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192-606: The Realm or Kingdom of Candia ( Venetian : Regno de Càndia ; Italian : Regno di Candia ) or Duchy of Candia (Venetian: Dogado de Càndia ; Italian: Ducato di Candia ) was the official name of Crete during the island's period as an overseas colony of the Republic of Venice , from the initial Venetian conquest in 1205–1212 to its fall to the Ottoman Empire during the Cretan War (1645–1669). The island

384-710: A literary language , Venetian was overshadowed by Dante Alighieri 's Tuscan dialect (the best known writers of the Renaissance, such as Petrarch , Boccaccio and Machiavelli , were Tuscan and wrote in the Tuscan language) and languages of France like the Occitano-Romance languages and the langues d'oïl including the mixed Franco-Venetian . Even before the demise of the Republic, Venetian gradually ceased to be used for administrative purposes in favor of

576-463: A base of operations for the rebels in their guerrilla warfare against the Venetian authorities. However, the famine of 1365 severely weakened the rebellion. The Venetian rebel leaders were captured through treason and tortured to death, with only Tito Venier escaping this fate by leaving the island. Hunger and fear forced the eastern part of the island to submit to Venice, but the rebellion continued in

768-589: A compensation for the fact that the 2nd- and 3rd-person inflections for most verbs, which are still distinct in Italian and many other Romance languages, are identical in Venetian. The Piedmontese language also has clitic subject pronouns, but the rules are somewhat different. The function of clitics is particularly visible in long sentences, which do not always have clear intonational breaks to easily tell apart vocative and imperative in sharp commands from exclamations with "shouted indicative". For instance, in Venetian

960-723: A decade many were allowed to return and even reclaim their possessions on Crete. During the Third Ottoman–Venetian War , the Ottomans demanded the recognition of the Sultan's overlordship over Crete and the payment of an annual tribute. In June 1538, the Ottoman admiral Hayreddin Barbarossa captured Mylopotamos , Apokoronas , and Kerameia , besieged Chania without success, and then marched to Rethymno and Candia. It

1152-648: A factor in ending the Byzantine Empire as the loss of the Anatolian themes , after Manzikert . Although the Byzantines recovered control of the ravaged city a half-century later, the Byzantine Empire was terminally weakened, and existed as a ghost of its old self, until Sultan Mehmet The Conqueror took the city in 1453 . Situated on the Adriatic Sea , Venice had always traded extensively with

1344-487: A foreign order without the government's consent. Venice remained a republic throughout its independent period, and politics and the military were kept separate, except when on occasion the Doge personally headed the military. War was regarded as a continuation of commerce by other means. Therefore, the city's early employment of large numbers of mercenaries for service elsewhere, and later its reliance on foreign mercenaries when

1536-413: A lesser extent of timber and cheese. Venetian rule over Crete proved troubled from the beginning, as it encountered the hostility of the local populace. In the words of the medievalist Kenneth Setton , it required "an unceasing vigilance and a large investment in men and money to hold on to the island". No fewer than 27 large and small uprisings or conspiracies are documented during Venetian rule. Although

1728-482: A nasal, whereas Italian only uses [ ŋ ] before velar stops: e.g. [kaŋˈtaɾ] "to sing", [iŋˈvɛɾno] "winter", [ˈoŋzaɾ] "to anoint", [ɾaŋˈdʒaɾse] "to cope with". Speakers of Italian generally lack this sound and usually substitute a dental [ n ] for final Venetian [ ŋ ] , changing for example [maˈniŋ] to [maˈnin] and [maˈɾiŋ] to [maˈrin] . An accented á

1920-479: A powerful maritime empire (an Italian thalassocracy known also as repubblica marinara ). In addition to Venice there were seven others: the most important ones were Genoa , Pisa , and Amalfi ; and the lesser known were Ragusa , Ancona , Gaeta and Noli . Its own strategic position at the head of the Adriatic made Venetian naval and commercial power almost invulnerable. With the elimination of pirates along

2112-806: A practice dating to c.  1130 ) and confirmed as late as 1198 in a treaty with Emperor Alexios III Angelos . These same locations were largely allocated to the Republic of Venice in the partition of the Byzantine Empire that followed the capture of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade , in April 1204: in addition to the Ionian Islands , the Saronic Gulf islands and the Cyclades , she obtained several coastal outposts on

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2304-482: A retaliation, the authorities banned the ordination of Orthodox priests for five years. Another conspiracy was betrayed in 1460, causing the Venetians to launch a persecution of many locals, as well as Greek refugees from mainland Greece. The protopapas of Rethymno, Petros Tzangaropoulos, was among the leaders of the conspiracy. Although the revolutionary agitation subsided, the authorities remained nervous; in 1463,

2496-509: A saddlebag. His Aldine Editions included translations of nearly all the known Greek manuscripts of the era. Venice's long decline started in the 15th century. Venice confronted the Ottoman Empire in the Siege of Thessalonica (1422–1430) and sent ships to help defend Constantinople against the besieging Turks in 1453. After the Fall of Constantinople , Sultan Mehmed II declared the first of

2688-487: A senator-like assembly of nobles, and the general citizenry with limited political power, who originally had the power to grant or withhold their approval of each newly elected doge. Church and various private property was tied to military service, although there was no knight tenure within the city itself. The Cavalieri di San Marco was the only order of chivalry ever instituted in Venice, and no citizen could accept or join

2880-526: A series of Ottoman-Venetian wars that cost Venice much of its eastern Mediterranean possessions. Vasco da Gama 's 1497–1499 voyage opened a sea route to India around the Cape of Good Hope and destroyed Venice's monopoly. Venice's oared vessels were at a disadvantage when it came to traversing oceans, therefore Venice was left behind in the race for colonies . The Black Death devastated Venice in 1348 and struck again between 1575 and 1577. In three years,

3072-528: A special interrogative verbal flexion used for direct questions, which also incorporates a redundant pronoun: Reflexive tenses use the auxiliary verb avér ("to have"), as in English, the North Germanic languages , Catalan, Spanish, Romanian and Neapolitan; instead of èssar ("to be"), which would be normal in Italian. The past participle is invariable, unlike Italian: Another peculiarity of

3264-676: A viceroy (the Exarch ) appointed by the Emperor in Constantinople . Ravenna and Venice were connected by just sea routes, and with the Venetians' isolation came increasing autonomy. New ports were built, including those at Malamocco and Torcello in the Venetian lagoon. The tribuni maiores formed the earliest central standing governing committee of the islands in the lagoon, dating from c.  568 . The traditional first doge of Venice , Paolo Lucio Anafesto (Anafestus Paulicius),

3456-588: A walled defense ( civitatis murus ) between Olivolo and Rialto, were subsequently built here. Charlemagne sought to subdue the city to his rule. He ordered the pope to expel the Venetians from the Pentapolis along the Adriatic coast; Charlemagne's own son Pepin of Italy , king of the Lombards, under the authority of his father, embarked on a siege of Venice itself. This, however, proved a costly failure. The siege lasted six months, with Pepin's army ravaged by

3648-427: A weakened or lenited ("evanescent") ⟨l⟩ , which in some orthographic norms is indicated with the letter ⟨ ł ⟩ or ⟨ ƚ ⟩ ; in more conservative dialects, however, ⟨l⟩ and ⟨ł⟩ are merged as ordinary [ l ] . In those dialects that have both types, the precise phonetic realization of ⟨ł⟩ depends both on its phonological environment and on

3840-535: A widespread literature using the local idiom emerged, culminating with the early 17th-century romances Erotokritos and Erophile . After the Ottoman conquest of Cyprus in 1571, Crete was Venice's last major overseas possession. The Republic's relative military weakness, coupled with the island's wealth and its strategic location controlling the waterways of the Eastern Mediterranean attracted

4032-430: Is 3.3 °C (37.9 °F), and for July this figure is 23.0 °C (73.4 °F). Precipitation is spread relatively evenly throughout the year, and averages 748 millimetres (29.4 in); snow isn't a rarity between late November and early March. During the most severe winters, the canals and parts of the lagoon can freeze, but with the warming trend of the past 30–40 years, the occurrence has become rarer. The city

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4224-405: Is a "semi-analytical" verbal flexion, with a compulsory clitic subject pronoun before the verb in many sentences, echoing the subject as an ending or a weak pronoun. Independent/emphatic pronouns (e.g. ti ), on the contrary, are optional. The clitic subject pronoun ( te, el/ła, i/łe ) is used with the 2nd and 3rd person singular, and with the 3rd person plural. This feature may have arisen as

4416-635: Is adjacent to a front vowel ( ⟨i e⟩ ). In dialects further inland ⟨ł⟩ may be realized as a partially vocalised ⟨l⟩ . Thus, for example, góndoła 'gondola' may sound like góndoea [ˈɡoŋdoe̯a] , góndola [ˈɡoŋdola] , or góndoa [ˈɡoŋdoa] . In dialects having a null realization of intervocalic ⟨ł⟩ , although pairs of words such as scóła , "school" and scóa , "broom" are homophonous (both being pronounced [ˈskoa] ), they are still distinguished orthographically. Venetian, like Spanish, does not have

4608-630: Is also spoken in North and South America by the descendants of Italian immigrants. Notable examples of this are Argentina and Brazil , particularly the city of São Paulo and the Talian dialect spoken in the Brazilian states of Espírito Santo , São Paulo , Paraná , Rio Grande do Sul and Santa Catarina . In Mexico , the Chipilo Venetian dialect is spoken in the state of Puebla and

4800-694: Is built on a group of 126 islands that are separated by expanses of open water and by canals; portions of the city are linked by 472 bridges. The islands are in the shallow Venetian Lagoon , an enclosed bay lying between the mouths of the Po and the Piave rivers (more exactly between the Brenta and the Sile ). In 2020, around 258,685 people resided in greater Venice or the Comune di Venezia , of whom around 51,000 live in

4992-407: Is further supported by the documentation on the so-called "apostolic families", the twelve founding families of Venice who elected the first doge , who in most cases trace their lineage back to Roman families. Some late Roman sources reveal the existence of fishermen, on the islands in the original marshy lagoons, who were referred to as incolae lacunae ("lagoon dwellers"). The traditional founding

5184-627: Is identified with the dedication of the first church, that of San Giacomo on the islet of Rialto ( Rivoalto , "High Shore")—said to have taken place at the stroke of noon on 25 March 421 (the Feast of the Annunciation ). Beginning as early as AD 166–168, the Quadi and Marcomanni destroyed the main Roman town in the area, present-day Oderzo . This part of Roman Italy was again overrun in

5376-471: Is located in northeastern Italy, in the Veneto region. The city is situated on a group of 118 small islands that are separated by canals and linked by 438 bridges. The historic center of Venice is divided into six districts, or sestieri, which are named Cannaregio , Castello, Dorsoduro , San Marco, San Polo, and Santa Croce. Venice sits atop alluvial silt washed into the sea by the rivers flowing eastward from

5568-405: Is now pronounced either as [ dz ] (Italian voiced-Z ), or more typically as [ z ] (Italian voiced-S , written ⟨x⟩ , as in el pianxe ); in a few dialects the sound appears as [ d ] and may therefore be written instead with the letter ⟨d⟩ , as in el piande . Some varieties of Venetian also distinguish an ordinary [ l ] vs.

5760-673: Is one of the Italo-Dalmatian languages and most closely related to Istriot on the one hand and Tuscan – Italian on the other. Some authors include it among the Gallo-Italic languages , and according to others, it is not related to either one. Although both Ethnologue and Glottolog group Venetian into the Gallo-Italic languages, the linguists Giacomo Devoto and Francesco Avolio and the Treccani encyclopedia reject

5952-454: Is pronounced as [ ɐ ], (an intervocalic / u / could be pronounced as a [ w ] sound). While written Venetian looks similar to Italian, it sounds very different, with a distinct lilting cadence, almost musical. Compared to Italian, in Venetian syllabic rhythms are more evenly timed, accents are less marked, but on the other hand tonal modulation is much wider and melodic curves are more intricate. Stressed and unstressed syllables sound almost

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6144-593: Is pronounced the same as Castilian Spanish cena (which has the same meaning). The voiceless interdental fricative occurs in Bellunese, north-Trevisan, and in some Central Venetian rural areas around Padua, Vicenza and the mouth of the river Po . Because the pronunciation variant [ θ ] is more typical of older speakers and speakers living outside of major cities, it has come to be socially stigmatized, and most speakers now use [ s ] or [ ts ] instead of [ θ ] . In those dialects with

6336-595: Is spoken mainly in the Italian regions of Veneto and Friuli-Venezia Giulia and in both Slovenia and Croatia ( Istria , Dalmatia and the Kvarner Gulf ). Smaller communities are found in Lombardy ( Mantua ), Trentino , Emilia-Romagna ( Rimini and Forlì ), Sardinia ( Arborea , Terralba , Fertilia ), Lazio ( Pontine Marshes ), Tuscany ( Grossetan Maremma ) and formerly in Romania ( Tulcea ). It

6528-486: Is to fix a series of 78 hollow pontoons to the sea bed across the three entrances to the lagoon. When tides are predicted to rise above 110 centimetres (43 in), the pontoons will be filled with air, causing them to float on lagoon side while hinged at sea floor on seaside, thus blocking the incoming water from the Adriatic Sea. This engineering work was due to be completed by 2018. A Reuters report stated that

6720-571: Is used only in Veneto dialects of Venetian language. It will suffice to know that in Venetian language the letter L in word-initial and intervocalic positions usually becomes a "palatal allomorph", and is barely pronounced. Very few Venetic words seem to have survived in present Venetian, but there may be more traces left in the morphology, such as the morpheme - esto / asto / isto for the past participle, which can be found in Venetic inscriptions from about 500 BC: A peculiarity of Venetian grammar

6912-603: The Libro d'Oro of the Venetian nobility, but Kallergis' loyalty to Venice provoked the enmity of the other great Cretan families, who tried to assassinate him at Mylopotamos. Alexios Kallergis therefore spent his last years, until his death in 1321, in Candia. His enemies continued to try to assassinate him, but only managed to kill his son, Andreas, with many of his entourage. The peace established by Kallergis lasted until 1333, when Duke Viago Zeno ordered additional taxes to finance

7104-521: The Adriatic ", "City of Water", "City of Masks", "City of Bridges", "The Floating City", and "City of Canals". The lagoon and the historic parts of the city within the lagoon were inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987, covering an area of 70,176.4 hectares (173,410 acres). Parts of Venice are renowned for the beauty of their settings, their architecture , and artwork. Venice is known for several important artistic movements – especially during

7296-491: The Dalmatian coast , the city became a flourishing trade centre between Western Europe and the rest of the world, especially with the Byzantine Empire and Asia , where its navy protected sea routes against piracy. The Republic of Venice seized a number of places on the eastern shores of the Adriatic before 1200, mostly for commercial reasons, because pirates based there were a menace to trade. The doge already possessed

7488-611: The Great Council , which was made up of members of the noble families of Venice. The Great Council appointed all public officials, and elected a Senate of 200 to 300 individuals. Since this group was too large for efficient administration, a Council of Ten (also called the Ducal Council, or the Signoria), controlled much of the administration of the city. One member of the great council was elected " doge ", or duke, to be

7680-573: The Italian Renaissance – and has played an important role in the history of instrumental and operatic music; it is the birthplace of Baroque music composers Tomaso Albinoni and Antonio Vivaldi . In the 21st century, Venice remains a very popular tourist destination, a major cultural centre, and has often been ranked one of the most beautiful cities in the world. It has been described by The Times as one of Europe's most romantic cities and by The New York Times as "undoubtedly

7872-603: The Italian Wars , marginalising its political influence. However, Venice remained a major exporter of agricultural products and until the mid-18th century, a significant manufacturing centre. The Republic of Venice lost its independence when Napoleon Bonaparte conquered Venice on 12 May 1797 during the War of the First Coalition . Napoleon was seen as something of a liberator by the city's Jewish population. He removed

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8064-454: The Italo-Dalmatian branch of Romance. Like all members of the Romance language family , Venetian evolved from Vulgar Latin , and is thus a sister language of Italian and other Romance languages. Venetian is first attested in writing in the 13th century. The language enjoyed substantial prestige in the days of the Republic of Venice , when it attained the status of a lingua franca in

8256-516: The Mediterranean Sea . Notable Venetian-language authors include the playwrights Ruzante (1502–1542), Carlo Goldoni (1707–1793) and Carlo Gozzi (1720–1806). Following the old Italian theatre tradition ( commedia dell'arte ), they used Venetian in their comedies as the speech of the common folk. They are ranked among the foremost Italian theatrical authors of all time, and plays by Goldoni and Gozzi are still performed today all over

8448-591: The Metropolitan of Athens Anthimos to the island as proedros (ecclesiastical locum tenens ) of Crete. Venice reacted by securing a declaration from the Pope granting absolution to any soldier fighting against the rebels, and engaging in extensive recruitment of mercenaries, including Turks. Nevertheless, the rebels managed to extend their reach into eastern Crete, with the Lasithi plateau once again becoming

8640-602: The Morean War failed, and these last Venetian outposts were finally taken by the Turks in 1715, during the last Ottoman–Venetian War . Venice had a long history of trade contact with Crete ; the island was one of the numerous cities and islands throughout Greece where the Venetians had enjoyed tax-exempted trade by virtue of repeated chrysobulls granted by the Byzantine emperors , beginning in 1147 (and in turn codifying

8832-632: The Suez Canal , which opened in 1869, between Asia and Central Europe, while Venice very quickly lost its competitive edge and commercial strength. During World War II , the historic city was largely free from attack, the only aggressive effort of note being Operation Bowler , a successful Royal Air Force precision strike on the German naval operations in the city in March 1945. The targets were destroyed with virtually no architectural damage inflicted on

9024-527: The Venetian dialectal equivalent of the Latin dux ("leader"); the corresponding word in English is duke , in standard Italian duca (see also " duce ".) Whatever his original views, Ursus supported Emperor Leo III's successful military expedition to recover Ravenna, sending both men and ships. In recognition of this, Venice was "granted numerous privileges and concessions" and Ursus, who had personally taken

9216-675: The destructive earthquake of that year, that had left the Venetian authorities in disarray. Later, in 1311, a letter by the Duke of Crete requests of him to gather information about insurrectionist agitation in Sfakia. When another revolt broke out in Sfakia in 1319, Kallergis interceded with the rebels and Duke Giustiniani to put an end to it. On the same year, minor uprisings by the Vlastoi and Barouches were also ended after Kallergis' intervention. The Venetians rewarded him by inscribing his family into

9408-593: The geminate consonants characteristic of standard Italian, Tuscan, Neapolitan and other languages of southern Italy; thus Italian fette ("slices"), palla ("ball") and penna ("pen") correspond to féte , bała , and péna in Venetian. The masculine singular noun ending, corresponding to -o / -e in Italian, is often unpronounced in Venetian after continuants, particularly in rural varieties: Italian pieno ("full") corresponds to Venetian pien , Italian altare to Venetian altar . The extent to which final vowels are deleted varies by dialect:

9600-597: The plague killed some 50,000 people. In 1630, the Italian plague of 1629–31 killed a third of Venice's 150,000 citizens. Venice began to lose the position as a centre of international trade during the later part of the Renaissance as Portugal became Europe's principal intermediary in the trade with the East, striking at the very foundation of Venice's great wealth. France and Spain fought for hegemony over Italy in

9792-642: The reconquest of Constantinople in 1261, and the restoration of the Byzantine Empire under the Palaiologos dynasty , Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos endeavoured to recover Crete as well. A certain Sergios was sent to the island, and made contact with the Greek nobles Georgios Chortatzes and Michael Skordiles Psaromelingos. This led to the outbreak of another uprising in 1262, again led by the Skordilides,

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9984-453: The subjunctive mood is widely used in subordinate clauses . Some dialects of Venetian have certain sounds not present in Italian, such as the interdental voiceless fricative [ θ ] , often spelled with ⟨ç⟩ , ⟨z⟩ , ⟨zh⟩ , or ⟨ž⟩ , and similar to English th in thing and thought . This sound occurs, for example, in çéna ("supper", also written zhena, žena ), which

10176-580: The "flower of the Venetian colony of Candia" fell. The rebels laid siege to Candia, but on the verge of success, the rebellion began to fall apart due to dissensions among the Cretan nobles: the Psaromelingoi fell out with the Chortatzes clan after one of their own killed a Chortatzes over the division of the spoils, while at the same time Alexios Kallergis openly collaborated with the Venetians. With

10368-635: The 'Captain of the Guard [Fleet] of Crete' ( Capitano alla guardia di Candia ) commanded the local naval forces. Just like the city of Venice itself , the "Venice of the East" was initially divided into six provinces, or sestieri . From east to west these were: From the early 14th century on, the island was divided into four larger provinces ( territoria ): With the creation of the territoria , rectors ( rettori ) began to be appointed in their capitals, with civil and held limited military authority in their province: from 1307 in Chania and Rethymno, and from 1314 in Siteia. The rettore of Chania originally

10560-414: The 10th century BC. The city was historically the capital of the Republic of Venice for almost a millennium, from 810 to 1797. It was a major financial and maritime power during the Middle Ages and Renaissance , and a staging area for the Crusades and the Battle of Lepanto , as well as an important centre of commerce—especially silk, grain, and spice , and of art from the 13th century to

10752-441: The 14th century to some extent. Other noteworthy variants are: Like most Romance languages, Venetian has mostly abandoned the Latin case system , in favor of prepositions and a more rigid subject–verb–object sentence structure. It has thus become more analytic , if not quite as much as English. Venetian also has the Romance articles , both definite (derived from the Latin demonstrative ille ) and indefinite (derived from

10944-590: The 15-17th Centuries. Georgios Hortatzis was author of the dramatic work Erophile . The painter Domenicos Theotocopoulos , better known as El Greco , was born in Crete in this period and was trained in Byzantine iconography before moving to Italy and later, Spain. [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] 35°19′N 25°08′E  /  35.317°N 25.133°E  / 35.317; 25.133 Venetian language Although referred to as an "Italian dialect" (Venetian: diałeto ; Italian : dialetto ) even by some of its speakers,

11136-465: The 2010 2nd Regional ad hoc Commission of the Regione del Veneto. The Academia de ła Bona Creansa – Academy of the Venetian Language, an NGO accredited according to the UNESCO 2003 Convention for the Venetian language and culture had already worked, tested, applied and certified a full writing system (presented in a scientific publication in linguistics in 2016), known with the DECA acronym ( Drio El Costumar de l'Academia , i.e. literally According to

11328-432: The 20th century also saw many Venetian-speakers settle in other regions of Italy, especially in the Pontine Marshes of southern Lazio where they populated new towns such as Latina , Aprilia and Pomezia , forming there the so-called " Venetian-Pontine " community ( comunità venetopontine ). Some firms have chosen to use Venetian language in advertising, as a beer did some years ago ( Xe foresto solo el nome , 'only

11520-468: The Alps across the Veneto plain, with the silt being stretched into long banks, or lidi , by the action of the current flowing around the head of the Adriatic Sea from east to west. Subsidence , the gradual lowering of the surface of Venice, has contributed – along with other factors – to the seasonal Acqua alta ("high water") when the city's lowest lying surfaces may be covered at high tide. Those fleeing barbarian invasions who found refuge on

11712-540: The Austrian-held Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia . In 1848 a revolt briefly re-established the Venetian republic under Daniele Manin , but this was crushed in 1849. In 1866, after the Third Italian War of Independence , Venice, along with the rest of the Veneto, became part of the newly created Kingdom of Italy . From the middle of the 18th century, Trieste and papal Ancona , both of which became free ports, competed with Venice more and more economically. Habsburg Trieste in particular boomed and increasingly served trade via

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11904-409: The Byzantine Empire and the Middle East . By the late 13th century, Venice was the most prosperous city in all of Europe. At the peak of its power and wealth, it had 36,000 sailors operating 3,300 ships, dominating Mediterranean commerce. Venice's leading families vied with each other to build the grandest palaces and to support the work of the greatest and most talented artists. The city was governed by

12096-406: The Cretan nobleman Matthaios Kallergis managed to calm down spirits, and restore order. Two years later, in 1573, the area around Chania was raided. Another conflict broke out in November 1571, when the Venetian governor, Marino Cavalli , moved to subdue the area of Sfakia . The isolated and mountainous area had always remained free of effective Venetian control, and their raids in the lowlands and

12288-405: The Cretan nobles, awarding two more knightly fiefs to their leaders, and allowing the safe departure of Sergios from Crete. On the very next year, however, rumours spread that the Cretan nobles, including the Chortatzes brothers George and Theodore, but also Alexios Kallergis, were plotting another uprising. The dynamic intervention of the Duke Giovanni Velenio , and Kallergis' own misgivings, led to

12480-440: The Drakontopouloi, along with the remnants of the Nicaean troops (the so-called " Anatolikoi ") continued the fight, based on the fortress of Mirabello (modern Agios Nikolaos ). It was only with the aid of the autonomous Greek lord of Rhodes , Leo Gabalas , that the Venetians were able to force their withdrawal to Asia Minor in 1236. The fate of the Drakontopouloi is unknown, and they are no longer attested thereafter. Following

12672-706: The Gallo-Italic classification. Although the language region is surrounded by Gallo-Italic languages , Venetian does not share some traits with these immediate neighbors. Some scholars stress Venetian's characteristic lack of Gallo-Italic traits ( agallicità ) or traits found further afield in Gallo-Romance languages (e.g. French, Franco-Provençal ) or the Rhaeto-Romance languages (e.g. Friulian , Romansh ). For example, Venetian did not undergo vowel rounding or nasalization, palatalize /kt/ and /ks/ , or develop rising diphthongs /ei/ and /ou/ , and it preserved final syllables, whereas, as in Italian , Venetian diphthongization occurs in historically open syllables. On

12864-403: The Greek mainland of interest as bases for her maritime commerce. Finally, on 12 August 1204, the Venetians preempted their traditional rivals, the Genoese , to acquire Crete from Boniface of Montferrat . Boniface had allegedly been promised the island by the Byzantine emperor Alexios IV Angelos , but as he had little use for it, he sold it in exchange for 1,000 silver marks, an annual portion of

13056-445: The Kallergis clan, and the revolt spread quickly to the rest of the island: in all major cities, the Venetian authorities were overthrown. Venice tried to negotiate with the rebels, but after this effort failed, it began assembling a large expeditionary force to recover the island by force. The army was headed by the Veronese mercenary captain Lucino dal Verme and the fleet by Domenico Michiele. Once news of this arrived in Crete, many of

13248-417: The MOSE Project attributed the delay to "corruption scandals". The project is not guaranteed to be successful and the cost has been very high, with as much as approximately €2 billion of the cost lost to corruption. According to a spokesman for the National Trust of Italy ( Fondo Ambiente Italiano ): Mose is a pharaonic project that should have cost €800m [£675m] but will cost at least €7bn [£6bn]. If

13440-407: The Melissenoi, and the Chortatzes family, and supported by the Orthodox clergy. The rebellion raged for four years, but its prospects were never good; not only was Michael VIII unable to send any substantial aid, but the influential Greek noble Alexios Kallergis refused to support it, fearing the loss of his privileges. Finally, in 1265 another treaty ended the uprising, reconfirming the privileges of

13632-419: The Republic until its expansion into the northern Italian mainland (the Terraferma ) in the early 15th century. In addition to the unfamiliar challenges of governing a territory of such size and eminence, the distance of Crete from the metropolis—about a month's journey by galley—raised dangers and complications. As a result, unlike other colonies, where the Venetian government was content to allow governance by

13824-473: The Skordyles family by the Venetian rector of Monopari (Venetian Bonrepare), and the failure of the Duke of Crete, Paolo Querini , to provide redress, resulted in the outbreak of a major rebellion, led by the Greek nobles Constantine Skordyles and Michael Melissenos. Based in the two mountainous provinces of Upper Syvritos and Lower Syvritos, the rebels inflicted successive defeats on the Venetian troops, and

14016-461: The Theologian on Patmos were confirmed, and Venetian citizens became liable for punishment for crimes against the Cretan commoners ( villani ). In exchange, the Cretan nobles swore allegiance to the Republic of Venice. This treaty had major repercussions, as it began the formation of a native Cretan noble class, set on equal footing with the Venetian colonial aristocracy. However, the arrival of

14208-785: The Tuscan-derived Italian language that had been proposed and used as a vehicle for a common Italian culture, strongly supported by eminent Venetian humanists and poets, from Pietro Bembo (1470–1547), a crucial figure in the development of the Italian language itself, to Ugo Foscolo (1778–1827). Venetian spread to other continents as a result of mass migration from the Veneto region between 1870 and 1905, and between 1945 and 1960. Venetian migrants created large Venetian-speaking communities in Argentina , Brazil (see Talian ), and Mexico (see Chipilo Venetian dialect ), where

14400-737: The Use of the Academia ). The DECA writing system has been officialized by the Veneto Region under the name Grafia Veneta Internazionale Moderna , by unanimous vote of the Commissione Grafia e Toponomastica (i.e. Script and Topononymy Committee of the Venetian language on December 14, 2017, and available at portal of the Venetian Regional Council dedicated to the Venetian language . The same writing system

14592-642: The Venetian colonists consciously maintained themselves apart; until the end of the 13th century, even mixed marriages between native Cretans and Venetians were prohibited. Already in 1212, the Hagiostephanites brothers rose in revolt in the Lasithi Plateau , possibly caused by the arrival of the first Venetian colonists, and the expropriation of the Cretan nobles and the Orthodox Church on the island. The rebellion soon spread throughout

14784-523: The Venetian feudal lords, led by the Gradenigo and Venier families, rose in rebellion on 9 August 1363. This " Revolt of Saint Titus ", as it became known, abolished the Venetian authorities in Candia and declared the island an independent state, the "Republic of Saint Titus", after the island's patron saint . The rebels sought the assistance of the Greek population, promising equality between Catholics and Orthodox. Several Greek nobles joined them, including

14976-764: The Venetians transported slaves from the Balkans across the Adriatic Sea to Chios or Candia in the Aegean Sea , from which they were sold on to either slavery in Spain in the West or slavery in Egypt in the South. Furthermore, they established a feudal state and administered a strict capitalist system for exploiting the island's agricultural produce. Exported products consisted primarily of wheat and sweet wine ( malmsey ), and to

15168-492: The acquisition, from Alexandria , of relics claimed to be of St Mark the Evangelist ; these were placed in the new basilica. Winged lions – visible throughout Venice – are the emblem of St Mark . The patriarchal seat was also moved to Rialto. As the community continued to develop, and as Byzantine power waned, its own autonomy grew, leading to eventual independence. From the 9th to the 12th centuries, Venice developed into

15360-473: The architecture and culture that can still be seen today. The Venetian Arsenal is considered by several historians to be the first factory in history, and was the base of Venice's naval power. The sovereignty of Venice came to an end in 1797, at the hands of Napoleon . Subsequently, in 1866, the city became part of the Kingdom of Italy . Venice has been known as "La Dominante", "La Serenissima", "Queen of

15552-420: The area, allowing its inhabitants to return to their homes, but soon Sfakia again became a hotbed of disorder, so that in 1608, the governor Nicolas Sagredo prepared to invade the area again, only for the plan to be dismissed by his successor, who restored order by personally touring the region. The conquest of Crete brought Venice its first major colony; indeed, the island would remain the largest possession of

15744-444: The arrival of substantial reinforcements from Venice, the uprising was finally defeated in 1278. Unlike with previous rebellions, the Venetians refused a negotiated settlement, and suppressed the revolt with a campaign of terror involving mass reprisals. The Chortatzes family and many of their supporters fled to Asia Minor, where several entered Byzantine service, but the brutal repression of the Venetians created an unbridgeable gulf with

15936-456: The attention of the Ottoman Empire . In the long and devastating Cretan War (1645–1669) , the two states fought over the possession of Crete: the Ottomans quickly overran most of the island, but failed to take Candia, which held out, aided by Venetian naval superiority and Ottoman distractions elsewhere, until 1669. Only the three island fortresses of Souda , Gramvousa and Spinalonga remained in Venetian hands. Attempts to recover Candia during

16128-451: The barriers are closed at only 90 cm of high water, most of St Mark's will be flooded anyway; but if closed at very high levels only, then people will wonder at the logic of spending such sums on something that didn't solve the problem. And pressure will come from the cruise ships to keep the gates open. On 13 November 2019, Venice was flooded when waters peaked at 1.87 m (6 ft), the highest tide since 1966 (1.94 m). More than 80% of

16320-480: The cause. The sinking has slowed markedly since artesian wells were banned in the 1960s. However, the city is still threatened by more frequent low-level floods – the Acqua alta , that rise to a height of several centimetres over its quays – regularly following certain tides. In many old houses, staircases once used to unload goods are now flooded, rendering the former ground floor uninhabitable. Studies indicate that

16512-758: The central–southern varieties delete vowels only after / n / , whereas the northern variety deletes vowels also after dental stops and velars; the eastern and western varieties are in between these two extremes. The velar nasal [ ŋ ] (the final sound in English "song") occurs frequently in Venetian. A word-final / n / is always velarized, which is especially obvious in the pronunciation of many local Venetian surnames that end in ⟨n⟩ , such as Mari n [maˈɾiŋ] and Mani n [maˈniŋ] , as well as in common Venetian words such as ma n ( [ˈmaŋ] "hand"), piro n ( [piˈɾoŋ] "fork"). Moreover, Venetian always uses [ ŋ ] in consonant clusters that start with

16704-414: The chief executive; he would usually hold the title until his death, although several Doges were forced, by pressure from their oligarchical peers, to resign and retire into monastic seclusion, when they were felt to have been discredited by political failure. The Venetian governmental structure was similar in some ways to the republican system of ancient Rome, with an elected chief executive (the doge),

16896-430: The city and region, which is why the modern language has a similar name, while their language may have also left a few traces in modern Venetian as a substrate . The main regional varieties and subvarieties of Venetian language: All these variants are mutually intelligible, with a minimum 92% in common among the most diverging ones (Central and Western). Modern speakers reportedly can still understand Venetian texts from

17088-466: The city continues sinking at a relatively slow rate of 1–2   mm per year; therefore, the state of alert has not been revoked. In May 2003, Italian Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi inaugurated the MOSE Project ( Italian : Modulo Sperimentale Elettromeccanico ), an experimental model for evaluating the performance of hollow floatable gates, expected to be completed in late 2023; the idea

17280-457: The city is often threatened by flood tides pushing in from the Adriatic . Six hundred years ago, Venetians protected themselves from land-based attacks by diverting all the major rivers flowing into the lagoon and thus preventing sediment from filling the area around the city. This created an ever-deeper lagoon environment. Additionally, the lowest part of Venice, St Mark's Basilica , is only 64 centimetres (25 in) above sea level, and one of

17472-606: The city itself. However, the industrial areas in Mestre and Marghera and the railway lines to Padua, Trieste, and Trento were repeatedly bombed . On 29 April 1945, a force of British and New Zealand troops of the British Eighth Army , under Lieutenant General Freyberg , liberated Venice, which had been a hotbed of anti-Mussolini Italian partisan activity. Venice was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987, inscribing it as "Venice and its Lagoon". Venice

17664-484: The city was covered by water, which damaged cultural heritage sites, including more than 50 churches, leading to tourists cancelling their visits. The planned flood barrier would have prevented this incident according to various sources, including Marco Piana, the head of conservation at St Mark's Basilica. The mayor promised that work on the flood barrier would continue, and the Prime Minister announced that

17856-498: The city. A Washington Post report provided a more thorough analysis: "The sea level has been rising even more rapidly in Venice than in other parts of the world. At the same time, the city is sinking, the result of tectonic plates shifting below the Italian coast. Those factors together, along with the more frequent extreme weather events associated with climate change, contribute to floods." Henk Ovink , an expert on flooding, told CNN that, while environmental factors are part of

18048-446: The clitic el marks the indicative verb and its masculine singular subject, otherwise there is an imperative preceded by a vocative. Although some grammars regard these clitics as "redundant", they actually provide specific additional information as they mark number and gender, thus providing number-/gender- agreement between the subject(s) and the verb, which does not necessarily show this information on its endings. Venetian also has

18240-420: The constant feuds between the leading Sfakian clans caused great insecurity in the wider area. After blockading all passes to Sfakia, Cavalli began laying waste to the region and killing large part of the population. The Sfakians were finally forced to submit, and delegations from the entire region appeared before Cavalli to swear allegiance to Venice. Cavalli's successor, Jacopo Foscarini , took measures to pacify

18432-518: The construction of additional galleys , to combat the ever-increasing threat of piracy and raiding along the Cretan coasts. The uprising began as a protest in Mylopotamos, but soon spread to the western provinces in September 1333, under the leadership of Vardas Kallergis, Nikolaos Prikosirides from Kissamos and the three Syropoulos brothers. Despite the participation of one of their relatives,

18624-537: The corresponding words of Italian. Venetian includes however many words derived from other sources (such as ancient Venetic, Greek, Gothic, and German), and has preserved some Latin words not used to the same extent in Italian, resulting in many words that are not cognate with their equivalent words in Italian, such as: Since December 2017 the Venetian language adopted a modern writing system, named GVIM (acronym for Grafia del Veneto Internazionale Moderno , i.e. Writing system for Modern International Venetian ) thanks to

18816-440: The dialect of the speaker. In Venice and its mainland as well as in most of central Veneto (excluding the peripheral provinces of Verona, Belluno and some islands of the lagoon) the realization is a non-syllabic [e̯] (usually described as nearly like an "e" and so often spelled as ⟨e⟩ ), when ⟨ł⟩ is adjacent (only) to back vowels ( ⟨a o u⟩ ), vs. a null realization when ⟨ł⟩

19008-500: The diseases of the local swamps and eventually forced to withdraw in 810. A few months later, Pepin himself died, apparently as a result of a disease contracted there. In the aftermath, an agreement between Charlemagne and the Byzantine Emperor Nicephorus in 814 recognized Venice as Byzantine territory, and granted the city trading rights along the Adriatic coast. In 828 the new city's prestige increased with

19200-732: The early 5th century by the Visigoths and, some 50 years later, by the Huns led by Attila . The last and most enduring immigration into the north of the Italian peninsula, that of the Lombards in 568, left the Eastern Roman Empire only a small strip of coastline in the current Veneto, including Venice. The Roman/Byzantine territory was organized as the Exarchate of Ravenna , administered from that ancient port and overseen by

19392-451: The eastern part of Crete, capturing the forts of Sitia and Spinalonga , and was only suppressed through the intervention of Marco I Sanudo , the Duke of Naxos . Sanudo and Tiepolo then fell out, and Sanudo attempted to conquer the island for himself. Sanudo enjoyed considerable local support, including the powerful archon Sebastos Skordyles . He even seized Candia, while Tiepolo escaped to

19584-403: The empire and divided its territories amongst the crusader leaders (see Frankokratia ). Crete was initially allotted to Boniface of Montferrat , but, unable to enforce his control over the island, he soon sold his rights to Venice. Venetian troops first occupied the island in 1205, but it took until 1212 for it to be secured, especially against the opposition of Venice's rival Genoa . Thereafter,

19776-421: The end of the 17th. The city-state of Venice is considered to have been the first real international financial centre, emerging in the 9th century and reaching its greatest prominence in the 14th century. This made Venice a wealthy city throughout most of its history. For centuries Venice possessed numerous territories along the Adriatic Sea and within the Italian peninsula , leaving a significant impact on

19968-496: The entire island. The Venetians tried to suppress it through reprisals: Orthodox monasteries, which were often used as bases and refuges by the rebels, were torched, and torture was applied to prisoners. In 1284, entry and settlement in the Lasithi Plateau, which in previous rebellions had served as a base for rebels, was declared completely prohibited, even for herding sheep. Despite the constant stream of reinforcements from

20160-639: The entrance to the cathedral of Venice, St Mark's Basilica (The originals have been replaced with replicas, and are now stored within the basilica.) After the fall of Constantinople, the former Eastern Roman Empire was partitioned among the Latin crusaders and the Venetians. Venice subsequently carved out a sphere of influence in the Mediterranean known as the Duchy of the Archipelago , and captured Crete. The seizure of Constantinople proved as decisive

20352-461: The exile of the rebels' families to Venice. Apart from the Greek nobles, dissatisfaction with the Republic was also growing among the Venetian feudal nobility in Crete, who resented both the heavy taxation and their relegation to a second rank against the nobility of the metropolis. This resentment came to the fore in 1363, when new taxes for repairs in the harbour of Candia were announced. In response,

20544-471: The failure of these plans. Michael VIII eventually recognised Venetian control of the island in treaties concluded in 1268 and 1277 . In 1272 or 1273, however, George and Theodore Chortatzes launched another uprising in eastern Crete, centred on the Lasithi Plateau. In 1276, the rebels scored a major victory in an open battle in the Messara Plain , in which the Duke of Crete, a ducal councillor, and

20736-402: The fall of the Republic in 1797. Shortly after the introduction of the tax, Spain produced similar paper for general taxation purposes, and the practice spread to other countries. During the 20th century, when many artesian wells were sunk into the periphery of the lagoon to draw water for local industry, Venice began to subside . It was realized that extraction of water from the aquifer was

20928-483: The field, was confirmed by Leo as dux and given the added title of hypatus (from the Greek for " consul "). In 751, the Lombard King Aistulf conquered most of the Exarchate of Ravenna , leaving Venice a lonely and increasingly autonomous Byzantine outpost. During this period, the seat of the local Byzantine governor (the "duke/dux", later "doge"), was at Malamocco. Settlement on the islands in

21120-484: The first century of Venetian rule—by comparison, Venice itself had a population of c.  60,000 at this period. The colonization wave of 1252 also resulted in the establishment of Canea (modern Chania ), on the site of the long abandoned ancient city of Kydonia . Venetians used Crete as a center for their profitable eastern trade. Candia was an important base for the traffic of the Balkan slave trade , during which

21312-432: The founding or building of Venice, tradition and the available evidence have led several historians to agree that the original population of Venice consisted of refugees – from nearby Roman cities such as Patavium ( Padua ), Aquileia , Tarvisium ( Treviso ), Altinum , and Concordia (modern Portogruaro ), as well as from the undefended countryside – who were fleeing successive waves of Germanic and Hun invasions. This

21504-657: The four modern prefectures . During the first two centuries of Venetian rule, revolts by the native Orthodox Greek population against the Roman Catholic Venetians were frequent, often supported by the Empire of Nicaea . Fourteen revolts are counted between 1207 and the last major uprising, the Revolt of St. Titus in the 1360s, which united the Greeks and the Venetian coloni against the financial exactions of

21696-582: The gates of the Ghetto and ended the restrictions on when and where Jews could live and travel in the city. Venice became Austrian territory when Napoleon signed the Treaty of Campo Formio on 12 October 1797. The Austrians took control of the city on 18 January 1798. Venice was taken from Austria by the Treaty of Pressburg in 1805 and became part of Napoleon's Kingdom of Italy . It was returned to Austria following Napoleon's defeat in 1814, when it became part of

21888-477: The government would be accelerating the project. The city's mayor, Luigi Brugnaro , blamed the floods on climate change . The chambers of the Regional Council of Veneto began to be flooded around 10 pm, two minutes after the council rejected a plan to combat global warming. One of the effects of climate change is sea level rise which causes an increase in frequency and magnitude of floodings in

22080-593: The help of Angelo Sanudo , son and successor of Marco, while the Cretans looked to the Greek Empire of Nicaea for aid. A Nicaean fleet of 33 ships arrived on the island, and in the 1230s the Nicaeans were able to challenge Venetian control over much of Crete and maintain troops there. A series of treaties in 1233, 1234, and 1236, ended the uprising, with the concession of new privileges to the local nobility. Only

22272-439: The hierarchy were complemented by judges and police officials (the giudici and the signori di notte ), castellans ( castellani ) and the grand chancellor ( cancelliere grande ). As in most greater territories with a special military importance, military command was vested in a captain ( capitano ). In times of crisis or war, a provveditore generale (the provveditore generale [del regno] di Candia )

22464-506: The historical island city of Venice ( centro storico ) and the rest on the mainland ( terraferma ). Together with the cities of Padua and Treviso , Venice is included in the Padua-Treviso-Venice Metropolitan Area (PATREVE), which is considered a statistical metropolitan area, with a total population of 2.6 million. The name is derived from the ancient Veneti people who inhabited the region by

22656-526: The island was prohibited. In 1341, another uprising was launched, by yet another member of the Kallergis family, Leon . A grandson or nephew of Alexios, Leon was publicly loyal to Venice, but conspired with other Cretan nobles, the Smyrilios family of Apokoronas. The revolt broke out there, and soon spread to other areas, as other noble families joined it, including the Skordilides (Konstantinos Skordiles

22848-418: The island's king. However, while Venice was determined to capture the island, Pescatore was largely left unsupported by Genoa. In 1209, the Venetians managed to capture Palaiokastro near Candia (Greek Chandax, Χάνδαξ ; modern Heraklion , Ηράκλειον ), but it took them until 1212 to evict Pescatore from the island, and the latter's lieutenant, Alamanno da Costa , held out even longer. Only on 11 May 1217 did

23040-401: The island's revenues totalling 10,000 hyperpyra , and the promise of Venetian support for his acquisition of the Kingdom of Thessalonica . To enforce their claim, the Venetians landed a small force on the offshore island of Spinalonga . The Genoese however, who already had a trading colony on Crete, moved more quickly: under the command of Enrico Pescatore, Count of Malta , and enjoying

23232-415: The island, particularly during what the historian Freddy Thiriet labelled the "half-century of prosperity", 1400–1450. Crete had always been of particular importance among Venice's colonies, but its importance increased as the Ottomans started wresting away Venice's overseas possessions in a series of conflicts that began after the Fall of Constantinople in 1453. By the middle of the 16th century, Crete

23424-408: The island. Kallergis, however, refused. This act, together with the general war-weariness and the internal dissensions of the Cretan leaders, opened the path to ending the revolt and coming to terms with Venice. The uprising was terminated with the "Peace of Alexios Kallergis" ( Latin : Pax Alexii Callergi ), signed on 28 April 1299 between Duke Michel Vitali and the rebel leaders. In 33 articles,

23616-483: The label is primarily geographic. Venetian is a separate language from Italian, with many local varieties. Its precise place within the Romance language family remains somewhat controversial. Both Ethnologue and Glottolog group it into the Gallo-Italic branch (and thus, closer to French and Emilian–Romagnol than to Italian ). Devoto , Avolio and Ursini reject such classification, and Tagliavini places it in

23808-510: The lagoon probably increased with the Lombard conquest of other Byzantine territories, as refugees sought asylum in the area. In 775/6, the episcopal seat of Olivolo ( San Pietro di Castello ) was created. During the reign of duke Agnello Particiaco (811–827) the ducal seat moved from Malamocco to the more protected Rialto, within present-day Venice. The monastery of St Zachary and the first ducal palace and basilica of St. Mark , as well as

24000-403: The lagoon). 47.8% of the population in 2021 were male and 52.2% were female; minors (ages 18 and younger) were 14.7% of the population compared to elderly people (ages 65 and older) who numbered 27.9%. This compared with the Italian average of 16.7% and 23.5%, respectively. The average age of Venice residents was 48.6 compared to the Italian average of 45.9. In the five years between 2016 and 2021,

24192-483: The language is still spoken today. In the 19th century large-scale immigration towards Trieste and Muggia extended the presence of the Venetian language eastward. Previously the dialect of Trieste had been a Rhaeto Romance dialect known as Tergestino . This dialect became extinct as a result of Venetian migration, which gave rise to the Triestino dialect of Venetian spoken there today. Internal migrations during

24384-683: The language is the use of the phrase eser drìo (literally, "to be behind") to indicate continuing action: Another progressive form in some Venetian dialects uses the construction èsar łà che (lit. "to be there that"): The use of progressive tenses is more pervasive than in Italian; e.g. That construction does not occur in Italian: *Non sarebbe mica stato parlandoti is not syntactically valid. Subordinate clauses have double introduction ("whom that", "when that", "which that", "how that"), as in Old English : As in other Romance languages,

24576-526: The late 19th century. The people of Chipilo preserve their dialect and call it chipileño , and it has been preserved as a variant since the 19th century. The variant of Venetian spoken by the Cipiłàn ( Chipileños ) is northern Trevisàn-Feltrìn-Belumàt. In 2009, the Brazilian city of Serafina Corrêa , in the state of Rio Grande do Sul, gave Talian a joint official status alongside Portuguese . Until

24768-408: The leadership of Georgios Kantanoleos , started taking place. Exasperated by the heavy tax burden and the arbitrariness of Venetian government, about 600 men rose up in revolt around Kerameia. The Venetian authorities initially hesitated to move against the rebels, for fear of causing a wider uprising. In October 1527, however, Geronimo Corner with 1,500 troops marched against the rebels. The uprising

24960-463: The local Greeks, both the noble families and the wider populace, were allowed to keep their own law and property, they resented Latin rule and the strict discrimination between them and the Latin Venetian elite, which monopolized the higher administrative and military posts of the island and reaped most of the benefits of the commerce passing through it. During the early period of Venetian rule,

25152-432: The local Venetian colonists, in Crete the Republic employed salaried officials dispatched from the metropolis. This "made subjects of both the Venetian colonizers and the colonized Greek people of the island", and despite the privileges accorded to the former, their common position of subservience to the metropolis made it more likely for the Venetians and Greeks of Crete to rally together in support of common interests against

25344-449: The local population. Despite his double-dealing and shifting allegiance between Venice and his own compatriots, the defeat of the Chortatzes brothers left Alexios Kallergis as the most prominent and respected of the Cretan nobles. His enormous wealth, as well as his strategically situated fief at Mylopotamos , also gave him great power. This led the Venetians to distrust him; their efforts to curb his power backfired, however, and provoked

25536-403: The metropolis, the uprising could not be quelled. The Venetian authorities also tried to capture Kallergis and the other leaders, but without success. The situation became dire for Venice in 1296, following the outbreak of war with Genoa. The Genoese admiral Lamba Doria captured and torched Chania , and sent envoys to Kallergis offering an alliance, along with recognition as hereditary ruler of

25728-469: The metropolis. Thereafter, and despite occasional revolts and Turkish raids, the island largely prospered, and Venetian rule opened up a window into the ongoing Italian Renaissance . As a consequence, an artistic and literary revival unparalleled elsewhere in the Greek world took place: the Cretan School of painting, which culminated in the works of El Greco , united Italian and Byzantine forms, and

25920-406: The metropolitan authorities. The regime established by Venice in Crete was modelled after that of the metropolis itself. It was headed by a Duke ( duca di Candia ), and included a Great Council , a Senate , a Council of Ten , an Avogadoria de Comùn , and other institutions that existed in the metropolis. The Duke of Crete was elected from among the Venetian patriciate for two-year terms, and

26112-630: The middle of the 20th century, Venetian was also spoken on the Greek Island of Corfu , which had long been under the rule of the Republic of Venice . Moreover, Venetian had been adopted by a large proportion of the population of Cephalonia , one of the Ionian Islands , because the island was part of the Stato da Màr for almost three centuries. Venetian is a Romance language and thus descends from Vulgar Latin . Its classification has always been controversial: According to Tagliavini, for example, it

26304-438: The most beautiful city built by man". However, the city faces challenges including an excessive number of tourists, pollution, tide peaks and cruise ships sailing too close to buildings. In light of the fact that Venice and its lagoon are under constant threat in terms of their ecology and cultural heritage, Venice's UNESCO listing has been under constant examination. Although no surviving historical records deal directly with

26496-425: The most flood-prone parts of the city. In 1604, to defray the cost of flood relief, Venice introduced what could be considered the first example of a stamp tax. When the revenue fell short of expectations in 1608, Venice introduced paper , with the superscription "AQ" and imprinted instructions, which was to be used for "letters to officials". At first, this was to be a temporary tax, but it remained in effect until

26688-465: The mountains of Sfakia and Syvritos. The rebels even besieged the younger Alexios Kallergis at Kastelli . The rebels suffered a major defeat, however, when the Duke managed to ambush the Psaromelingoi and their forces and destroy them at the Messara Plain. The loss of the Psaromelingoi was the prelude to the suppression of the rebellion in 1347, which was again characterized by great brutality and

26880-401: The name is foreign'). In other cases advertisements in Veneto are given a "Venetian flavour" by adding a Venetian word to standard Italian: for instance an airline used the verb xe ( Xe sempre più grande , "it is always bigger") into an Italian sentence (the correct Venetian being el xe senpre pì grando ) to advertise new flights from Marco Polo Airport . In 2007, Venetian

27072-421: The nearby fortress of Temenos disguised as a woman. The arrival of a Venetian fleet allowed Tiepolo to recover the capital, and Sanudo agreed to evacuate the island in exchange for money and provisions; twenty Greek lords who had collaborated with him accompanied him to Naxos. The failure of this first revolt did not reduce Cretan restiveness, however. In 1217, the theft of some horses and pasture land belonging to

27264-485: The new colony took shape: the island was divided into six provinces ( sestieri ) named after the divisions of the city of Venice itself, while the capital Candia was directly subjected to the Commune Veneciarum . The islands of Tinos and Cythera , also under Venetian control, came under the kingdom's purview. In the early 14th century, this division was replaced by four provinces, almost identical to

27456-452: The noun in gender and number, but it is important to mention that the suffix might be deleted because the article is the part that suggests the number. However, Italian is influencing Venetian language: In recent studies on Venetian variants in Veneto, there has been a tendency to write the so-called "evanescent L" as ⟨ł⟩ . While it may help novice speakers, Venetian was never written with this letter. In this article, this symbol

27648-535: The numeral unus ). Venetian also retained the Latin concepts of gender (masculine and feminine) and number (singular and plural). Unlike the Gallo-Iberian languages, which form plurals by adding -s , Venetian forms plurals in a manner similar to standard Italian. Nouns and adjectives can be modified by suffixes that indicate several qualities such as size, endearment, deprecation, etc. Adjectives (usually postfixed) and articles are inflected to agree with

27840-543: The other hand, Venetian does share many other traits with its surrounding Gallo-Italic languages, like interrogative clitics , mandatory unstressed subject pronouns (with some exceptions), the "to be behind to" verbal construction to express the continuous aspect ("El ze drio manjar" = He is eating, lit. he is behind to eat) and the absence of the absolute past tense as well as of geminated consonants . In addition, Venetian has some unique traits which are shared by neither Gallo-Italic, nor Italo-Dalmatian languages, such as

28032-455: The population of Venice declined by 2.7%, while Italy as a whole declined by 2.2%. The population in the historic old city declined much faster: from about 120,000 in 1980 to about 60,000 in 2009, and to 50,000 in 2021. As of 2021 , 84.2% of the population was Italian. The largest immigrant groups include: 7,814 (3.1%) Bangladeshis , 6,258 (2.5%) Romanians , 4,054 (1.6%) Moldovans , 4,014 (1.6%) Chinese , and 2,514 (1%) Ukrainians . Venice

28224-451: The problem, "historic floods in Venice are not only a result of the climate crisis but poor infrastructure and mismanagement". The government of Italy committed to providing 20 million euros in funding to help the city repair the most urgent aspects although Brugnaro's estimate of the total damage was "hundreds of millions" to at least 1 billion euros. On 3 October 2020, the MOSE

28416-604: The problem. The Fall of Constantinople caused a deep impression among the Cretans, and in its aftermath, a series of anti-Venetian conspiracies took place. The first was the conspiracy of Sifis Vlastos in Rethymno, which even included a fake letter by the last Byzantine emperor, Constantine XI Palaiologos . The conspiracy was betrayed to the Venetian authorities by the priest Ioannis Limas and Andrea Nigro, in exchange for money and privileges. 39 individuals were charged with participation, among them many priests. In November 1454, as

28608-475: The pronunciation [ s ] , the sound has fallen together with ordinary ⟨s⟩ , and so it is not uncommon to simply write ⟨s⟩ (or ⟨ss⟩ between vowels) instead of ⟨ç⟩ or ⟨zh⟩ (such as sena ). Similarly some dialects of Venetian also have a voiced interdental fricative [ ð ] , often written ⟨z⟩ (as in el pianze 'he cries'); but in most dialects this sound

28800-493: The rebels began wavering. When the Venetian fleet arrived on 7 May 1364, resistance collapsed quickly. Candia surrendered on 9 May, and most of the other cities followed. Nevertheless, on strict orders from the Venetian government, the Venetian commanders launched a purge of the rebel leadership, including the execution and proscription of the ringleaders, and the disbandment of the Gradenigo and Venier families, who were banished from all Venetian territories. The feudal charter of 1211

28992-555: The rise of Venice's power. Venice became an imperial power following the Fourth Crusade , which, having veered off course, culminated in 1204 by capturing and sacking Constantinople and establishing the Latin Empire . As a result of this conquest, considerable Byzantine plunder was brought back to Venice. This plunder included the gilt bronze horses from the Hippodrome of Constantinople , which were originally placed above

29184-597: The ruling class was preoccupied with commerce. Although the people of Venice generally remained orthodox Roman Catholics, the state of Venice was notable for its freedom from religious fanaticism, and executed nobody for religious heresy during the Counter-Reformation . This apparent lack of zeal contributed to Venice's frequent conflicts with the papacy . In this context, the writings of the Anglican divine William Bedell are particularly illuminating. Venice

29376-492: The same; there are no long vowels, and there is no consonant lengthening. Compare the Italian sentence va laggiù con lui [val.ladˌd͡ʒuk.konˈluː.i] "go there with him" (all long/heavy syllables but final) with Venetian va là zo co lu [va.laˌzo.koˈlu] (all short/light syllables). As a direct descent of regional spoken Latin, Venetian lexicon derives its vocabulary substantially from Latin and (in more recent times) from Tuscan, so that most of its words are cognate with

29568-421: The sandy islands of Torcello, Iesolo, and Malamocco, in this coastal lagoon, learned to build by driving closely spaced piles consisting of the trunks of alder trees, a wood noted for its water resistance, into the mud and sand, until they reached a much harder layer of compressed clay . Building foundations rested on plates of Istrian limestone placed on top of the piles. Between autumn and early spring,

29760-559: The second wave of Venetian colonists in 1222 again led to uprisings, under Theodore and Michael Melissenos. Once again, the Venetian authorities concluded a treaty with the rebel leaders, conceding them two knightly fiefs. A new rebellion broke out in 1228, involving not only the Skordyloi and Melissenoi, but also the Arkoleos and Drakontopoulos families. Both sides requested external aid: the Duke of Crete, Giovanni Storlando , asked for

29952-500: The settlement of the Lasithi plateau was allowed to produce grain in order to counter the famine, but as soon as the immediate danger had passed, it was banned again in 1471, and remained so until the early 16th century. In 1471, during the First Ottoman–Venetian War , the Ottoman fleet plundered the eastern parts of the island around Siteia . It was not until 1523 that the first moves towards another Cretan revolt, under

30144-400: The sons of Alexios Kallergis sided openly with the Venetians, as did other Cretans. The uprising was suppressed in 1334, and its leaders arrested and executed, with the crucial collaboration of Cretan commoners. The families of the rebels were exiled, but the brothers and children of Vardas Kallergis were condemned to life imprisonment as an example; and the entry of non-Cretan Orthodox clergy in

30336-545: The start of the largest and most violent of all Cretan rebellions up to that point, in 1282. It is also likely that this uprising too was secretly encouraged by Michael VIII Palaiologos as a distraction for the Venetians, who were allied with his arch-enemy Charles of Anjou . Kallergis was joined by all the prominent families of the Cretan nobility: the Gabalades, Barouches, Vlastoi, and even by Michael Chortatzes, nephew of Theodore and George. The uprising quickly spread across

30528-411: The support of the local populace, they soon became masters over the eastern and central portions of the island. A first Venetian attack in summer 1207 under Ranieri Dandolo and Ruggiero Premarino was driven off, and for the next two years, Pescatore ruled the entire island with the exception of a few isolated Venetian garrisons. Pescatore even appealed to the Pope, and attempted to have himself confirmed as

30720-563: The three Kallergis brothers, John, George, and Alexios, as well as the brothers Tito and Teodorello Venier, Antonio and Francesco Gradenigo, Giovanni Molino, and Marco Vonale. These launched another uprising in August at Mylopotamos, which quickly spread throughout the western half of Crete. The aims of the rebels had now shifted towards liberating the island and seeking unification with the Byzantine Empire. The Byzantine emperor John V Palaiologos also appears to have supported this uprising, sending

30912-550: The titles of Duke of Dalmatia and Duke of Istria . Later mainland possessions, which extended across Lake Garda as far west as the Adda River , were known as the Terraferma ; they were acquired partly as a buffer against belligerent neighbours, partly to guarantee Alpine trade routes, and partly to ensure the supply of mainland wheat (on which the city depended). In building its maritime commercial empire, Venice dominated

31104-459: The town of Chipilo . The town was settled by immigrants from the Veneto region, and some of their descendants have preserved the language to this day. People from Chipilo have gone on to make satellite colonies in Mexico, especially in the states of Guanajuato , Querétaro , and State of Mexico . Venetian has also survived in the state of Veracruz , where other Italian migrants have settled since

31296-520: The trade in salt, acquired control of most of the islands in the Aegean , including Crete , and Cyprus in the Mediterranean, and became a major power-broker in the Near East . By the standards of the time, Venice's stewardship of its mainland territories was relatively enlightened and the citizens of such towns as Bergamo , Brescia , and Verona rallied to the defence of Venetian sovereignty when it

31488-423: The treaty proclaimed a general amnesty and the return of all confiscated possessions and the privileges formerly enjoyed by the rebel leaders, who were also granted a two-year tax exemption for the repayment of any debts accrued. The decisions of the tribunals that the rebels had established during the uprising were recognized, and the ban on mixed marriages between Cretans and Venetians was lifted. Kallergis himself

31680-461: The uprising soon spread across the entire western part of the island. As force proved unable to quell the rebellion, the Venetians resorted to negotiations. On 13 September 1219, the Duke of Crete, Domenico Delfino, and the rebel leaders concluded a treaty that gave the latter knightly fiefs and various privileges. 75 serfs were set free, the privileges of the metochi of the Monastery of Saint John

31872-399: The urging of Pope Gregory II . The exarch, held responsible for the acts of his master, Byzantine Emperor Leo III , was murdered, and many officials were put to flight in the chaos. At about this time, the people of the lagoon elected their own independent leader for the first time, although the relationship of this to the uprisings is not clear. Ursus was the first of 117 "doges" ( doge is

32064-466: The use of the impersonal passive forms and the use of the auxiliary verb "to have" for the reflexive voice (both traits shared with German ). Modern Venetian is not a close relative of the extinct Venetic language spoken in Veneto before Roman expansion, although both are Indo-European , and Venetic may have been an Italic language, like Latin , the ancestor of Venetian and most other languages of Italy . The ancient Veneti gave their name to

32256-566: The virtual ruler of the Orthodox population of Crete; the contemporary chronicler Michael Louloudes , who fled to Crete when Ephesus fell to the Turks, calls him "Lord of Crete", and mentions him right after the Byzantine emperor, Andronikos II Palaiologos . Kallergis steadfastly honoured the terms of the treaty, and remained conspicuously loyal to Venice thereafter. His intervention prevented another revolt from breaking out in 1303, following

32448-427: The war with Genoa end in a treaty that left Crete securely in Venetian hands. Giacomo Tiepolo became the first governor of the new province, with the title of "duke of Crete" ( duca di Candia ), based in Candia. To strengthen Venetian control over Crete, Tiepolo suggested the dispatch of colonists from the metropolis; the Venetian colonists would receive land, and in exchange provide military service. The suggestion

32640-523: The west under the Kallergis brothers, based in the inaccessible mountains of Sfakia, until April 1367, when the Venetian provveditore Giustiniani managed to enter Sfakia and capture the Kallergis by treason. Venetian reprisals were extensive, leading to the virtual destruction of the native nobility. To further ensure that no other uprisings could take place, the mountainous areas of Mylopotamos, Lasithi, and Sfakia were evacuated and entrance into them prohibited for any purpose whatsoever. The Kallergis uprising

32832-736: The world. Other notable works in Venetian are the translations of the Iliad by Giacomo Casanova (1725–1798) and Francesco Boaretti, the translation of the Divine Comedy (1875) by Giuseppe Cappelli and the poems of Biagio Marin (1891–1985). Notable too is a manuscript titled Dialogo de Cecco di Ronchitti da Bruzene in perpuosito de la stella Nuova attributed to Girolamo Spinelli , perhaps with some supervision by Galileo Galilei for scientific details. Several Venetian–Italian dictionaries are available in print and online, including those by Boerio , Contarini, Nazari and Piccio . As

33024-605: Was Leon Kallergis' father-in-law), Melissenoi, Psaromelingoi, and others. Alexios Kallergis' namesake grandson, however, again provided crucial assistance to the Venetians: he captured the Smyrilioi, who in turn betrayed Leon Kallergis, whom the Duke Andrea Cornaro threw alive into the sea, tied into a sack. Despite his loss, the revolt continued under the Skordilides and the Psaromelingoi, who had seized control of

33216-579: Was activated for the first time in response to a predicted high tide event, preventing some of the low-lying parts of the city (in particular the Piazza San Marco) from being flooded. According to the Köppen climate classification , Venice has a mid-latitude, four season humid subtropical climate ( Cfa ), with cool, damp winters and warm, humid summers. The 24-hour average temperature in January

33408-423: Was appointed, with supreme power over both civil and military officials on the island. After 1569, as the Ottoman danger increased, the appointment of a provveditore generale became regular even in peacetime for two-year tenures, and the post came to be held by some of the most eminent statesmen of Venice. A further provveditore generale was appointed from 1578 to command the island's cavalry, and an admiral,

33600-587: Was approved, and the relevant charter, the Carta Concessionis , proclaimed on 10 September 1211 at Venice. 132 nobles, who were to serve as knights ( milites or cavaleri ) and 45 burghers ( pedites , sergentes ) participated in the first colonization wave that left Venice on 20 March 1212. Three more waves of colonists were sent, in 1222, 1233, and 1252, and immigration continued in a more irregular fashion in later years as well. In total, about 10,000 Venetians are estimated to have moved to Crete during

33792-507: Was assisted by four, and later only two councillors ( consiglieri ), likewise appointed for two-year terms; of the original four, two were rectors of cities on the island. Together, the Duke and his councillors comprised the Signoria , the central government, of Crete. There were also two, and later three, chamberlains ( camerlenghi ), charged with fiscal affairs, and each province had its own treasury ( camera ). The lower strata of

33984-420: Was at the time and up to the early modern era commonly known as Candia after its capital, Candia or Chandax (modern Heraklion ). In modern Greek historiography, the period is known as the Venetocracy ( Greek : Βενετοκρατία , romanized :  Venetokratía , or Ενετοκρατία , Enetokratía ). The island of Crete had formed part of the Byzantine Empire until 1204, when the Fourth Crusade dissolved

34176-422: Was elected in 697, as written in the oldest chronicle by John, deacon of Venice c.  1008 . Some modern historians claim Paolo Lucio Anafesto was actually the Exarch Paul , and Paul's successor, Marcello Tegalliano , was Paul's magister militum (or "general"), literally "master of soldiers". In 726 the soldiers and citizens of the exarchate rose in a rebellion over the iconoclastic controversy , at

34368-580: Was further divided into castellanies and feudal domains held by the local aristocracy. During Venetian rule, the Greek population of Crete was exposed to Renaissance culture. A thriving literature in the Cretan dialect of Greek developed on the island. The best-known work from this period is the poem Erotokritos by Vitsentzos Kornaros (Βιτσένζος Κορνάρος). Another major Cretan literary figures were Marcus Musurus (1470–1517), Nicholas Kalliakis (1645–1707), Andreas Musalus (1665–1721), and other Greek scholars and philosophers who flourished in Italy in

34560-415: Was given extensive new privileges: an additional four knightly fiefs, the right of granting titles and fiefs himself, the right of keeping war horses, the right of leasing the properties of various monasteries, and the right of appointing an Orthodox bishop in the diocese of Arios (renamed as Kallergiopolis), and of renting the neighbouring bishoprics of Mylopotamos and Kalamonas. The treaty left Kallergis as

34752-430: Was given recognition by the Regional Council of Veneto with regional law no. 8 of 13 April 2007 "Protection, enhancement and promotion of the linguistic and cultural heritage of Veneto". Though the law does not explicitly grant Venetian any official status, it provides for Venetian as object of protection and enhancement, as an essential component of the cultural, social, historical and civil identity of Veneto. Venetian

34944-418: Was indeed to prove the last of the great Cretan rebellions against Venice: deprived of their natural leadership and naturally secure strongholds, and faced with the ever-increasing threat of Ottoman conquest, the Cretans, apart from some small-scale incidents, accommodated themselves to Venetian rule. The internal tranquility that followed the end of the large-scale uprisings led to considerable prosperity for

35136-512: Was one of the four councillors of the Duke of Crete. The rectors of Chania and Rethymno were also assisted by a provveditore and two councillors each. In addition, there was a special provveditore appointed over Sfakia, a region which in practice was mostly outside Venetian control. He was subordinate to Candia (but also sometimes to Chania). Provveditori were also appointed to the important island fortresses of Souda (since 1573), Spinalonga (since 1580), and Grambousa (since 1584). The island

35328-476: Was one of the largest in Europe in the High Middle Ages , with a population of 60,000 in AD 1000; 80,000 in 1200; and rising up to 110,000–180,000 in 1300. In the mid-1500s the city's population was 170,000, and by 1600 it approached 200,000. In 2021, there were 254,850 people residing in the Comune of Venice (the population figure includes 50,434 in the historic city of Venice (Centro storico), 177,621 in Terraferma (the mainland); and 26,795 on other islands in

35520-448: Was only the appeal of the Venetian authorities to the local population, offering amnesty and tax exemptions, that preserved the city, especially when the Kallergis brothers Antonios and Mathios used their fortune to recruit men and strengthen the island's fortifications. Nevertheless, the Turks ravaged the area around Fodele , and destroyed the forts of Mirabello, Siteia, and Palaiokastro . The Ottoman attacks resumed in 1539, when Selino

35712-409: Was revoked, and all noble families obliged to swear an oath of allegiance to Venice. 10 May was declared a local holiday in Candia, and celebrated with extravagant festivals. The quick restoration of Venetian control over the cities did not mean the end of violence on the island, as several proscribed members of the rebel leadership continued to oppose the Venetian authorities. Prominent among them were

35904-423: Was suppressed with great violence, and all the villages in the rebel area were destroyed. Three of the leaders, the brothers Georgios and Andronikos Chortatsis, and Leon Theotokopoulos, were betrayed in 1528 and hanged, while Kantanoleos himself was proscribed for 1,000 hyperpyra , and also betrayed. Altogether some 700 people were killed; many families were exiled to Cyprus, in the area of Paphos , but after about

36096-405: Was surrendered by its inhabitants and its Venetian garrison captured. The fortress of Ierapetra also fell, but Kissamos resisted successfully. In 1571, during the war for Cyprus, Uluç Ali briefly captured Rethymno and raided Crete, resulting in widespread famine on the island. Some local inhabitants, resentful at Venetian misgovernment, even made contact with the Turks, but the intervention of

36288-417: Was the only major Venetian possession left in the Aegean, and following the loss of Cyprus in 1570–1571, in the entire Eastern Mediterranean. The emergence of the Ottoman threat coincided with a period of economic decline for the Venetian Republic, which hampered its ability to effectively strengthen Crete. In addition, internal strife on the island, and the local aristocracy's resistance to reforms, compounded

36480-421: Was then employed for the first grammar of the Venetian language to be published by a university, in Brasil, in 2018 Venice Venice ( / ˈ v ɛ n ɪ s / VEN -iss ; Italian : Venezia [veˈnɛttsja] ; Venetian : Venesia [veˈnɛsja] , formerly Venexia [veˈnɛzja] ) is a city in northeastern Italy and the capital of the Veneto region . It

36672-425: Was threatened by invaders. Venice remained closely associated with Constantinople, being twice granted trading privileges in the Eastern Roman Empire, through the so-called golden bulls or "chrysobulls", in return for aiding the Eastern Empire to resist Norman and Turkish incursions. In the first chrysobull, Venice acknowledged its homage to the empire; but not in the second, reflecting the decline of Byzantium and

36864-453: Was threatened with the interdict on a number of occasions and twice suffered its imposition. The second, most noted, occasion was in 1606, by order of Pope Paul V . The newly invented German printing press spread rapidly throughout Europe in the 15th century, and Venice was quick to adopt it. By 1482, Venice was the printing capital of the world; the leading printer was Aldus Manutius , who invented paperback books that could be carried in

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