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121-523: In Hindu folklore, the vetala is an evil spirit who haunts cemeteries and takes demonic possession of corpses. They make their displeasure known by troubling humans. They can drive people mad, kill children, and cause miscarriages, but also guard villages. They are hostile spirits of the dead trapped in the 'twilight zone' between life and afterlife . These creatures can be repelled by the chanting of mantras . One can free them from their ghostly existence by performing their funerary rites. Being unaffected by

242-525: A Triple Goddess , thereby being a triadic deity comprising a Maiden goddess, a Mother goddess , and a Crone goddess, each of whom has different associations, namely virginity, fertility, and wisdom. Other Wiccan conceptualisations have portrayed her as a Moon Goddess and as a Menstruating Goddess. According to the anthropologist Susan Greenwood, in Wicca the Goddess is "a symbol of self-transformation - she

363-540: A deist entity who had created the "Under-Gods", among them the God and Goddess, but who was not otherwise involved in the world; alternately, other Wiccans have interpreted such an entity as a pantheistic being, of whom the God and Goddess are facets. Although Gardner criticised monotheism, citing the Problem of Evil , explicitly monotheistic forms of Wicca developed in the 1960s, when the U.S.-based Church of Wicca developed

484-649: A dybbuk is a disembodied spirit that wanders restlessly until it inhabits the body of a living person. The Baal Shem could expel a harmful dybbuk through exorcism . Possession-trance and adorcism are also engaged with by some Jews. Notably, Ethiopian Jewish women may participate in zār , and Tuisinian Jewish women have a practice called Stambali. Stambali uses incense, music (traditionally performed by Black musicians from fraternal orders), dance, animal sacrifice, and large spreads of food to induce trance and to appease jinn which may be afflicting someone, and ceremonies may be regularly repeated by that person. Stambali

605-401: A jinn might seek to possess an individual, such as falling in love with them, taking revenge for hurting them or their relatives, or other undefined reasons. At an intended possession, the covenant with the jinn must be renewed. Soothsayers ( kāhin pl. kuhhān ), would use such possession to gain hidden knowledge. Inspirations from jinn by poets requires neither possession nor obedience to

726-626: A magic circle . The five elements are air , fire , water , earth , and aether (or spirit), where aether unites the other four elements. Various analogies have been devised to explain the concept of the five elements; for instance, the Wiccan Ann-Marie Gallagher used that of a tree, which is composed of earth (with the soil and plant matter), water (sap and moisture), fire (through photosynthesis ) and air (the formation of oxygen from carbon dioxide ), all of which are believed to be united through spirit. Traditionally in

847-800: A religion by academics, some evangelical Christians have attempted to deny it legal recognition as such, while some Wiccan practitioners themselves eschew the term "religion" – associating the latter purely with organised religion – instead favouring " spirituality " or "way of life". Although Wicca as a religion is distinct from other forms of contemporary paganism, there has been much "cross-fertilization" between these different pagan faiths; accordingly, Wicca has both influenced and been influenced by other pagan religions, thus making clear-cut distinctions between them more difficult for religious studies scholars to make. The terms wizard and warlock are sometimes discouraged altogether. Wizard can represent an emphasis on wisdom and insight-based practices, and it

968-462: A sacred circle , Wiccans cast spells or "workings" intended to bring about real changes in the physical world. Common Wiccan spells include those used for healing , for protection, fertility, or to banish negative influences. Many early Wiccans, such as Alex Sanders , Sybil Leek and Alex Winfield, referred to their own magic as " white magic ", which contrasted with " black magic ", which they associated with evil and Satanism . Sanders also used

1089-455: A "realistic view of living in the real world" replete with its many problems and do not claim that the gods "have all the answers" to these. She suggested that Wiccans do not claim to seek perfection but instead "wholeness" or "completeness", which includes an acceptance of traits like anger, weakness, and pain. She contrasted the Wiccan acceptance of an "interplay between light and dark" against

1210-686: A 1986 Indian fantasy film directed by Shantilal Soni was based on the Baital Pachisi about King Vikramaditya and the Vetala. Vikram Aur Betaal was a television programme based on the Baital Pachisi produced by Ramanand Sagar and directed by his son Prem Sagar that aired on DD National channel. It was remade as Kahaniya Vikram aur Betaal Ki in 2009 and aired on Colors TV . Vikram Betaal Ki Rahasya Gatha (2018), an Indian mythological serial based on Baital Pachisi aired on &TV . Indian animator Rajiv Chilaka directed Vikram Betal ,

1331-786: A Wiccan may regard the Germanic Ēostre , Hindu Kali , and Catholic Virgin Mary each as manifestations of one supreme Goddess and likewise, the Celtic Cernunnos , the ancient Greek Dionysus and the Judeo-Christian Yahweh as aspects of a single, archetypal god. A more strictly polytheistic approach holds the various goddesses and gods to be separate and distinct entities in their own right. The Wiccan writers Janet Farrar and Gavin Bone have postulated that Wicca

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1452-585: A belief from the Theosophy-inspired Huna movement , Kabbalah , and other sources, that the human being has three souls. Although not accepted by all Wiccans, a belief in reincarnation is the dominant afterlife belief within Wicca, having been originally espoused by Gardner. Understandings of how the cycle of reincarnation operates differ among practitioners; Wiccan Raymond Buckland for instance insisted that human souls would only incarnate into human bodies, whereas other Wiccans believe that

1573-514: A broomstick known as a besom , a cauldron , candles , incense and a curved blade known as a boline . An altar is usually present in the circle, on which ritual tools are placed and representations of the God and the Goddess may be displayed. Before entering the circle, some traditions fast for the day, and/or ritually bathe. After a ritual has finished, the God, Goddess, and Guardians are thanked,

1694-501: A different deity who were seen as children of the primary Horned God and Goddess. The five elements are symbolised by the five points of the pentagram , the most-used symbol of Wicca. The Wiccan high priestess and journalist Margot Adler stated that Wiccan rituals were not "dry, formalised, repetitive experiences", but performed with the intent of inducing a religious experience in the participants, thereby altering their consciousness. She noted that many Wiccans remain skeptical about

1815-459: A graveyard or a tomb is believed to enable contact with the ghosts of the dead, who visit the sleeper in dreams and provide hidden knowledge. Possession by ʻafarit (a vengeful ghost) are said to grant the possessed some supernatural powers, but it drives them insane as well. Jinn are much more physical than spirits. Due to their subtle bodies , which are composed of fire and air ( marijin min nar ), they are purported to be able to possess

1936-441: A headlong plunge back into magic" and that it was a reactionary religion which would soon die out. This view was heavily criticised in 1999 by the historian Ronald Hutton who claimed that the evidence displayed the very opposite: that "a large number [of Wiccans] were in jobs at the cutting edge [of scientific culture], such as computer technology". Identification as a witch can[…] provide a link to those persecuted and executed in

2057-416: A household with holy water , placing wax and herbs on thresholds to "ward off witches occult ", and avoiding certain areas of townships known to be frequented by witches and Devil worshippers after dark. Afflicted persons were restricted from entering the church, but might share the shelter of the porch with lepers and persons of offensive life. After the prayers, if quiet, they might come in to receive

2178-479: A human might find pleasure in obeying the demons first, according to Islamic thought, the human soul can only be free if the demons are bound by the spirit (ruh). Sufi literature, as in the writings of Rumi and Attar of Nishapur , pay a lot of attention to how to bind the inner demons. Attar of Nishapur writes: "If you bind the div , you will set out for the royal pavilion with Solomon" and "You have no command over your self's kingdom [body and mind], for in your case

2299-472: A human soul can incarnate into any life form. There is also a common Wiccan belief that any Wiccans will come to be reincarnated as future Wiccans, an idea originally expressed by Gardner. Gardner also articulated the view that the human soul rested for a period between bodily death and its incarnation, with this resting place commonly being referred to as " The Summerland " among the Wiccan community. This allows many Wiccans to believe that mediums can contact

2420-846: A knowledge of future events (Acts 16:16) and great strength (Act 19:13–16), among others, and shows that those with evil spirits can speak of Christ (Mark 3:7–11). Some Evangelical denominations believe that demonic possession is not possible if one has already professed their faith in Christ, because the Holy Spirit already occupies the body and a demon cannot enter. Various types of creatures, such as jinn , shayatin , ʻafarit , found within Islamic culture, are often held to be responsible for spirit possession. Spirit possession appears in both Islamic theology and wider cultural tradition. Although opposed by some Muslim scholars, sleeping near

2541-543: A majority follow a code known as the Wiccan Rede , which states, "an it harm none, do what ye will". This is usually interpreted as a declaration of the freedom to act, along with the necessity of taking responsibility for what follows from one's actions and minimising harm to oneself and others. Another common element of Wiccan morality is the Law of Threefold Return which holds that whatever benevolent or malevolent actions

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2662-459: A necessary presence to balance each other out. This may have derived from Gardner's interpretation of Murray's claim that the ancient witch-cult was a fertility religion. Thus, many practitioners of British Traditional Wicca have argued that gay men and women are not capable of correctly working magic without mixed-sex pairings. Although Gerald Gardner initially demonstrated an aversion to homosexuality , claiming that it brought down "the curse of

2783-529: A person performs will return to that person with triple force, or with equal force on each of the three levels of body, mind, and spirit, similar to the eastern idea of karma . The Wiccan Rede was most likely introduced into Wicca by Gerald Gardner and formalised publicly by Doreen Valiente , one of his High Priestesses. The Threefold Law was an interpretation of Wiccan ideas and ritual, made by Monique Wilson and further popularized by Raymond Buckland , in his books on Wicca. Many Wiccans also seek to cultivate

2904-525: A sample of 488 societies in all parts of the world, with the highest numbers of believing societies in Pacific cultures and the lowest incidence among Native Americans of both North and South America . As Pentecostal and Charismatic Christian churches move into both African and Oceanic areas, a merger of belief can take place, with demons becoming representative of the "old" indigenous religions, which Christian ministers attempt to exorcise . From

3025-402: A sermon in which he presented the cause of autism as, "the devil's attacked them, he's brought this infirmity upon them, he's got them where he wants them". He asserted that the cure for the neurodevelopmental disorder was prayer by claiming to "know a minister who has seen lots of kids that are autistic, that he cast that demon out, and they were healed, and then he had to pray and their brain

3146-563: A set of eight virtues mentioned in Doreen Valiente 's Charge of the Goddess , these being mirth, reverence, honour, humility, strength, beauty, power, and compassion. In Valiente's poem, they are ordered in pairs of complementary opposites, reflecting a dualism that is common throughout Wiccan philosophy. Some lineaged Wiccans also observe a set of Wiccan Laws , commonly called the Craft Laws or Ardanes , 30 of which exist in

3267-444: A synonym for "Wicca" is "Pagan witchcraft", although there are also other forms of modern paganism—such as types of Heathenry —which also use the term "Pagan witchcraft". From the 1990s onward, various Wiccans began describing themselves as " Traditional Witches ", although this term was also employed by practitioners of other magico-religious traditions like Luciferianism. In some popular culture, such as television programs Buffy

3388-418: A television film for Cartoon Network in 2004 which was produced by his Green Gold Animations . Vicky & Vetaal (2006–2007) and Vicky Aur Vetaal (2015–2016), which aired on Disney Channel India , also featured Vetala as the main character. Demonic possession Spirit possession is an unusual or an altered state of consciousness and associated behaviors which are purportedly caused by

3509-432: A theology rooted in the worship of what they described as "one deity, without gender". In the 1970s, Dianic Wiccan groups developed which were devoted to a singular, monotheistic Goddess; this approach was often criticised by members of British Traditional Wiccan groups, who lambasted such Goddess monotheism as an inverted imitation of Christian theology. As in other forms of Wicca, some Goddess monotheists have expressed

3630-601: Is a form of compensation among deprived men in the deeply competitive society of the Sidama, for if a man cannot gain prestige as an orator , warrior, or farmer, he may still gain prestige as a spirit healer. Women are sometimes accused of faking possession, but men never are. Kenya Mayote Mozambique Uganda Tanzania In many of the African diaspora religions possessing spirits are not necessarily harmful or evil, but are rather seeking to rebuke misconduct in

3751-420: Is a form of compensation for being deprived within Sidama society, although they do not draw from I.M. Lewis (see Cultural anthropology section under Scientific views). The majority of the possessed are women whose spirits demand luxury goods to alleviate their condition, but men can be possessed as well. Possessed individuals of both sexes can become healers due to their condition. Hamer and Hamer suggest that this

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3872-401: Is also sometimes done preventatively as part of wedding, bnei mitzvah, and housewarming festivities to ward away the evil eye. The afflictions of jinn may simply be buildups of emotional stress or more serious illness. During trance, the jinn enter the body, and the participants do not remember what occurred during trance afterwards. If a particular person has needed a Stambali ceremony organized,

3993-471: Is an involuntary affliction, some biblical verses have been interpreted as indicating that possession can be voluntary. For example, Alfred Plummer writes that when Devil entered into Judas Iscariot in John 13 :27, this was because Judas had continually agreed to Satan's suggestions to betray Jesus and had wholly submitted to him. The New Testament indicates that people can be possessed by demons, but that

4114-525: Is becoming more polytheistic as it matures, tending to embrace a more traditionally pagan worldview. Some Wiccans conceive of deities not as literal personalities but as metaphorical archetypes or thoughtforms , thereby technically allowing them to be atheists . Such a view is held by the High Priestess Vivianne Crowley , herself a psychologist , who considered the Wiccan deities to be Jungian archetypes that existed within

4235-406: Is believed to be caused by a spirit called awre . This affliction presents itself by loss of appetite, nausea, and attacks from severe stomach pains. If it persists, the victim may enter a trance-like stupor, in which he sometimes regains consciousness long enough to take food and water. Breathing is often labored. Seizures and trembling overcome the patient, and in extreme cases, partial paralysis of

4356-472: Is found, possession may be thought of as voluntary or involuntary and may be considered to have beneficial or detrimental effects on the host. The experience of spirit possession sometimes serves as evidence in support of belief in the existence of spirits, deities or demons. In a 1969 study funded by the National Institute of Mental Health , spirit-possession beliefs were found to exist in 74% of

4477-496: Is seen to be constantly changing and a force for change for those who open themselves up to her". Gardner stated that beyond Wicca's two deities was the "Supreme Deity" or " Prime Mover ", an entity that was too complex for humans to understand. This belief has been endorsed by other practitioners, who have referred to it as "the Cosmic Logos ", "Supreme Cosmic Power", or " Godhead ". Gardner envisioned this Supreme Deity as

4598-466: Is that Wicca's deities are viewed as forms of ancient, pre-Christian divinities by its practitioners. Most early Wiccan groups adhered to the duotheistic worship of a Horned God and a Mother Goddess , with practitioners typically believing that these had been the ancient deities worshipped by the hunter-gatherers of the Old Stone Age , whose veneration had been passed down in secret right to

4719-543: Is the rescension of Doreen Valiente , who developed it from Gardner's version. Gardner's wording of the original "Charge" added extracts from Aleister Crowley's work, including The Book of the Law , (especially from Ch 1, spoken by Nuit, the Star Goddess) thus linking modern Wicca irrevocably to the principles of Thelema . Valiente rewrote Gardner's version in verse, keeping the material derived from Aradia , but removing

4840-503: Is used by modern feminist witches as an aid in their struggle for freedom from patriarchal oppression. — Religious studies scholar Joanne Pearson Historian Wouter Hanegraaff noted that the Wiccan view of witchcraft was "an outgrowth of Romantic (semi)scholarship", especially the 'witch cult' theory . It proposed that historical alleged witches were actually followers of a surviving pagan religion, and that accusations of infanticide, cannibalism, Satanism, etc., were either made up by

4961-414: Is used by some interchangeably with the term witch for their common roots in the meaning of gaining wisdom and being wise . In Wicca, denominations are referred to as traditions , while non-Wiccans are often termed cowans . When the religion first came to public attention, its followers commonly called it "Witchcraft". Gerald Gardner —the man regarded as the "Father of Wicca"—referred to it as

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5082-575: The Loa (or lwa ). When the Loa descends upon a practitioner, the practitioner's body is being used by the spirit, according to the tradition. Some spirits are believed to be able to give prophecies of upcoming events or situations pertaining to the possessed one, also called a Chwal or the "Horse of the Spirit". Practitioners describe this as a beautiful but very tiring experience. Most people who are possessed by

5203-530: The Book of Tobias . In the 16th century , Isaac Luria , a Jewish mystic , wrote about the transmigration of souls seeking perfection. His disciples took his idea a step further, creating the idea of a dybbuk , a soul inhabiting a victim until it had accomplished its task or atoned for its sin. The dybbuk appears in Jewish folklore and literature, as well as in chronicles of Jewish life. In Jewish folklore ,

5324-534: The Inquisition or were misunderstandings of pagan rites. This theory that accused witches were actually pagans has now been disproven using archive records of witch trials. Nevertheless, Gardner and other founders of Wicca believed the theory was true, and saw the witch as a " positive antitype which derives much of its symbolic force from its implicit criticism of dominant Judaeo-Christian and Enlightenment values". Pearson suggested that Wiccans "identify with

5445-880: The Modern English term "Wicca" is borrowed from the Old English wicca [ˈwittʃɑ] and wicce [ˈwittʃe] , the masculine and feminine term for witch , respectively, that was used in Anglo-Saxon England . By adopting it for modern usage, Wiccans were both symbolically linking themselves to the ancient, pre-Christian past, and adopting a self-designation that would be less controversial than "Witchcraft". The scholar of religion and Wiccan priestess Joanne Pearson noted that while "the words 'witch' and 'wicca' are therefore linked etymologically, […] they are used to emphasize different things today". In early sources, "Wicca" referred to

5566-841: The Mongo people but is also practised among various ethnic groups in Kinshasa . Among the Gurage people of Ethiopia, spirit possession is a common belief. William A. Shack postulated that it is caused by Gurage cultural attitudes about food and hunger, while they have a plentiful food supply, cultural pressures that force the Gurage to either share it to meet social obligations, or hoard it and eat it secretly cause feelings of anxiety. Distinctions are drawn between spirits that strictly possess men, spirits that possess women, and spirits that possess victims of either sex. A ritual illness that only affects men

5687-542: The Roman Ritual , true demonic or Satanic possession has been characterized since the Middle Ages , by the following four typical characteristics: The New Catholic Encyclopedia states, " Ecclesiastical authorities are reluctant to admit diabolical possession in most cases, because many can be explained by physical or mental illness alone. Therefore, medical and psychological examinations are necessary before

5808-593: The Triple Goddess and the Horned God , respectively. These deities may be regarded in a henotheistic way, as having many different divine aspects which can be identified with various pagan deities from different historical pantheons. For this reason, they are sometimes referred to as the "Great Goddess" and the "Great Horned God", with the honorific "great" connoting a personification containing many other deities within their own nature. Some Wiccans refer to

5929-468: The awre serves to bring the possessed man to the center of social attention, and to relieve his anxieties over his inability to gain prestige from redistributing food, which is the primary way in which Gurage men gain status in their society. The belief in spirit possession is part of the native culture of the Sidama people of southwest Ethiopia . Anthropologists Irene and John Hamer postulated that it

6050-573: The div is in the place of Solomon". He further links the demons to the story alluded in the Quran (38:34) that a demon replaced the prophet Solomon: one must behave like a triumphant 'Solomon' and chain the demons of the nafs or lower self, locking the demon-prince into a 'rock', before the rūḥ (soul) can make the first steps to the Divine. Although forbidden in the Hebrew Bible , magic

6171-655: The "Craft of the Wise", "Witchcraft", and "the Witch-cult " during the 1950s. Gardner believed in the theory that persecuted witches had actually been followers of a surviving pagan religion, but this theory has now been proven wrong. There is no evidence that he ever called it "Wicca", although he did refer to its community of followers as "the Wica" (with one c ). As a name for the religion, "Wicca" developed in Britain during

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6292-488: The 1960s. It is not known who first used this name for the religion, although one possibility is that it might have been Gardner's rival Charles Cardell , who was calling it the "Craft of the Wiccens" by 1958. The first recorded use of the name "Wicca" was in 1962, and it had been popularised to the extent that several British practitioners founded a newsletter called The Wiccan in 1968. Although pronounced differently,

6413-709: The 1980s, there were two competing definitions of the word "Wicca" in use among the pagan and esoteric communities, one broad and inclusive, the other narrow and exclusionary. Among scholars of pagan studies , it is the older, broader, inclusive meaning which is preferred. Alongside "Wicca", some practitioners still call the religion "Witchcraft" or "the Craft". Using the word "Witchcraft" in this context can result in confusion with other, non-religious meanings of "witchcraft" as well as other religions—such as Satanism and Luciferianism —whose practitioners also sometimes describe themselves as "Witches". Another term sometimes used as

6534-701: The Baptist Deliverance Study Group of the Baptist Union of Great Britain , a Christian denomination , issued a "warning against occult spirituality following the rise in people trying to communicate with the dead". The commission reported that "becoming involved in activities such as Spiritualism can open up a doorway to great spiritual oppression which requires a Christian rite to set that person free". In September 2023, Pastor Rick Morrow of Beulah Church in Richland, Missouri gave

6655-456: The Craft's emphasis on individual expression in one's spiritual/magical path. Many rituals within Wicca are used when celebrating the Sabbats , worshipping the deities, and working magic. Often these take place on a full moon , or in some cases a new moon, which is known as an Esbat . In typical rites, the coven or solitary assembles inside a ritually cast and purified magic circle . Casting

6776-553: The Gardnerian Craft, each element has been associated with a cardinal point of the compass; air with east, fire with south, water with west, earth with north, and the spirit with centre. However, some Wiccans, such as Frederic Lamond , have claimed that the set cardinal points are only those applicable to the geography of southern England, where Wicca evolved, and that Wiccans should determine which directions best suit each element in their region. For instance, those living on

6897-571: The Gardnerian tradition and 161 of which are in the Alexandrian tradition. Valiente, one of Gardner's original High Priestesses, argued that the first thirty of these rules were most likely invented by Gerald Gardner himself in mock-archaic language as the by-product of inner conflict within his Bricket Wood coven. In British Traditional Wicca, "sex complementarity is a basic and fundamental working principle", with men and women being seen as

7018-472: The Great Witch Hunt, which can then be remembered as a holocaust against women, a repackaging of history that implies conscious victimization and the appropriation of 'holocaust' as a badge of honour — 'gendercide rather than genocide'. An elective identification with the image of the witch during the time of the persecutions is commonly regarded as part of the reclamation of female power, a myth that

7139-534: The Horned God, he is most often associated with animals and the natural world, but also with the afterlife, and he is furthermore often viewed as an ideal role model for men. The Mother Goddess has been associated with life, fertility, and the springtime, and has been described as an ideal role model for women. Wicca's duotheism has been compared to the Taoist system of yin and yang . Other Wiccans have adopted

7260-526: The New Age focus on "white light". Similarly, the scholar of religion Geoffrey Samuel noted that Wiccans devote "a perhaps surprising amount of attention to darkness and death". Many Wiccans are involved in environmentalist campaigns. Many traditions hold a belief in the five classical elements , although they are seen as symbolic representations of the phases of matter . These five elements are invoked during many magical rituals, notably when consecrating

7381-599: The Threefold Law ye should – three times bad and three times good ... Eight words the Wiccan Rede fulfill – an it harm none, do what ye will. Lady Gwen Thompson Wicca has been characterised as a life-affirming religion. Practitioners typically present themselves as "a positive force against the powers of destruction which threaten the world". There exists no dogmatic moral or ethical code followed universally by Wiccans of all traditions. However,

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7502-530: The Triple Goddess, alongside the cycles of the Sun, seasonally based festivals known as Sabbats and commonly associated with the Horned God. The Wiccan Rede is a popular expression of Wiccan morality, often with respect to the ritual practice of magic . Scholars of religious studies classify Wicca as a new religious movement , and more specifically as a form of modern paganism. Wicca has been cited as

7623-667: The Vampire Slayer and Charmed , the word "Wicca" has been used as a synonym for witchcraft more generally, including in non-religious and non-pagan forms. Theological views within Wicca are diverse. The religion encompasses theists , atheists , and agnostics , with some viewing the religion's deities as entities with a literal existence and others viewing them as Jungian archetypes or symbols. Even among theistic Wiccans, there are divergent beliefs, and Wicca includes pantheists , monotheists , duotheists , and polytheists . Common to these divergent perspectives, however,

7744-472: The authority of a bishop and in accordance with strict rules; a simple exorcism also occurs during baptism . The infliction of demonic torment upon an individual has been chronicled in premodern Protestant literature. In 1597, King James discussed four methods of daemonic influence upon an individual in his book Daemonologie : King James attested that the symptoms derived from demonic possession could be discernible from natural diseases. He rejected

7865-534: The beginning of Christianity , adherents have held that possession derives from the Devil (i.e. Satan ) and demons. In the battle between Satan and Heaven , Satan is believed to engage in "spiritual attacks", including demonic possession , against human beings by the use of supernatural powers to harm them physically or psychologically. Prayer for deliverance, blessings upon the man or woman's house or body, sacraments , and exorcisms are generally used to drive

7986-403: The beliefs, stating: "it's a religion of ritual rather than theology. The ritual is first; the myth is second". Similarly, Adler stated that Wicca permits "total skepticism about even its own methods, myths and rituals". The anthropologist Susan Greenwood characterised Wiccan rituals as "a form of resistance to mainstream culture". She saw these rituals as "a healing space away from the ills of

8107-521: The bishop's blessing and listen to the sermon . They were fed daily and prayed over by the exorcists and, in case of recovery, after a fast of from 20 to 40 days, were admitted to the Eucharist , and their names and cures entered in the church records. In 1603, the Church of England forbade its clergy from performing exorcisms because of numerous fraudulent cases of demonic possession. In May 2021,

8228-414: The bodies of humans. Such physical intrusion of the jinn is conceptually different from the whisperings of the devils. Since jinn are not necessarily evil, they are distinguished from cultural concepts of possession by devils/demons. Since such jinn are said to have free will , they can have their own reasons to possess humans and are not necessarily harmful. There are various reasons given as to why

8349-425: The body in a manner unimpeded by clothes. Some also note that it removes signs of social rank and differentiation and thus encourages unity among the practitioners. Some Wiccans seek legitimacy for the practice by stating that various ancient societies performed their rituals while nude. One of Wicca's best known liturgical texts is "The Charge of the Goddess ". The most commonly used version used by Wiccans today

8470-461: The casting out of Devils, is by virtue of fasting and prayer, and in-calling of the name of God, suppose many imperfections be in the person that is the instrument, as CHRIST himself teaches us (Mat. 7) of the power that false Prophets all have cast out devils". In medieval Great Britain , the Christian church had offered suggestions on safeguarding one's home. Suggestions ranged from dousing

8591-435: The circle may involve the invocation of the "Guardians" of the cardinal points, alongside their respective classical elements; air, fire, water, and earth. Once the circle is cast, a seasonal ritual may be performed, prayers to the God and Goddess are said, and spells are sometimes worked; these may include various forms of 'raising energy', including raising a cone of power to send healing or other magic to persons outside of

8712-402: The control of a human body and its functions by spirits , ghosts , demons , angels , or gods . The concept of spirit possession exists in many cultures and religions, including Buddhism , Christianity , Haitian Vodou , Dominican Vudú , Hinduism , Islam , Judaism , Wicca , and Southeast Asian , African , and Native American traditions. Depending on the cultural context in which it

8833-675: The demon out. Some theologians , such as Ángel Manuel Rodríguez , say that mediums , like the ones mentioned in Leviticus 20 :27, were possessed by demons. Another possible case of demonic possession in the Old Testament includes the false prophets that King Ahab relied upon before re-capturing Ramoth-Gilead in 1 Kings 22 . They were described as being empowered by a deceiving spirit. The New Testament mentions several episodes in which Jesus drove out demons from persons . Whilst most Christians believe that demonic possession

8954-488: The demons respond and submit to Jesus Christ's authority: In the synagogue , there was a man possessed by a demon, an evil spirit. He cried out at the top of his voice, "Ha! What do you want with us, Jesus of Nazareth? Have you come to destroy us? I know who you are—the Holy One of God!" "Be quiet!" Jesus said sternly. "Come out of him!" Then the demon threw the man down before them all and came out without injuring him. All

9075-449: The devils whisper from within the human body, within or next to the heart , and so "devilish whisperings" ( Arabic : waswās وَسْوَاس ) are sometimes thought of as a kind of possession. Unlike possession by jinn , the whispering of devils affects the soul instead of the body. Demons (also known as div ), though part of the human conception, get stronger through acts of sin. By acts of obedience (to God), they get weaker. Although

9196-531: The directions are dismissed and the circle is closed. A central aspect of Wicca (particularly in Gardnerian and Alexandrian Wicca), often sensationalised by the media is the traditional practice of working in the nude, also known as skyclad . Although no longer widely used, this practice seemingly derives from a line in Aradia , Charles Leland 's supposed record of Italian witchcraft. Many Wiccans believe that performing rituals skyclad allows "power" to flow from

9317-560: The early years by Maturidite scholars such as al-Rustughfanī . The Mu'tazila are associated with substituting jinn-possession by devilish-whisperings, denying bodily possession altogether. In contrast to jinn , the devils ( shayatin ) are inherently evil. Iblis , the father of the devils, dwells in the fires of hell, although not suffering wherein, he and his children try to draw people into damnation of hell. Devils don't physically possess people, they only tempt humans into sin by following their lower nafs . Hadiths suggest that

9438-478: The east coast of North America should invoke water in the east and not the west because the colossal body of water, the Atlantic Ocean , is to their east. Other Craft groups have associated the elements with different cardinal points, for instance Robert Cochrane 's Clan of Tubal Cain associated earth with south, fire with east, water with west and air with north, and each of which were controlled over by

9559-585: The evil eye directed at them. Showers are also seen as particularly vulnerable places where a jinn may attach themselves to a person. Zebola is a women's spirit possession dance ritual practised by certain ethnic groups of the Democratic Republic of the Congo . It is believed to have therapeutic qualities and has been noted in the West as a traditional form of psychotherapy . It originated among

9680-404: The existence of the supernatural but remain involved in Wicca because of its ritual experiences: she quoted one as saying that "I love myth, dream, visionary art. The Craft is a place where all of these things fit together – beauty, pageantry, music, dance, song, dream". The Wiccan practitioner and historian Aidan Kelly wrote that the practices and experiences within Wicca were more important than

9801-415: The extremities. If the victim does not recover naturally, a traditional healer, or sagwara , is summoned. Once the sagwara has determined the spirit's name through the use of divination, he prescribes a routine formula to exorcise the spirit. This is not a permanent cure, it merely allows the victim to form a relationship with the spirit while subject to chronic repossession, which is treated by repeating

9922-549: The formula. This formula involves the preparation and consumption of a dish of ensete , butter, and red pepper. During this ritual, the victim's head is covered with a drape, and he eats the ensete ravenously while other ritual participants participate by chanting. The ritual ends when the possessing spirit announces that it is satisfied. Shack notes that the victims are overwhelmingly poor men, and that women are not as food-deprived as men, due to ritual activities that involve food redistribution and consumption. Shack postulates that

10043-479: The goddess as "Lady" and the god as "Lord" to invoke their divinity . These two deities are sometimes viewed as facets of a universal pantheistic divinity, regarded as an impersonal force rather than a personal deity. Other traditions of Wicca embrace polytheism , pantheism , monism , and Goddess monotheism . Wiccan celebrations encompass both the cycles of the Moon , known as Esbats and commonly associated with

10164-779: The goddess", it is now generally accepted in all traditions of Wicca, with groups such as the Minoan Brotherhood openly basing their philosophy upon it. Nonetheless, a variety of viewpoints exist in Wicca around this point, with some covens adhering to a hetero-normative viewpoint. Carly B. Floyd of Illinois Wesleyan University has published an informative white paper on this subject: Mother Goddesses and Subversive Witches: Competing Narratives of Gender Essentialism, Heteronormativity, Feminism, and Queerness in Wiccan Theology and Ritual . The scholar of religion Joanne Pearson noted that in her experience, most Wiccans take

10285-410: The initiatory lineage of Gardner and consider Wicca specific to similar traditions, excluding newer, eclectic traditions. Other traditions, as well as scholars of religion, apply Wicca as a broad term for a religion with denominations that differ on some key points but share core beliefs and practices. Wicca is typically duotheistic , venerating both a Goddess and a God, traditionally conceived as

10406-458: The jinn afflicting them will be asked what it wants as it possesses them. Usually requests involve clothes and an animal for sacrifice. The atmosphere is festive, and participants wear bright clothes and henna. Aside from musicians, the participants are all women. The dances and lyrics are improvised. Those seen as particularly susceptible to jinn affliction are the victims and perpetrators of aggression, those who are frightened, and those who may have

10527-510: The jinn. Their relationship is rather described as mutual. The concept of jinn-possession is alien to the Quran and derives from pagan notions. It is widespread among Muslims and also accepted by most Islamic scholars. It is part of the aqida (theological doctrines) in the tradition of Ashari , and the Atharis , such as ibn Taimiyya and ibn Qayyim . Among Maturidites it is debated, as some accept it, but it has been challenged since

10648-440: The largest, best known, most influential, and most academically studied form of modern paganism. Within the movement, it has been identified as sitting on the eclectic end of the eclectic to reconstructionist spectrum . Several academics have also categorised Wicca as a form of nature religion , a term that is also embraced by many of its practitioners, and as a mystery religion . However, given that Wicca also incorporates

10769-495: The laws of space and time, they have an uncanny knowledge about the past, present, and future and a deep insight into human nature. Therefore many sorcerers seek to capture them and turn them into slaves. There is also a strong Vetala cult in the Konkan region, under the names of Betal , Vetal, Vetoba. Since Betal is said to be the husband of the goddess Shantadurga , there will be a temple dedicated in honour of Betal either within

10890-462: The living. Possession by a spirit in the African diaspora and traditional African religions can result in healing for the person possessed and information gained from possession as the spirit provides knowledge to the one they possessed. In Haitian Vodou and related African diaspora religions, one way that those who participate or practice can have a spiritual experience is by being possessed by

11011-494: The most of the present life, in all respects, then the next life is more or less certainly going to benefit from the process, and so one may as well concentrate on the present". It is nevertheless a common belief among Wiccans that human beings have a spirit or soul that survives bodily death. Understandings of what this soul constitutes vary among different traditions, with the Feri tradition of witchcraft, for instance, having adopted

11132-443: The natural world, for instance as genius loci , fairies , and elementals . In other cases, such beliefs are more idiosyncratic and atypical; Wiccan Sybil Leek for instance endorsed a belief in angels . Belief in the afterlife varies among Wiccans and does not occupy a central place within the religion. As the historian Ronald Hutton remarked, "the instinctual position of most [Wiccans] ... seems to be that if one makes

11253-738: The original Gardnerian God/Goddess duotheistic structure but have adopted deity forms other than that of the Horned God and Mother Goddess. For instance, the God has been interpreted as the Oak King and the Holly King , as well as the Sun God, Son/Lover God, and Vegetation God. He has also been seen in the roles of the Leader of the Wild Hunt and the Lord of Death. The Goddess is often portrayed as

11374-565: The path evolved from Western esotericism , developed in England during the first half of the 20th century, and was introduced to the public in 1954 by Gerald Gardner , a retired British civil servant . Wicca draws upon ancient pagan and 20th-century Hermetic motifs for theological and ritual purposes. Doreen Valiente joined Gardner in the 1950s, further building Wicca's liturgical tradition of beliefs, principles, and practices, disseminated through published books. Many variations of

11495-569: The people were amazed and said to each other, "What is this teaching? With authority and power he gives orders to evil spirits and they come out!" And the news about him spread throughout the surrounding area It also indicates that demons can possess animals as in the exorcism of the Gerasene demoniac . Roman Catholic doctrine states that angels are non-corporeal , spiritual beings with intelligence and will . Fallen angels , or demons , are able to "demonically possess" individuals without

11616-569: The performance of major exorcism . The standard that must be met is that of moral certitude ( De exorcismis , 16). For an exorcist to be morally certain, or beyond reasonable doubt, that he is dealing with a genuine case of demonic possession, there must be no other reasonable explanation for the phenomena in question". Official Catholic doctrine affirms that demonic possession can occur as distinguished from mental illness , but stresses that cases of mental illness should not be misdiagnosed as demonic influence. Catholic exorcisms can occur only under

11737-408: The person are possessed by a guiding spirit, the possessed person the give guidance to people that ask for consultation, they answer questions and sometimes explain rituals to help the consulting person to achieve their goals or solve problems in their life, exemples of such spirits are Pomba Gira (female guardian spirit) or Exu (male guardian spirit), who possesses both women and males. According to

11858-478: The practice of magic , several scholars have referred to it as a "magico-religion". Wicca is also a form of Western esotericism , and more specifically a part of the esoteric current known as occultism . Academics like Wouter Hanegraaff and Tanya Luhrmann have categorised Wicca as part of the New Age , although other academics, and many Wiccans themselves, dispute this categorisation. Although recognised as

11979-536: The present. This theology derived from Egyptologist Margaret Murray's claims about the witch-cult in her book The Witch-Cult in Western Europe published by Oxford University Press in 1921; she claimed that this cult had venerated a Horned God at the time of the Early Modern witch trials, but centuries before it had also worshipped a Mother Goddess. This duotheistic Horned God/Mother Goddess structure

12100-409: The question, the vetala would return to the tree, the corpse hanging upon it once more. This event occurs twenty-four times, after which the king is unable to answer the question posed by the vetala. Impressed with the king, the vetala informs him of the evil designs of the sorcerer, and grants him a gift that would allow him to acquire the powers of witchcraft and defeat the sorcerer. Vikram Vetal ,

12221-420: The religion have grown and evolved over time, associated with a number of diverse lineages, sects , and denominations , referred to as traditions , each with its own organisational structure and level of centralisation . Given its broadly decentralised nature, disagreements arise over the boundaries that define Wicca. Some traditions, collectively referred to as British Traditional Wicca (BTW), strictly follow

12342-502: The sacred space. In constructing his ritual system, Gardner drew upon older forms of ceremonial magic, in particular, those found in the writings of Aleister Crowley. The classical ritual scheme in British Traditional Wicca traditions is: These rites often include a special set of magical tools . These usually include a knife called an athame , a wand , a pentacle and a chalice , but other tools include

12463-578: The similar terminology of " left-hand path " to describe malevolent magic, and " right-hand path " to describe magic performed with good intentions; terminology that had originated with the occultist Helena Blavatsky in the 19th century. Some modern Wiccans, however, have stopped using the white/black magic and left/right-hand-path dichotomies, arguing for instance that the colour black should not necessarily have any associations with evil. Scholars of religion Rodney Stark and William Bainbridge claimed in 1985 that Wicca had "reacted to secularisation by

12584-511: The spirit describe the onset as a feeling of blackness or energy flowing through their body. The concept of spirit possession is also found in Umbanda , an Afro-Brazilian folk religion that has origins in Yoruba people . According to tradition, there is some guiding spirits that possess a voluntary person, this normally are made when there is a person that wants to ask for some guidance, when

12705-458: The spirits of the deceased, a belief adopted from Spiritualism . Many Wiccans believe in magic , a manipulative force exercised through the practice of " spellcraft ". Many Wiccans agree with the definition of magic offered by ceremonial magicians , such as Aleister Crowley , who declared that magic was "the science and art of causing change to occur in conformity with will", while another ceremonial magician, MacGregor Mathers stated that it

12826-402: The subconscious that could be evoked in ritual. It was for this reason, she said "The Goddess and God manifest to us in dream and vision". Wiccans often believe that the gods are not perfect and can be argued with. Many Wiccans also adopt a more explicitly polytheistic or animistic world-view of the universe as being replete with spirit-beings. In many cases these spirits are associated with

12947-579: The symptoms and signs prescribed by the Catholic church as vain (e.g. rage begotten from Holy Water , fear of the Cross , etc.) and found the exorcism rites to be troublesome and ineffective to recite. The Rites of the Catholic Church to remedy the torment of demonic spirits were rejected as counterfeit since few possessed could be cured by them. In James' view: "It is easy then to understand that

13068-526: The temple complex of Shantadurga or somewhere in the sylvan surroundings. There is a Betal temple in Amona, Goa. Betal is a form of Bhairava and is the head of all spirits and ghouls and vampires and all kinds of pisachas . The Vetala Panchavimshati is a collection of twenty-five stories, featuring a vetala as one of the two central characters. It is a part of the Kathasaritsagara , a work that

13189-424: The tradition everyone has a Pomba Gira and a Exu to can call for help and protection even if they don’t possess the person asking for help, and they can be called always the person feels necessary. Wicca Wicca ( English: / ˈ w ɪ k ə / ), also known as " The Craft ", is a modern pagan , syncretic , earth-centered religion . Considered a new religious movement by scholars of religion ,

13310-566: The victim's knowledge or consent, leaving them morally blameless. The Catholic Encyclopedia says that there is only one apparent case of demonic possession in the Old Testament, of King Saul being tormented by an "evil spirit" ( 1 Samuel 16:14), but this depends on interpreting the Hebrew word " rûah " as implying a personal influence which it may not; as a result, even this example is described as "not very certain". In addition, Saul

13431-507: The view that the Goddess is not an entity with a literal existence, but rather a Jungian archetype. As well as pantheism and duotheism , many Wiccans accept the concept of polytheism , thereby believing that there are many different deities . Some accept the view espoused by the occultist Dion Fortune that "all gods are one god, and all goddesses are one goddess" – that is that the gods and goddesses of all cultures are, respectively, aspects of one supernal God and Goddess. With this mindset,

13552-409: The whole of the religion rather than to a specific tradition. In following decades, members of certain traditions – those known as British Traditional Wicca – began claiming that only they should be called "Wiccan", and that other traditions must not use it. From the late 1980s onwards, various books propagating Wicca were published that again used the former, broader definition of the word. Thus, by

13673-402: The wider culture", one in which female practitioners can "redefine and empower themselves". Wiccan rituals usually take place in private. The Reclaiming tradition has utilised its rituals for political purposes. Practice in Wicca (including, as an example, matters such as the varying attributions of the elements to different directions discussed in the preceding section) varies widely due to

13794-447: The witch because she is imagined as powerful - she can make people sleep for one hundred years, she can see the future, she can curse and kill as well as heal   ... and of course, she can turn people into frogs!" Pearson says that Wicca "provides a framework in which the image of oneself as a witch can be explored and brought into a modern context". Identifying as a witch also enables Wiccans to link themselves with those persecuted in

13915-577: The witch trials of the Early Modern period, often referred to by Wiccans as "the Burning Times". Various practitioners have claimed that as many as nine million people were executed as witches in the Early Modern period, thus drawing comparisons with the killing of six million Jews in the Holocaust and presenting themselves, as modern witches, as "persecuted minorities". Bide the Wiccan laws ye must, in perfect love and perfect trust ... Mind

14036-627: Was "the science of the control of the secret forces of nature". Many Wiccans believe magic to be a law of nature, as yet misunderstood or disregarded by contemporary science, and as such they do not view it as being supernatural , but a part of what Leo Martello calls the "super powers that reside in the natural". Some Wiccans believe that magic is simply making full use of the five senses to achieve surprising results, whilst other Wiccans do not claim to know how magic works, merely believing that it does because they believe they have observed it to be so. During ritual practices, which are often staged in

14157-423: Was compiled no later than the 11th century. It features a frame story of a sorcerer who asks King Vikramaditya to capture a corpse hanging on a tree that stands in the middle of a cremation ground. The corpse is possessed by a vetala, who proposes to tell the king a story along the journey. After the vetala finishes the story, he would ask the king a question, which he would have to answer. After Vikramaditya answers

14278-429: Was embraced by Gardner – who claimed that it had Stone Age roots – and remains the underlying theological basis to his Gardnerian tradition. Gardner claimed that the names of these deities were to be kept secret within the tradition, although in 1964 they were publicly revealed to be Cernunnos and Aradia; the secret Gardnerian deity names were subsequently changed. Although different Wiccans attribute different traits to

14399-428: Was only described to be tormented, rather than possessed, and he was relieved from these torments by having David play the lyre to him. Catholic exorcists differentiate between "ordinary" Satanic/demonic activity or influence (mundane everyday temptations ) and "extraordinary" Satanic/demonic activity, which can take six different forms, ranging from complete control by Satan or demons to voluntary submission: In

14520-658: Was rewired and they were fixed." Members of the pastor's community found his comment to be "derogatory toward individuals with certain disabilities." Their public outcry led to Morrow's resignation from the school board on which he was a member. In both charismatic and evangelical Christianity, exorcisms of demons are often carried out by individuals or groups belong to the deliverance ministries movement. According to these groups, symptoms of such possessions can include chronic fatigue syndrome , homosexuality , addiction to pornography , and alcoholism . The New Testament's description of people who had evil spirits includes

14641-554: Was widely practiced in the late Second Temple Period and well documented in the period following the destruction of the Temple into the 3rd, 4th, and 5th centuries C.E. Jewish magical papyri were inscriptions on amulets , ostraca and incantation bowls used in Jewish magical practices against shedim and other unclean spirits . According to the Catholic Encyclopedia , Jewish methods of exorcism were described in

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