo lost many of his Galician and Portuguese supporters by repudiating his Galician wife in favor of a new marriage alliance with Castile. His later reign was marked by the ascension of a strong military leader, Almanzor , who led a brief resurgence of
8128-438: The city of Lugo in Galicia, and there he reunited the army of the whole province. After a while he burst into Asturias. He was met by Nepotianus, who has reunited a group of Asturians and Basques, at the bridge over the river Narcea . Nepotianus was immediately left stranded by his own people, being captured when fleeing by two counts, Sonna and Scipio." Chronicle of Alfonso III , ad Sebastianum , 21. For several centuries after
8255-553: The death of Egica, Wittiza as sole king moved his capital to Toledo . In 710, part of the Visigothic aristocracy violently raised Roderic to the throne, triggering a civil war with the supporters of Wittiza and his sons. In 711, the enemies of Roderic got a Muslim army to cross the Straits of Gibraltar and face him at the Battle of Guadalete . The defeat was the end of Roderic and of the Visigothic rule, with profound consequences for
8382-500: The defeat of the Goths, Galicia was united with other neighboring regions under the same monarchs, with only brief periods of separation under different kings. Along with the rest of the northwest of the Iberian Peninsula, it was free of Arab presence from the mid-8th century, being gradually incorporated into a growing Christian state. This is usually called the Kingdom of Asturias in traditional and modern sources, although
8509-489: The descendants of the 9th century's conquerors. In the Terra de Santiago (Land of Saint James, the fief of the bishops of Iria-Compostela) each territory was administered by a bishop's vicar, while justice was administered by a council composed of representatives of the local churchmen, knights, and peasants. Each territory or county could be further divided into mandationes and decanias . The basic territorial division
8636-565: The east, marauding through the Provincia Tarraconensis , which was still held by Rome. The Roman emperor Avitus sent a large army of foederates , under the direction of the Visigoth Theoderic II , who defeated the Suebi army by the river Órbigo , near modern-day Astorga . Rechiar fled, but he was pursued and captured, then executed in 457. In the aftermath of Rechiar's death, multiple candidates for
8763-503: The entire kingdom, but to briefly become overlord of Ferdinand's Castile. However, in 1037, the Castilian count killed Bermudo in battle, and Galicia passed with the Kingdom of León into the hands of Ferdinand, who then had himself crowned king. Ferdinand's death in 1065 led to another short-lived Galician state. In 1063 he had opted to partition his realm, giving the eastern Kingdom of Castile to his eldest son, Sancho II , along with
8890-472: The entire kingdom, or simply held a remote part of Asturias. In Galicia, Sancho succeeded, being crowned in Santiago de Compostela and marrying a Galician noblewoman. After reigning for just three years he died childless. Alfonso IV then took control of an again-reunited Kingdom of León in 929; however, he was forced into a monastery by their youngest brother, Ramiro, two years later. Ramiro II had ties with
9017-589: The final result of a continent-wide urban crisis. The old bishoprics of Braga, Ourense, Tui, Lamego, and others, were either discontinued, or re-established in the north, under the protection of Lugo—which was now a stronghold due to its Roman walls—and Iria Flavia . Dumio was re-established by the Bay of Biscay in Mondoñedo , Lugo assumed the role of Braga, and the bishops of Lamego and Tui sought refuge in Iria, where they received generous territorial grants. During
9144-534: The greed of the big owners, leading many of them to a life of servitude . Finally, servos , libertos , and pueros (servants, freedmen, and children), either obtained in war with the Moors or through trial, constituted a visible part of the society; they were employed as household workers ( domésticos and scancianes ), shepherds , and farmhands . Local charters also show that, in time, they were freed. In terms of religion, most were Roman Catholics, although
9271-539: The head—was in use in Galicia up to 681, when it was forbidden at a council in Toledo. There were no known Muslim communities in Galicia and northern Portugal, other than Moor serfs. Records of Hebrew people are also uncommon in local charters until the 12th century, except as travelers and merchants. Personal names in Galicia and northern Portugal were chiefly of Germanic origin, although Christian, Roman, and Greek names were also common. Names were usually composed just of
9398-575: The history of this area, or in fact Western Europe in general, the Suebi Kingdom reappears in European politics and history during the second half of the 6th century. This is following the arrival of Saint Martin of Braga , a Pannonian monk dedicated to converting the Suebi to Nicene Christianity and consequently into allegiance with the other Nicene Christian regional powers, the Franks and
9525-539: The integration of the different communities of the country. King Miro also promoted contention with the Arian Visigoths, who under the leadership of King Leovigild were rebuilding their fragmented kingdom which had been ruled mostly by Ostrogoths since the beginning of the 6th century, following the defeat and expulsion of Aquitania by the Franks. After clashing in frontier lands, Miro and Leovigild agreed upon
9652-449: The king or queen. The Galician nobility, however, were also frequently found as rebels, either as supporters of a different candidate to the throne, or aspiring to it themselves, or simply as disobedient to the king's orders and will. At the service of the noblemen were miles ( knights ) and infanzones ; they were often found marching to war with their subalterns on behalf of a patron, or as vicars and administrators. A sizable section of
9779-543: The kingdom lies in the 5th century, when the Suebi settled permanently in the former Roman province of Gallaecia . Their king, Hermeric , probably signed a foedus , or pact, with the Roman Emperor Honorius , which conceded them lands in Galicia. The Suebi set their capital in the former Bracara Augusta and set the foundations of a kingdom, which was first acknowledged as Regnum Suevorum (Kingdom of
9906-533: The kingdom through either military force or by matrimonial alliance with the royal family. To the east, this southern expansion led the capital of the Christian kingdom to be moved to the city of León , from which time the state is usually called the Kingdom of León . This same kingdom was frequently known as either Gallaecia or Galicia ( Yillīqiya and Galīsiya ) in Al-Andalus Muslim sources up to
10033-477: The language spoken in the Northwest before the establishment of the Kingdom of Portugal in the 12th century. The surge of the two languages would be the result of both the elaboration of Portuguese, through the royal court, its internationalization and its study and culture; and of the stagnation of Galician. The earliest internal attestation of the expression Galician language ("lingoajen galego") dates from
10160-494: The largest cities of Galicia is Spanish rather than Galician, as a result of this long process of language shift . However, Galician is still the main language in rural areas. The Royal Galician Academy and other Galician institutions celebrate each 17 May as Galician Literature Day ( Día das Letras Galegas ), dedicated each year to a deceased Galician-language writer chosen by the academy. Use of Galician splits by age, with over half of those over 45 indicating that Galician
10287-562: The late 15th century on, to the end of legal documents in Galician; the last ones were issued around 1530. Also, from 1480 on, notaries of the Crown of Castile were required to obtain their licenses in Toledo , where they had to prove their mastery of Spanish. In spite of Galician being the most spoken language, during the 17th century, the elites of the Kingdom began speaking Spanish, most notably in towns and cities. The linguistic situation in Galicia became one of diglossia , with Galician as
10414-414: The local toponymy and onomastics . The historiography of the Suebi, and of Galicia in general, was long marginalized in Spanish culture, with the first connected history of the Suebi in Galicia being written by a German scholar. "After the death of Miro king of Galicia, and while his son Eboric and his son-in-law Audeca were fighting each other for the control of the kingdom, Leovigild subjugated
10541-801: The local administrations and governments. It is supposed by law to be taught bilingually, alongside Spanish, in both primary and secondary education, although the accomplishment of this law is allegedly doubted. It is also used at the three universities established in Galicia, having also the consideration of official language of the three institutions. Galician has also legal recognition in the Bierzo region in León , and in four municipalities in Zamora . The other languages with official status elsewhere in Spain are Spanish, Catalan (or Valencian ), Basque and Aranese . Galician has also been accepted orally as Portuguese in
10668-482: The local rites—known today as Mozarabic rites —were notably different from those used in most of Western Europe. No Arian, Priscillianist , or Pagan organizations are known to have survived during the High Middle Ages. However, there were still pagans and pagan shrines in the Bierzo region during the 7th century, whilst Arian or Priscillianist tonsure —seen as long hair, with only a partial tonsure atop
10795-469: The low variety and Spanish as the high one. In reaction to the relegation of the autochthonous language, a series of literary and historical works (always written in Spanish) appeared in the 17th century through 19th century, meant to vindicate the history, language, people, and culture of Galicia. The period from the 16th century to the early 19th century, when Galician had little literary—and no legal—use,
10922-473: The modern languages of Galician and Portuguese. The lexicon of Galician is predominantly of Latin extraction, although it also contains a moderate number of words of Germanic and Celtic origin, among other substrates and adstrates , having also received, mainly via Spanish, a number of nouns from Andalusian Arabic . The language is officially regulated in Galicia by the Royal Galician Academy . Other organizations without institutional support, such as
11049-523: The old documents of the Eonavian monastery of Oscos, written from the late 12th to early 14th century to 16th century, shows a clear identification of this language with the Galician-Portuguese linguistic group; while contemporary parchments elsewhere in Asturias are written in Spanish. The two most important traits of those commonly used to tell apart Galician-Portuguese and Asturian-Leonese varieties are
11176-659: The parliament of Galicia unanimously approved Law 1/2014 regarding the promotion of the Portuguese language and links with the Lusophony . Similarly, on 20 October 2016, the city of Santiago de Compostela , the capital of Galicia , approved by unanimity a proposal to become an observer member of the Union of Portuguese-Speaking Capitals ( UCCLA ). Also, on 1 November 2016, the Council of Galician Culture ( Consello da Cultura Galega , an official institution of defence and promotion of
11303-469: The persistence of Galicia as a differentiated province within the realm, as indicated by the acts of several Councils of Toledo , chronicles such as that of John of Biclar , and in military laws such as the one extolled by Wamba which was incorporated into the Liber Iudicum , the Visigothic legal code. It was not until the administrative reformation produced during the reign of Recceswinth that
11430-507: The precise historical details of these events have been obscured by the national myths leading to the construction of modern Spanish identity. The 9th century saw this state expand southward, with Castilian and Asturian noblemen acquiring most of the northern Meseta , while in Galicia, a similar impulse led to the conquest and re-population of the regions of Astorga, southern Galicia, and northern Portugal down to Coimbra , by noblemen mostly proceeding from northern Galicia. Also significant
11557-495: The preservation of the mid-open vowels /ɛ/ and /ɔ/ , which became diphthongs in Asturian-Leonese, and the loss of intervocalic /n/ , preserved in the latter language. Porque no mundo mengou a verdade, punhei um dia de a ir buscar; e, u por ela fui nom preguntar, disserom todos: «Alhur la buscade, ca de tal guisa se foi a perder, que nom podemos en novas haver nem já nom anda na irmaindade.» Because in
11684-440: The reign of Alfonso X , Spanish became the official language of the chancellery of the Kingdom of Castile. However, in Galicia and neighboring regions of Asturias and León in 1200–1500, the local languages remained the usual written languages in any type of document, either legal or narrative, public or private. Spanish was progressively introduced through Royal decrees and the edicts of foreign churchmen and officials. This led, from
11811-687: The rest of Spain, in Latin America including Puerto Rico , the United States, Switzerland and elsewhere in Europe. Modern Galician is classified as part of the West Iberian languages group, a family of Romance languages . Galician evolved locally from Vulgar Latin and developed from what modern scholars have called Galician-Portuguese . The earliest document written integrally in the local Galician variety dates back to 1230, although
11938-518: The right to parias from the Taifas of Badajoz and Seville . As king, Garcia aimed to restore the old episcopal sees of Tui, Lamego, and Braga, which had been dissolved due to Arab and Viking assaults. The death of two of his most notable supporters, bishops Cresconius of Compostela and Uistrarius of Lugo, left the young king in a weaker position, and in 1071 the Count of Portugal , Nuno Mendes , rose in rebellion. García defeated and killed him in
12065-465: The right to the paria (tribute) from the Taifa of Zaragoza . His second son Alfonso VI was given the Kingdom of León , representing the central portion of the old realm, with the paria from Toledo . His youngest son, García II , who had been educated in Galicia under the tutelage of bishop Cresconius of Compostela, received the western half of Bermudo's old kingdom as King of Galicia, along with
12192-509: The same year at the Battle of Pedroso , and in recognition of his solidified control adopted the title King of Galicia and Portugal. However, his brothers, Alfonso and Sancho, immediately turned on the victor, forcing García to flee, first to central Portugal and later—after defeating him near Santarém —into exile in Seville in 1072. García's realm was divided, with Alfonso joining the county of Portugal to his Kingdom of León, while Sancho held
12319-610: The sixth province of the Visigothic Kingdom of Toledo . The government of the Visigoths in Galicia did not totally disrupt the society, and the Suevi Catholic dioceses of Bracara , Dumio , Portus Cale or Magneto , Tude , Iria , Britonia , Lucus , Auria , Asturica , Conimbria , Lameco , Viseu , and Egitania continued to operate normally. During the reign of Liuvigild, new Arian bishops were raised among
12446-402: The society were churchmen — presbyters , deacons, clergymen, lectors , confessos , monks, and nuns—who frequently lived in religious communities , some of which were composed of both men and women living under vows of chastity and poverty . Most of these monasteries were directed by an abbot or abbess , ruled under a pactual tradition heavily influenced by Germanic legal traditions, with
12573-502: The south and the east, conquering Mérida and Seville , the capitals of the Roman provinces of Lusitania and Betica . In 448 Rechila died, leaving the expanding state to his son Rechiar , who in 449 became the first Germanic kings of post-Roman Europe to convert to Nicene Christianity . Rechiar married a Visigothic princess, and was also the first Germanic king to mint coins in ancient Roman territories. Rechiar led further expansions to
12700-455: The south expanded into Lisbon and Conimbriga , which were assaulted, and abandoned after their Roman inhabitants were banished. By 465 Remismund , who established a policy of friendship with the Goths and promoted the conversion of his own people into Arianism , was recognized by his people as the only king of the Suebi. After a period of obscurity, with very little remaining information on
12827-411: The subjacent Romance permeates most written Latin local charters since the High Middle Ages, being specially noteworthy in personal and place names recorded in those documents, as well as in terms originated in languages other than Latin. The earliest reference to Galician-Portuguese as an international language of culture dates to 1290, in the Regles de Trobar by Catalan author Jofre de Foixà , where it
12954-508: The tax collection and government of each territory was granted by the titular ruler —usually the king—to a count , bishopric, or large monastery, although there existed some singularities. The bishopric of Lugo was divided into counties, each one under the government of an infanzon (a lesser nobleman) as a concession of the bishop, while in the south, large and mighty territories such as the Portucalense became hereditary, passed down to
13081-431: The territories of the old Kingdom of Galicia , Galicia and Northern Portugal , as a Western Romance language . In the 13th century it became a written and cultivated language with two main varieties, but during the 14th century the standards of these varieties, Galician and Portuguese, began to diverge, as Portuguese became the official language of the independent Kingdom of Portugal and its chancellery, while Galician
13208-417: The throne (for example, Egica and Wittiza are known to have issued coinage with the confronted effigies of both monarchs). In 701 an outbreak of plague spread westward from Greece to Spain, reaching Toledo , the Visigothic capital, in the same year, and having such impact that the royal family, including Egica and Wittiza, fled. It has been suggested that this provided the occasion for sending Wittiza to rule
13335-578: The throne appeared, finally grouping into two allegiances. The division between the two groups was marked by the Minius River (now Minho River), probably as a consequence of the localities of the Quadi and Marcomanni tribes, who constituted the Suebi nation on the Iberian Peninsula . The Suebi in the north conquered Lugo, proceeding to use that city as their co-capital, while the Suebi in
13462-510: The towns of Braga ( Bracara Augusta ) and Porto , and later in Lugo ( Lucus Augusta ) and Astorga ( Asturica Augusta ). The valley of the Limia (or Lima) River is thought to have received the largest concentration of Germanic settlers, and Bracara Augusta—the modern city of Braga—became the capital of the Suebi, as it had previously been the capital of Gallaecia. In 419 a war broke out between
13589-490: The whole of the Iberian peninsula. "Alfonso king of Galicia and of Asturias, after having ravaged Lisbon, the last city of Spain, sent during the winter the insignias of his victory, breastplates, mules, and Moor prisoners, through his legates Froia and Basiliscus." Annales regni Francorum , c 798. "And so, as I've been told, when Adefonsus departed of this world, as Nepotianus usurped the kingdom of Ramiro , Ramiro went to
13716-439: The world the truth has faded, I decided to go a-searching for it and wherever I went asking for it everybody said: 'Search elsewhere because truth is lost in such a way such as we can have no news of it nor is it around here anymore.' Airas Nunes (B 871, V 455. 13th century) Latinate Galician charters from the 8th century onward show that the local written Latin was heavily influenced by local spoken Romance, yet
13843-554: The writing of relatively modern Rexurdimento authors, who largely adapted Spanish orthography to the then mostly unwritten language. Most Galician speakers regard Galician as a separate language, which evolved without interruption and in situ from Latin, with Galician and Portuguese maintaining separate literary traditions since the 14th century. Portuguese Early Modern Era grammars and scholars, at least since Duarte Nunes de Leão in 1606, considered Portuguese and Galician two different languages derived from old Galician, understood as
13970-432: The youth of Leonese king Bermudo III , Sancho seized disputed border regions, formalizing the arrangement by including the lands in the dowry of Bermudo's sister, who was married to Ferdinand in 1032. Two years later, in 1034, Sancho took Bermudo's capital, becoming de facto ruler of most of the kingdom, whilst leaving Bermudo to rule from his refuge in Galicia. Sancho's death the next year allowed Bermudo to regain not only
14097-437: Was subsistence , based mainly on the production of grain and beans, and notably in cattle breeding. Other valuable—though geographically restricted—products included fruits, salt, wine, honey, olive oil , horses, iron for the production of weapons and tools, and exotic oriental fabrics introduced from Spania . There were also specialized artisans who worked on demand, such as masons and goldsmiths . While local commerce
14224-444: Was a political entity located in southwestern Europe , which at its territorial zenith occupied the entire northwest of the Iberian Peninsula . In the early 10th century, the Kingdom of Galicia was formed following the division of the Kingdom of Asturias after the death of Alfonso III in 910. His sons split the kingdom, with Ordoño II inheriting Galicia. While Galicia became a distinct political entity, it remained closely tied to
14351-491: Was common, long range interchanges—generally maintained by Hebrew merchants—were rare and appreciated. Monetary circulation was scarce, composed mainly of old Suebi and Visigothic coinage known locally as solidos gallicianos . War and pillaging against the thriving Al-Andalus was also a very important source for the acquisition of riches, exotic items, and Muslim serfs. Later, pilgrimage of Christians from all over Europe to Santiago de Compostela brought not only riches, but also
14478-466: Was devoted to the research and study of the Galician culture. It was created by a group of students: Fermín Bouza Brey , Xosé Filgueira Valverde , Lois Tobío Fernández , with the collaboration of Ricardo Carvalho Calero , Antón Fraguas and Xaquín Lorenzo Fernández . Following the victory of Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War , the written or public use of the Galician language
14605-508: Was divided, ad habitandum , between two Germanic people , the Hasdingi Vandals , who settled the eastern lands, and the Suebi, who established themselves in the coastal areas. As with most Germanic invasions, the number of the original Suebi is estimated to be relatively low, generally fewer than 100,000, and most often around 30,000 people. They settled mainly in the regions around modern northern Portugal and Western Galicia, in
14732-674: Was enthroned in Santiago de Compostela in 958. However, Sancho reclaimed the crown in 960 with support from his mother's Kingdom of Pamplona , the Leonese nobility, and Muslim assistance. His son, Ramiro III , grew increasingly absolutist, alienating the Galician nobility who also resented the lack of Leonese help when the Normans raided Galicia from 968 through 970. The Galician nobility again rose in rebellion, in 982 crowning and anointing Bermudo , son of Ordoño III , as king in Santiago de Compostela . With their support, he first repelled
14859-426: Was forced by his sons to abdicate in 910, his lands were partitioned, bringing about the first episode of a short-lived distinct kingdom of Galicia. García I obtained the Terra de Fora or León , consisting of the southeastern portion of their father's realm, while Ordoño II held the western lands, i.e. , Galicia (including the recently acquired lands of Coimbra ) where he had already been serving as governor, and
14986-563: Was in fact one of the first comprehensive studies on sound change and evolution of any European language. He also defended that teaching in Galicia should be conducted in Galician, since it was the common language of most people. During the 19th century a thriving literature developed, in what was called the Rexurdimento (Resurgence), of the Galician language. It was headed by three main authors: Rosalia de Castro , an intimist poet; Eduardo Pondal , of nationalist ideology, who championed
15113-428: Was known for the many foundations he established throughout the west of the Iberian Peninsula , generally in places with difficult access, such as mountain valleys or islands. He also wrote two monastic rulebooks, characterized by their pact-like nature, with the monastic communities ruled by an abbot , under the remote authority of a bishop ( episcopus sub regula ), and each integrant of the congregation having signed
15240-461: Was not until the 18th century that linguists elaborated the first Galician dictionaries, and the language did not recover a proper literature until the 19th century; only since the last quarter of the 20th century is it taught in schools and used in lawmaking. The first complete translation of the Bible from the original languages dates from 1989. Currently, at the level of rural dialects, Galician forms
15367-609: Was now recognized as king in an assembly of magnates held in Lugo. The youngest brother, Fruela II , received the Asturian heartland in the northeast, with Oviedo as its capital. From Galicia, Ordoño launched several successful raids on the Islamic south, returning with riches and Muslim serfs, and confirming himself as an able commander. At the death of García in 914, Ordoño also acquired León, and on his death in 924 his younger brother, Fruela, reunited Alfonso's realm. Fruela's death
15494-410: Was outlawed. Publishing of Galician-language material revived on a small scale in the 1950s. With the advent of democracy, Galician has been brought into the country's institutions, and it is now co-official with Spanish in Galicia. Galician is taught in schools, and there is a public Galician-language television channel, Televisión de Galicia . Today, the most common language for everyday use in
15621-404: Was reduced again to the category of bishopric, and subjected to Braga. Meanwhile, the Suevi, Roman, and Galician cultural, religious, and aristocratic elite accepted new monarchs. The peasants maintained a collective formed mostly by freemen and serfs of Celtic, Roman and Suebi extraction, as no major Visigoth immigration occurred during the 6th and 7th centuries. This continuity led to
15748-413: Was the villa , centered on a church, and composed of one or more hamlets or villages, together with all its facilities, lands, and possessions. The villas perpetuated ancient Roman and Suevic foundations, and they were the base for the ecclesiastical organization, and for the economic production of the country, later evolving into the modern parroquias and freguesias (rural parishes). The local economy
15875-502: Was the discovery of the tomb of Saint James the Great at what would become Santiago de Compostela ; the shrine constructed there became the religious center of the nation, as well as being the destination of a major international pilgrimage route, the Way of St. James . This increased the political and military relevance of Galicia, and its noble families aspired to positions of power within
16002-463: Was the language of the scriptoria of the lawyers, noblemen and churchmen of the Kingdom of Galicia, then integrated in the crown of Castile and open to influence from Spanish language, culture, and politics. During the 16th century the Galician language stopped being used in legal documentation, becoming de facto an oral language spoken by the vast majority of the Galicians, but having just some minor written use in lyric, theatre and private letters. It
16129-720: Was then administered within the Crown of Castile (1490–1715) and later the Crown of Spain (1715–1833) by an Audiencia Real directed by a Governor which also held the office of Captain General and President. The representative assembly of the Kingdom was then the Junta or Cortes of the Kingdom of Galicia , which briefly declared itself sovereign when Galicia alone remained free of Napoleonic occupation (1808–1809). The kingdom and its Junta were dissolved by Maria Cristina of Bourbon-Two Sicilies , Regent of Spain, in 1834. The origin of
#220779