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54-621: The concept of the Vasconic languages is often linked to the Vasconic substratum hypothesis of Theo Vennemann , who speculated that the ancestors of the Basque language spread across Europe at the end of the last glacial period when the Cro-Magnons entered Europe and left traces in the modern languages of Europe. Along with other hypotheses that seek to relate Basque to other languages of

108-495: A contentious issue between Spain and Britain , and the sovereignty of Spain's enclaves, or plazas de soberanía , on the Mediterranean coast of Morocco is disputed by Madrid. Spain also has a small exclave inside France called Llívia , which is a mountain village in the historical comarca of La Cerdanya , forming part of the historical territories of Catalonia . Most of Spain's peninsular region consists of

162-564: A dormant volcano , is the highest peak of Spain and the third largest volcano in the world from its base. Of the roughly 1,800 rivers and streams in Spain, only the Tagus is more than 960 kilometers long; all but 90 extend less than 96 kilometers. These shorter rivers carry small volumes of water on an irregular basis, and they have seasonally dry river beds; however, when they do flow, they often are swift and torrential. Most major rivers rise in

216-416: A proto-language, as well as more information surrounding the neighboring extinct languages such as Iberian and the relationship it has with Vasconic. Reconstruction of a hypothesized Vasconic Proto-language could only be done using the comparative method , although the accuracy of the reconstructed proto-language would still be uncertain. Vasconic substratum theory The Vasconic substrate hypothesis

270-513: A small area. He therefore proposes that during the last Ice Age , the Vasconic people lived in the modern region of Aquitania. As the glaciers retreated, the Vasconics began moving to the north and south, settling most of Western and Central Europe , spreading their language. They gave names to the rivers and places. This toponymy mostly persisted after the Vasconic language was replaced by Indo-European languages in most of their area, of which

324-690: Is 710 km (441 mi) long. The Pyrenees mountain range extends 435 km (270 mi) from the Mediterranean to the Bay of Biscay. In the extreme south of Spain's mainland lie the Straits of Gibraltar , which separate the Iberian peninsula and the rest of Europe from Ceuta and Morocco in North Africa . Most of Spain's boundaries are water: the Mediterranean Sea along the east from

378-469: Is a major dam built near Madrid to provide a water supply. Certain Spanish regions can be considered vulnerable to both flooding and erosion . Water stress or water lack, poses the greatest threat in Spain. Water scarcity is a significant issue in many regions throughout Spain and climate change may aggravate the problem, with longer periods of dry weather . Supply problems regularly occur in

432-661: Is a proposal that several Western European languages contain remnants of an old language family of Vasconic languages , of which Basque is the only surviving member. The proposal was made by the German linguist Theo Vennemann , but has been rejected by other linguists. According to Vennemann, Vasconic languages were once widespread on the European continent before they were mostly replaced by Indo-European languages . Relics of these languages include toponyms across Central and Western Europe. Theo Vennemann based his hypothesis on

486-497: Is objectable and based on mere sound similarities only. Peter Anreiter noted that toponymy with an unknown meaning can be "interpreted" in almost any language. To demonstrate his point, he then "interprets" the Vasconisms proposed by Vennemann as Turkish words. Nonetheless, he states that words with plausible Indo-European etymology should be considered as toponymy of Indo-European origin. Piotr Gąsiorowski cautioned that it

540-618: Is unclear whether or not an Old European Hydronymy exists at all. According to him it is mere speculation to postulate an etymology for similarly appearing toponymy from a vast area without being able to show that they are indeed from the same substratum. Vennemann argues that the vigesimal numerical systems in the modern Celtic languages, in French and Danish are a remnant of the Vasconic vigesimal counting system. According to Manfred Kudlek, Old Irish and Gallic did not have vigesimal counting systems and neither did Old Norse. The vigesimal systems in

594-886: The Ibérico region, the Pyrenees, the Penibético region in the southeast, the Andalusian Plain, the Ebro Basin , the coastal plains, the Balearic Islands , and the Canary Islands . These are commonly grouped into four types: the Meseta Central and associated mountains, other mountainous regions, lowland regions, and islands. The Meseta Central ("Inner Plateau") is a vast plateau in

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648-593: The Jucar basin during summer. In the Segura basin , water scarcity has resulted in an increase of the water prices by 30% for households. Overall, the regions in the south-east of Spain are particularly vulnerable to water shortages . Furthermore, large areas of the Mediterranean are affected by saltwater intrusion . Peninsular Spain experiences four principal climatic types: semi-arid , arid , maritime , and Mediterranean . The locally generated steppe climate covers

702-605: The Meseta Central , a highland plateau rimmed and dissected by mountain ranges. Other landforms include narrow coastal plains and some lowland river valleys, the most prominent of which is the Andalusian Plain in the southwest. The country can be divided into ten natural regions or subregions: the dominant Meseta Central, the Cantabrian Mountains (Cordillera Cantabrica) and the northwest region,

756-582: The Picos de Europa , surpassing 2,500 m. The Cordillera Cantábrica extends 182 km and abruptly drops 1,500 m some 30 km from the coast. To the west lie the hills of the northwest region and to the east the Basque mountains that link them to the Pyrenees. The Sistema Ibérico extends from the Cordillera Cantábrica southeastward and, close to the Mediterranean, spreads out from

810-575: The Río Ebro to the Río Júcar . The barren, rugged slopes of this mountain range cover an area of close to 21,000 square kilometers. The mountains exceed 2,000 m in their northern region and reach a maximum height of over 2,300 m east of the headwaters of the Rio Duero. The extremely steep mountain slopes in this range are often cut by deep, narrow gorges. The major lowland regions are

864-518: The Andalusian Plain are slightly lower than those on the coasts. Temperatures in July and August average 22 to 27 °C (72 to 81 °F) on the coast and 29 to 31 °C (84 to 88 °F) farther inland, with low humidity. The Mediterranean region is marked by Leveche winds—hot, dry, easterly or southeasterly air currents that originate over North Africa. These winds, which sometimes carry fine dust, are most common in spring. A cooler easterly wind,

918-733: The Andalusian Plain in the southwest, the Ebro Basin in the northeast, and the coastal plains. The Andalusian Plain is essentially a wide river valley through which the Río Guadalquivir flows. The river broadens out along its course, reaching its widest point at the Golfo de Cadiz. The Andalusian Plain is bounded on the north by the Sierra Morena and on the south by the Sistema Penibético; it narrows to an apex in

972-481: The Atlantic Ocean also affects precipitation, and there is less rainfall in the east than in the west. Autumn (September through November) is the wettest season, while July is the driest month. The high humidity and the prevailing off-shore winds make fog and mist common along the northwest coast; this phenomenon is less frequent a short distance inland, however, because the mountains form a barrier keeping out

1026-517: The European continent (behind Russia, Ukraine, and France). It has an average altitude of 650 m. Its total area including Spanish island territories is 505,370 km (195,124 sq mi) of which 499,542 km (192,874 sq mi) is land and 5,240 km (2,023 sq mi) is water. It has the 30th largest Exclusive Economic Zone of 1,039,233 km (401,250 sq mi). Spain lies between latitudes 27° and 44° N , and longitudes 19° W and 5° E . Its Atlantic coast

1080-626: The French border down to Gibraltar and the Strait of Gibraltar , and the Atlantic Ocean on the northwest and southwest (in the south as the Gulf of Cádiz and in the north as the Bay of Biscay ). The Spanish autonomous cities of Ceuta and Melilla are Spanish enclaves lying in mainland Africa in territory claimed by Morocco and are located on the coast of the Alboran Sea, with Ceuta at the very mouth of

1134-648: The Indo-European linguist Michael Meier-Brügger. German linguist Dieter H. Steinbauer argued that it is difficult to argue on the basis of Basque because: Steinbauer also criticized Vennemann for The Bascologist Joseba Lakarra rejects Vennemann's Vasconic etymologies, as he considers them to be incompatible with the current state of research on historical phonology and morphology of Basque. Larry Trask concludes that Vennemann found an agglutinating language unrelated to Basque, which could e.g. be Indo-European. Harald Bichlmeier points out that Vennemann compares

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1188-577: The Indo-Europeans settled there in line with Vennemann's hypothesis. They note that similarity between the distributions in Basque areas and Sardinia. Northern Spain Spain is a country located in southwestern Europe occupying most (about 82 percent) of the Iberian Peninsula . It also includes a small exclave inside France called Llívia , as well as the Balearic Islands in

1242-483: The Mediterranean Sea and the latter in the Atlantic Ocean. The Balearic Islands, encompassing a total area of 5,000 square kilometers, lie 80 kilometers off Spain's central eastern coast. The mountains that rise up above the Mediterranean Sea to form these islands are an extension of the Sistema Penibetico . The archipelago's highest points, which reach 1,400 meters, are in northwestern Mallorca , close to

1296-461: The Mediterranean region usually are more moderate in both summer and winter, and diurnal temperature changes are more limited than those of the continental region. Temperatures in January normally average 10 to 13 °C (50 to 55 °F) in most of the Mediterranean region, and they are 9 °C (48 °F) colder in the northeastern coastal area near Barcelona. In winter, temperatures inland in

1350-546: The Mediterranean, the Canary Islands in the Atlantic Ocean 108 km (67 mi) off northwest Africa, and five places of sovereignty ( plazas de soberanía ) on and off the coast of North Africa : Ceuta , Melilla , Islas Chafarinas , Peñón de Alhucemas , and Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera . The Spanish mainland is bordered to the south and east almost entirely by the Mediterranean Sea (except for

1404-729: The Meseta Central and are associated with it are the Sierra Morena , the Cordillera Cantábrica , and the Sistema Ibérico . Forming the southern edge of the Meseta Central, the Sierra Morena merges in the east with the southern extension of the Sistema Iberico and reaches westward along the northern edge of the Rio Guadalquivir valley to join the mountains in southern Portugal. The massif of

1458-642: The Meseta Central include the Duero , the Tagus , the Guadiana , and the Guadalquivir . The Rio Guadalquivir is one of the most significant rivers in Spain because it irrigates a fertile valley, thus creating a rich agricultural area, and because it is navigable inland, making Seville the only inland river port for ocean-going traffic in Spain. The major river in the northwest region is the Miño . El Atazar Dam

1512-524: The Sierra Morena extends northward to the Río Guadiana , which separates it from the Sistema Central. Despite their relatively low elevations, seldom surpassing 1,300 m, the mountains of the Sierra Morena are rugged at their southern edge. The Cordillera Cantábrica, a limestone formation, runs parallel to, and close to, the northern coast near the Bay of Biscay. Its highest points are

1566-496: The Sistema Central, and the Ebro Basin have wetter seasons, one in spring (April–May) and the other in autumn (October–November), with late spring being the wettest time of the year. In the southern Meseta, also, the wettest seasons are spring and autumn, but the spring one is earlier (March), and the autumn one is later (September). Even during the spring and autumn seasons, rain is irregular and unreliable. Winters in these regions are cold, with strong winds and high humidity, despite

1620-774: The Strait of Gibraltar, and Melilla closer to the border with Algeria. The Canary Islands , geographically and geologically part of the African continent , are located in the Atlantic Ocean. Spain also shares land boundaries with France and Andorra along the Pyrenees in the northeast, with Portugal on the west, with the small British colonial Territory of Gibraltar near the southernmost tip, and with Morocco in its autonomous cities of Ceuta and Melilla , and certain other small but uninhabited enclaves, mostly capes and small isles. The affiliation of Gibraltar has continued to be

1674-513: The adoption of vigesimal systems. Manfred Kayser and Lutz Roewer, both experts on genetics, commented in 2013 that genetics do not reveal anything about the languages spoken by the individuums. Furthermore, the information genetics can deliver on population historical hypothesis is limited. Dieterlen and Bengtson find the distribution of blood factors and haploid groups is convincing evidence for Basque settlement in Western Europe before

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1728-469: The coast. The central portion of Mallorca is a plain, bounded on the east and the southeast by broken hills. The Canary Islands, ninety kilometers off the west coast of Africa , are of volcanic origin. The large central islands, Tenerife and Gran Canaria , have the highest peaks. Pico de Las Nieves , on Gran Canaria, rises to 1,949 meters, and the Teide , on Tenerife, to 3,715 meters. Teide,

1782-406: The coastal mountains and the seas. They are broadest along the Golfo de Cádiz, where the coastal plain adjoins the Andalusian Plain, and along the southern and central eastern coasts. The narrowest coastal plain runs along the Bay of Biscay, where the Cordillera Cantábrica ends close to shore. The remaining regions of Spain are the Balearic Islands and the Canary Islands , the former located in

1836-735: The east where these two mountain chains meet. The Ebro Basin is formed by the Río Ebro valley, contained by mountains on three sides—the Sistema Ibérico to the south and west, the Pyrenees to the north and east, and their coastal extensions paralleling the shore to the east. Minor low-lying river valleys close to the Portuguese border are located on the Tagus and the Río Guadiana. The Coastal Plains regions are narrow strips between

1890-702: The east with the Sierra de Guadalupe , to the west. Their peaks do not rise much higher than 1,500 m. With many easy passes, including those that connect the Meseta with the Andalusian Plain, the Montes de Toledo and the Sierra de Guadalupe do not present an obstacle to transportation and communication. The two mountain ranges are separated from the Sistema Central by the Tagus River . The mountain regions that rim

1944-441: The elements -ingen, -hûsen, -dorf, -bach etc. are supposed to have been added to the toponymy at a later date although there is no proof for this assumption in historical documents. Hayim Y. Sheynin, an expert on Semitic languages, reviewed the work of Vennemann and concluded that his reasoning is based on outdated data and scientific works rejected by critics. He states that much of the evidence presented for an Afro-Asiatic stratum

1998-440: The etymological roots of the toponymy with modern Basque words. This is incoherent, as the comparison should be done using the reconstructed forms of Proto-Basque. Jürgen Udolph shows that some of the assumed Vasconic roots are in fact Indo-European like Vennemann's *muna, especially since Proto-Basque lacked word initial /m/. Stefan Georg adds, that some roots do not exist in Basque or Proto-Basque. According to Lutz Reichardt

2052-422: The heart of peninsular Spain , which has elevations that range from 610 to 760 m. Rimmed by mountains, the Meseta Central slopes gently to the west and to the series of rivers that form some of the border with Portugal . The Sistema Central , described as the "dorsal spine" of the Meseta Central, divides the Meseta into northern and southern subregions, the former higher in elevation and smaller in area than

2106-460: The hypothesis is based on the assumption that "settlement continuity exists and that this means continuity of names throughout all languages being spoken in that settlement". Furthermore, he criticizes the methodology applied by those who support the Vasconian hypothesis: [The words] are segmented arbitrarily and some segments are explained poorly, others are not explained at all. In addition,

2160-515: The language of the Nuraghe , Tartessian , and the language of the Cantabri and various others to Vasconic. None of these theories have been able to provide convincing data, and they are rejected by most mainstream Basque linguists. A reconstruction of a Proto-Vasconic language is almost impossible with currently available information. More data and research are needed to reconstruct the basics of

2214-457: The latter. The Sistema Central rims the capital city of Madrid with peaks that rise to over 2,400 m within the Madrid region. South-west of Madrid, the Sistema Central shows its highest peak, Pico Almanzor , of almost 2,600 m. The mountains of the Sistema Central, which continue westward into Portugal, display some glacial features; the highest of the peaks are snow-capped for most of

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2268-407: The low precipitation. Except for mountain areas, the northern foothills of the Sistema Iberico are the coldest area, and frost is common. Summers are hot and cloudless, producing average daytime temperatures that reach the mid- or upper 30s °C (low 90s to low 100s °F) in the northern Meseta and the upper 30s °C (upper 90s to low 100s °F) in the southern Meseta; nighttime temperatures, however, drop to

2322-475: The majority of peninsular Spain, influencing the Meseta Central, the adjoining mountains to the east and the south, and the Ebro Basin. This climate is characterized by wide diurnal and seasonal variations in temperature and by low, irregular rainfall with high rates of evaporation that leave the land arid. Annual rainfall generally is 30 to 64 centimetres (12 to 25 in); most of the Meseta region receives about 50 centimetres (20 in). The northern Meseta,

2376-593: The mountains rimming or dissecting the Meseta Central and flow westward across the plateau through Portugal to empty into the Atlantic Ocean . One significant exception is the Ebro , which flows eastward to the Mediterranean . Rivers in the extreme northwest and in the narrow northern coastal plain drain directly into the Atlantic Ocean. The northwestern coastline is also truncated by rias, waterbodies similar to fjords. The major rivers flowing westward throughout

2430-411: The northwest region, characterized by relatively mild winters, warm but not hot summers, and generally abundant rainfall spread out over the year. Temperatures vary only slightly, both on a diurnal and a seasonal basis. The moderating effects of the sea, however, abate in the inland areas, where temperatures are 9 to 18 °C (48 to 64 °F) more extreme than temperatures on the coast. Distance from

2484-976: The present Basque area in northern Spain and southern France is postulated to be a relic. In support of this argument, Vennemann cites, inter alia : Elements of vigesimal ("base-20") counting and number systems , which Vennemann regards as a trait of Vasconic languages, exist in Celtic , Danish and French . Evidence from genetics and blood types shows that the modern Basque people share physical characteristics with old populations throughout Western and Central Europe, especially in likely refugia areas, such as mountain ranges . The hypothesis has been largely rejected by historical linguists. Vennemann's theories on "Vasconic" toponymy and hydronymy were opposed by linguists such as P. R. Kitson (1996), and Baldi & Richard (2006), who pointed out that most linguists see unusual European hydronyms as more likely to have Indo-European roots of some kind, and

2538-528: The respective languages developed during the Middle Ages, e.g. Danish started to use a vigesimal system in the 13th/14th century. Therefore, the French system cannot be the result of Celtic influence. Kudlek proposes that the Celtic and Danish systems are loans from French. Brigitte Bauer, too, rejects substratal influence. She suggests that intrasocietal developments, e.g. in the monetary system, may explain

2592-434: The sea moisture. The Mediterranean climatic region extends from the Andalusian Plain along the southern and eastern coasts up to the Pyrenees, on the seaward side of the mountain ranges that parallel the coast. Total rainfall in this region is lower than in the rest of Spain, and it is concentrated in the late autumn–winter period. Generally, rainfall is slight, often insufficient, irregular, and unreliable. Temperatures in

2646-535: The small British territory of Gibraltar ); to the north by France , Andorra , and the Bay of Biscay ; and to the west by the Atlantic Ocean and Portugal . With a land area of 504,782 square kilometres (194,897 sq mi) in the Iberian peninsula, Spain is the largest country in Southern Europe , the second largest country in Western Europe (behind France), and the fourth largest country in

2700-458: The upper teens °C (low to mid 60s °F). The Ebro Basin, at a lower altitude, is extremely hot during the summer, and temperatures can exceed 43 °C (109 °F). Summer humidities are low in the Meseta Central and in the Ebro Basin, except right along the shores of in the Rio Ebro, where humidity is high. A maritime climate prevails in the northern part of the country, from the Pyrenees to

2754-440: The works of Hans Krahe , who postulated an Old European substrate as the origin of the European hydronymy ( Old European hydronymy ). He classified the substratum language as Indo-European. Vennemann rejected the classification. He gives the following reasons: Vennemann developed his ideas in a series of papers which were collected in a book called Europa Vasconica–Europa Semitica . He accepts Krahe's theory that there

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2808-450: The world, this is widely rejected by historical linguists . Proponents of a Vasconic language family argue that Basque and the extinct Aquitanian language are close relatives, or that the modern varieties of Basque are distinct languages rather than dialects. However, these notions contradict conventional views on these languages, in two areas: Various attempts have been made to tie other languages, modern or extinct, such as Iberian ,

2862-460: The year. Despite their height, however, the mountain system does not create a major barrier between the northern and the southern portions of the Meseta Central because several passes permit road and railroad transportation to the northwest and the northeast. The southern portion of the Meseta ( Spanish : Submeseta Sur ) is further divided by twin mountain ranges, the Montes de Toledo running to

2916-510: Was a uniform Old European language, which is the origin of the Old European hydronymy, but proposes that it is of Vasconic origin. Vasconic is a language family proposed by Vennemann encompassing Basque (its only extant member), Aquitanian , Ligurian , and possibly Iberian and Proto-Sardinian . Vennemann proposes that this uniform Vasconic substrate must come from a linguistically uniform population, which can only exist within

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