The Venetian Inquisition , formally the Holy Office ( Latin : Sanctum Officium ), was the tribunal established jointly by the Venetian government and the Catholic Church to repress heresy throughout the Republic of Venice . The inquisition also intervened in cases of sacrilege, apostasy, prohibited books, superstition, and witchcraft. It was established in the 16th-century and was abolished in 1797.
150-530: In the Republic of Venice , the doge , as the supreme judicial authority, was ultimately responsible for repressing heresy , which was seen as a threat to the good ordering of the society. Yet heresy, even though considered among the most heinous of crimes, is not listed as an offence in the promissio maleficiorum of 1232, the document revised by Doge Jacopo Tiepolo that articulated punishable crimes. Specific magistrates super inquirendis hereticis to assist
300-722: A Byzantine duchy dependent on the Exarchate of Ravenna . With the fall of the Exarchate and the weakening of Byzantine power, the Duchy of Venice arose, led by a doge and established on the island of Rialto ; it prospered from maritime trade with the Byzantine Empire and other eastern states. To safeguard the trade routes, between the 9th and 11th centuries the Duchy waged several wars, which ensured its complete dominion over
450-496: A Carminum Liber , Vettori also included Life of Caspar Contarini , De officiis , and translations from Thucydides , Plato and Aristotle . A complete edition of his works was published at Florence in 1707, to which is prefixed a life by Casotti . In his role as papal legate to Venice, he "was also the inquisitor who had Baldo Lupetino arrested, and who also eventually wiped out the large Lutheran community in Venice". He
600-561: A Tribune to govern the local administration, perpetuating the Roman custom started in the last years of the Western Roman Empire . Between the end of the 7th century and the beginning of the 8th, a new political reform affected Venetia : like the other Byzantine provinces of Italy it was transformed into a duchy , at the head of which was the doge . Following the brief regime of the magistri militum , in 742 ducal electivity
750-515: A conspiracy for a rebellion against Venice was dismantled in Candia. The conspiracy was led by Sifis Vlastos as an opposition to the religious reforms for the unification of Churches agreed at the Council of Florence . In 1481, Venice retook nearby Rovigo , which it had held previously from 1395 to 1438. The Ottoman Empire started sea campaigns as early as 1423, when it waged a seven-year war with
900-516: A compromise between the Church and the republic fell to Giovanni della Casa , archbishop of Benevento , who was nominated papal nuncio to Venice in 1544. He was to institute the new tribunal and organize the first trials of the Protestant reformers. Della Casa judiciously chose his cases and concentrated on prosecuting those heretics that were a greater threat to social order and the security of
1050-449: A degree of tolerance that made it possible for merchants of faiths other than Catholicism to conduct affairs in the city, unhindered. The government further sought to defend its autonomy in the administration of justice. Resistance also stemmed from the longstanding Venetian conception of the state as a sacred entity empowered by God and the resulting assertion of the government to administer local ecclesiastical matters. The task of reaching
1200-711: A few judges, in 1130 it was decided to place the Consilium Sapientium , which would later become the Great Council of Venice , alongside his power. In the same period, in addition to the expulsion of the clergy from public life, new assemblies such as the Council of Forty and the Minor Council were established and in his inauguration speech the Doge was forced to declare loyalty to the Republic with
1350-544: A fine rather than undergo an investigation into their private beliefs and associations and risk a charge of heresy. Republic of Venice The Republic of Venice , officially the Most Serene Republic of Venice and traditionally known as La Serenìssima , was a sovereign state and maritime republic with its capital in Venice . Founded, according to tradition, in 697 by Paolo Lucio Anafesto , over
1500-472: A formal denunciation, signed or anonymous, was received. Some of the denunciations concerned individuals who had spoken out against the devotion to saints , the necessity of confession with a priest, the belief in the real presence of Christ in the Blessed Sacrament , or the value of good works in salvation . Others signalled only suspect behavior: the refusal to show devotion to sacred images,
1650-462: A large fleet to support his offensive by sea. Antonio Grimani , more a businessman and diplomat than a sailor, was defeated in the sea battle of Zonchio in 1499. The Turks once again sacked Friuli. Preferring peace to total war both against the Turks and by sea, Venice surrendered the bases of Lepanto, Durazzo , Modon , and Coron . Venice's attention was diverted from its usual maritime position by
SECTION 10
#17327717333481800-517: A long for release, peace, and even death. The combination of this troubled content and the sublime style made Della Casa’s fewer than eighty lyrics the best of the sixteenth century." (Wayne Rebhorn). In his retirement, he also wrote Carminum Liber , a collection of various odes and epistles in the style of Horace which makes artful use of classical models, including Horace , Catullus , Virgil , Euripides , and Propertius . His skills in rhetoric and diplomacy were instrumental in securing Della Casa
1950-783: A name that continued to be used until the 18th century. Starting from the 15th century, the documents written in Latin were joined by those in the Venetian language , and in parallel with the events in Italy, the Duchy of Venice also changed its name, becoming the Lordship of Venice, which as written in the peace treaty of 1453 with Sultan Mehmed II was fully named the Illustrissima et Excellentissima deta Signoria de Venexia ('The Most Illustrious and Excellent Signoria of Venice'). During
2100-734: A navy of 3,300 ships (manned by 36,000 men) and had taken over most of what is now the Veneto, including the cities of Verona (which swore its loyalty in the Devotion of Verona to Venice in 1405) and Padua. Slaves were plentiful in the Italian city-states as late as the 15th century. The Venetian slave trade was divided in to the Balkan slave trade and the Black Sea slave trade . Between 1414 and 1423, some 10,000 slaves, imported from Caffa (via
2250-465: A plea of insanity. Some defendants simply threw themselves upon the mercy of the court. Capital punishment was rare: only eighteen cases out of the 1560 trials documented in the sixteenth century. Despite the calls on the part of the clerical members of the inquisition for exemplary and public executions in Saint Mark's Square in order to educate the people and strengthen their bond with the Church,
2400-480: A political vision close to that of the Holy Roman Empire and consequently attempted to establish feudalism in Venice as well, causing a revolt in 976 which led to the burning of the capital and the killing of the doge. These events led the Venetian patriciate to gain a growing influence on the doge's policies and the conflicts that arose following the doge's assassination were resolved only in 991 with
2550-520: A rival city of Venice in the salt trade, decided to abdicate in favor of his brother, at the time patriarch of Grado, who refused. Since there was no heir in 887 the people gathered in the Concio and elected Pietro I Candiano by acclamation. The Concio managed to elect six doges up to Pietro III Candiano who in 958 assigned the position of co-dux to his son Pietro who became doge the following year. Due to his land holdings, Pietro IV Candiano had
2700-794: A series of posts at the Vatican, positions of high esteem at the time. His Latin writing style was on display in letters and political documents, as well as in two orations directed to the Republic of Venice and Carlo V. During his stay in Venice, he wrote the treatise Quaestio lepidissima: an uxor sit ducenda , in which he questioned the value of marriage. He wrote a biography of Bembo, admiring his friend’s ability to write equally well in Latin and Italian, in prose and verse, rare talents he likewise possessed. His Latina Monumenta were edited by Piero Vettori and published by Bernardo di Giunta (fl. 1518–1550) in Florence (1564). Vettori gave pride of place to
2850-439: A signed denunciation was less likely to be acted upon if the accuser had a close acquaintance with the accused, whether personal or financial, for concerns that the accusation could be motivated by vindictiveness. For a signed denunciation, the accuser made a formal deposition. Witnesses were then called for questioning. The parish priest could also be summoned to give testimony regarding the suspect's religious life and conduct. If
3000-423: A wide range of topics from fashion to conversation. The successful man must combine an exterior grace with a necessary social conformity. Anything that could give offense or reveal vulgar or crude thoughts should be avoided. For this reason, Della Casa advises caution, tact, and discretion at all times. Never should one sniff someone else's wine, for instance, as something might fall out of one's nose; even though this
3150-541: Is buried in the Church of Sant'Andrea della Valle , Rome. His most famous work, and the most celebrated etiquette book in European history, Galateo proposes a series of rules and restrictions that consent one to live a life of simple dignity and harmony. In a style that is colloquial and lively, Della Casa (in the voice of an old uncle) instructs his nephew on what to do, and what to avoid doing, in order to be considered appealing, sophisticated, and polite. He deals with
SECTION 20
#17327717333483300-507: Is celebrated for his famous treatise on polite behavior, Il Galateo overo de’ costumi (1558). From the time of its publication, this courtesy book has enjoyed enormous success and influence. In the eighteenth century, influential critic Giuseppe Baretti wrote in The Italian Library (1757), "The little treatise is looked upon by many Italians as the most elegant thing, as to stile, that we have in our language." Della Casa
3450-466: Is unlikely, Della Casa notes, one should not take such risks. Instead, one must constantly attend to appearance, speech, and conduct so as to give no offense but also to convey a graceful reserve and intelligence. Many of the restrictions in Galateo continue to be useful today. Casa is chiefly remarkable as the leader of a reaction in lyric poetry against the universal imitation of Petrarch , and as
3600-467: The savi all'eresia was necessary for the inquisition to convene. They authorized arrest warrants, and although the sentence was handed down only by the three clerical members, the authorization of the savi all'eresia was necessary to carry it out. The Venetian Holy Office convened regularly on Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Saturdays in the Church of Saint Theodore, attached to the Church of Saint Mark ,
3750-701: The promissione ducale ; thus the Commune of Venice , the set of all the assemblies aimed at regulating the power of the doge, began to take shape. In the 12th century, Venice decided not to participate in the Crusades due to its commercial interests in the East and instead concentrated on maintaining its possessions in Dalmatia which were repeatedly besieged by the Hungarians . The situation changed in 1202 when
3900-665: The Adriatic and eastern Ionian seas. At the height of its expansion, between the 13th and 16th centuries, it also governed the Peloponnese , Crete and Cyprus , most of the Greek islands , as well as several cities and ports in the eastern Mediterranean . The islands of the Venetian Lagoon in the 7th century, after having experienced a period of substantial increase in population, were organized into Maritime Venice ,
4050-730: The Apulian ports; the king of France: Cremona; the king of Hungary : Dalmatia, and each one some of another's part. The offensive against the huge army enlisted by Venice was launched from France. On 14 May 1509, Venice was crushingly defeated at the battle of Agnadello , in the Ghiara d'Adda, marking one of the most delicate points in Venetian history. French and imperial troops were occupying Veneto, but Venice managed to extricate itself through diplomatic efforts. The Apulian ports were ceded to come to terms with Spain, and Julius II soon recognized
4200-632: The Battle of Agnadello . While maintaining most of its mainland possessions, Venice was defeated and the attempt to expand the eastern dominions caused a long series of wars against the Ottoman Empire , which ended only in the 18th century with the Treaty of Passarowitz of 1718 and which caused the loss of all possessions in the Aegean . Although still a thriving cultural centre, the Republic of Venice
4350-459: The Black Sea slave trade ), were sold in Venice. In the early 15th century, the republic began to expand onto the Terraferma . Thus, Vicenza , Belluno , and Feltre were acquired in 1404, and Padua , Verona , and Este in 1405. The situation in Dalmatia had been settled in 1408 by a truce with King Sigismund of Hungary , but the difficulties of Hungary finally granted to the republic
4500-696: The Byzantine-Norman wars . The following year, Emperor Alexios I Komnenos granted Venice the chrysobol , a commercial privilege that allowed Venetian merchants substantial tax exemptions in numerous Byzantine ports and the establishment of a Venetian neighbourhood in Durrës and Constantinople . The war ended in 1085 when, following the death of the leader Robert Guiscard , the Norman army abandoned its positions to return to Puglia. Having taken office in 1118, Emperor John II Komnenos decided not to renew
4650-545: The Carolingian Empire , de facto ratified the independence of Venice from the Byzantine Empire. In the following century, references to Venice as a Byzantine dominion disappeared, and in a document from 976 there is a mention of the most glorious Domino Venetiarum ('Lord of Venice'), where the 'most glorious' appellative had already been used for the first time in the Pactum Lotharii and where
Venetian Holy Inquisition - Misplaced Pages Continue
4800-585: The Cretan War (1645–1669) , after a heroic siege that lasted 21 years, Venice lost its major overseas possession – the island of Crete (although it kept the control of the bases of Spinalonga and Suda) – while it made some advances in Dalmatia. In 1684, however, taking advantage of the Ottoman involvement against Austria in the Great Turkish War , the republic initiated
4950-621: The Morean War , which lasted until 1699 and in which it was able to conquer the Morea peninsula in southern Greece. These gains did not last, however; in December 1714, the Turks began the last Turkish–Venetian War , when the Morea was "without any of those supplies which are so desirable even in countries where aid is near at hand which are not liable to attack from the sea". The Turks took
5100-606: The Peace of Cremona . In 1281 Venice defeated the Republic of Ancona in battle and in 1293 a new war between Genoa, the Byzantine Empire and Venice broke out, won by the Genoese following the Battle of Curzola and ending in 1299. During the war, various administrative reforms were implemented in Venice, new assemblies were established to replace popular ones such as the Senate and in the Great Council power began to concentrate in
5250-690: The Smyrniote crusades , but its participation was suspended due to the siege of Zadar by the Hungarians. The Genoese expansion to the east, which caused the Black Death , brought the rivalry between the two republics to resurface and in 1350 they faced each other in the War of the Straits . Following the defeat in the Battle of Sapienza , Doge Marino Faliero attempted to establish a city lordship, but
5400-585: The Stato da Màr . The skirmishes between the Venetians and the Genoese resumed and in 1378 the two republics faced each other in the War of Chioggia . Initially the Genoese managed to conquer Chioggia and vast areas of the Venetian Lagoon, but in the end it was the Venetians who prevailed; the war ended definitively on 8 August 1381 with the Treaty of Turin which sanctioned the exit of the Genoese from
5550-551: The Thirty Years' War on Venice's key trade partners, and the increasing cost of cotton and silk imports to Venice. In 1606, a conflict between Venice and the Holy See began with the arrest of two clerics accused of petty crimes and with a law restricting the Church's right to enjoy and acquire landed property. Pope Paul V held that these provisions were contrary to canon law , and demanded that they be repealed. When this
5700-453: The Tiepolo conspiracy . Once the coup d'état failed and the establishment of a lordship was averted, Doge Pietro Gradenigo established the Council of Ten , which was assigned the task of repressing any threat to the security of the state. In the Venetian hinterland, the war waged by Mastino II della Scala caused serious economic losses to Venetian trade, so in 1336 Venice gave birth to
5850-511: The Treaty of Campo Formio , agreeing to share all the territory of the republic, with a new border just west of the Adige. Italian democrats, especially young poet Ugo Foscolo , viewed the treaty as a betrayal. The metropolitan part of the disbanded republic became an Austrian territory, under the name of Venetian Province ( Provincia Veneta in Italian, Provinz Venedig in German). Though
6000-591: The Uskok War in the northern Adriatic and on the Republic's eastern border, while in Lombardy to the west, Venetian troops skirmished with the forces of Don Pedro de Toledo Osorio , Spanish governor of Milan, around Crema in 1617 and in the countryside of Romano di Lombardia in 1618. During the same period, the Spanish governor of Naples, Don Pedro Téllez-Girón , clashed against Venice for commercial disputes at
6150-514: The War of Chioggia (with the Genoese army and fleet in the lagoon for a long period), Venice quickly managed to recover from the territorial losses suffered with the Treaty of Turin of 1381 and begin expansion on the mainland . Venetian expansion, however, led to the coalition of the Habsburg monarchy , Spain and France in the League of Cambrai , which in 1509 defeated the Republic of Venice in
Venetian Holy Inquisition - Misplaced Pages Continue
6300-532: The War of Saint Sabas ; on 24 June 1258 the two republics faced each other in the Battle of Acre which ended with an overwhelming Venetian victory. In 1261 the Empire of Nicaea with the help of the Republic of Genoa managed to dissolve the Eastern Latin Empire and re-establish the Byzantine Empire. The war between Genoa and Venice resumed and after a long series of battles the war ended in 1270 with
6450-674: The battle of Ragusa , having previously indirectly supported Ferdinand during the Uskok War. A fragile peace did not last, and in 1629 the Most Serene Republic returned to war with Spain and the Holy Roman Empire in the War of the Mantuan Succession . During the brief war a Venetian army led by provveditore Zaccaria Sagredo and reinforced by French allies was disastrously routed by Imperial forces at
6600-466: The battle of Villabuona , and Venice's closest ally Mantua was sacked. Reversals elsewhere for the Holy Roman Empire and Spain ensured the republic suffered no territorial loss, and the duchy of Mantua was restored to Charles II Gonzaga, Duke of Nevers , who was the candidate backed by Venice and France. The latter half of the 17th century also had prolonged wars with the Ottoman Empire; in
6750-522: The bishop of Olivolo , and other Venetian bishops who as ordinaries had jurisdiction in virtue of their offices. The doge, in concert with the Great Council and the Minor Council , retained judicial authority with regard to sentencing, which included burning at the stake . On 12 August 1289, under pressure exerted by Pope Nicholas IV , the Great Council voted to admit the papal inquisition into Venice's territories. The council's decree, with
6900-667: The co-dux , with the throne. The system brought Agnello's two sons, Giustiniano and Giovanni , to the ducal position, who was deposed in 836 due to his inadequacy to counter the Narentine pirates in Dalmatia . Following the deposition of Giovanni Partecipazio, Pietro Tradonico was elected who, with the promulgation of the Pactum Lotharii , a commercial treaty between Venice and the Carolingian Empire, began
7050-399: The coup d'état was foiled by the Council of Ten which on 17 April 1355 condemned the Doge to death. The ensuing political instability convinced Louis I of Hungary to attack Dalmatia which was conquered in 1358 with the signing of the Treaty of Zadar . The weakness of the Republic pushed Crete and Trieste to revolt, but the rebellions were quelled, thus reaffirming Venetian dominion over
7200-417: The pope , was to swear an oath of fidelity to the republic in the hands of doge, with the formal promise that he conceal nothing from the government. The state also exercised control financially by means of a fund, managed by the government, which received the assets confiscated from heretics and in turn covered the expenses of the Holy Office. Inquisitorial activity was only sporadic in Venice after 1423 when
7350-414: The 17th century, monarchical absolutism asserted itself in many countries of continental Europe, radically changing the European political landscape. This change made it possible to more markedly determine the differences between monarchies and republics: while the former had economies governed by strict laws and dominated by agriculture, the latter lived off of commercial affairs and free markets. Moreover,
7500-404: The 9th century. In addition to the doge, the administration of the Republic was directed by various assemblies: the Great Council , with legislative functions, which was supported by the Minor Council , the Council of Forty and the Council of Ten , responsible for judicial matters, and the Senate . During its long history, the Republic of Venice took on various names, all closely linked to
7650-421: The Adriatic. Owing to participation in the Crusades , penetration into eastern markets became increasingly stronger and, between the 12th and 13th centuries, Venice managed to extend its power into numerous eastern emporiums and commercial ports. The supremacy over the Mediterranean Sea led the Republic to the clash with Genoa , which lasted until the 14th century, when, after having risked complete collapse during
SECTION 50
#17327717333487800-417: The Dalmatian cities for the reduced sum of 100,000 ducats. Venice exploited the situation and quickly installed nobility to govern the area, for example, Count Filippo Stipanov in Zara. This move by the Venetians was a response to the threatening expansion of Gian Galeazzo Visconti , Duke of Milan. Control over the northeast main land routes was also a necessity for the safety of the trades. By 1410, Venice had
7950-469: The Doge Enrico Dandolo decided to exploit the expedition of the Fourth Crusade to conclude the Zara War and the following year, after twenty years of conflict, Venice conquered the city and won the war, regaining control of Dalmatia. The Venetian crusader fleet, however, did not stop in Dalmatia, but continued towards Constantinople to besiege it in 1204 , thus putting an end to the Byzantine Empire and formally making Venice an independent state, severing
8100-487: The Holy Office in Rome had sought greater clerical control, della Casa reassured his superiors that the three nobles chosen as the first savi all'eresia were intent on repressing heresy. Doge Francesco Donà himself had declared that there was "nothing more fitting a Christian prince than zeal in religion and the defence of the Catholic faith". The Venetian Holy Office consisted of six members, three clerical and three lay, plus staff. The inquisitor, as judge-delegate of
8250-455: The Holy Office in Rome, from which it received directives. It submitted all sentences to Rome for approval and could transmit the transcripts of an entire case if there were particular difficulties. Although the inquisition could act on its own initiative whenever there was a suspicion of heresy or a Venetian secular magistracy could notify the religious tribunal of evidence discovered in criminal proceedings, most often an investigation began when
8400-413: The Italian peninsula to identify and interrogate heretics and emit sentences, including the death penalty. The objective was to eliminate religious dissent and ensure uniformity of doctrine. To secular rulers, the pope warned of the risks that came with heresy: social disorder, subversion of authority, and even the wrath of God for those governments that tolerated sin. The creation of the Roman Inquisition
8550-456: The Jewish community. The Germanic-Italian Jews, largely Italian-born but of German descent, operated the banks in the Ghetto that provided low-interest loans to the poor, whereas the Sephardi Jews , whether transient or resident, maintained important commercial contacts throughout the Mediterranean, particularly within the Ottoman Empire . With large amounts of liquid capital, the Jews also contributed financially through taxes and forced loans to
8700-437: The Latin classics and, especially, the works of Cicero . Counseled by Alessandro Farnese , Della Casa eventually followed his friend Pietro Bembo in pursuing a prestigious career in the Church. He rose to become Archbishop of Benevento in 1544, and in the same year, Pope Paul III nominated him Papal nuncio to Venice. It was in a palace on the Grand Canal that he encountered the poets, artists, and nobility of Venice. With
8850-405: The Most Serene Republic of Venice ( Italian : Serenissima Repubblica di Venezia ; Venetian: Serenìsima Repùblega de Venexia ), a name by which it is best known today. Similarly, the doge was also given the nickname of serenissimo or more simply that of His Serenity . From the 17th century the Republic of Venice took on other more or less official names such as the Venetian State or
9000-522: The Senate decreed that the protection of rights, either for the printer or the author, would be henceforth contingent upon the issuance of an imprimatur , the license needed to legally print any book. Fines, issued by the esecutori contro la bestemmia (executors against blasphemy), were authorized in 1543 expressly for any printer or bookseller who trafficked in books contrary to the Catholic faith. However, no similar fines existed for imported books with heretical doctrines; hence Protestant books, brought to
9150-412: The Senate voted to grant safe-conduct to the ' Ponentine ' Jews (from Spain, Portugal, and the Habsburg Netherlands ), allowing them to legally settle in the Ghetto and conduct their international trade with no investigation into their religious past. Of concern were the crypto-Jews who lived ostensibly in the community as Christians while practicing their Jewish faith in secret. Denunciations received by
SECTION 60
#17327717333489300-404: The Serenissima regained its mainland dominions west to the Adda River . Although the defeat had turned into a victory, the events of 1509 marked the end of the Venetian expansion. In 1489, the first year of Venetian control of Cyprus, Turks attacked the Karpasia Peninsula , pillaging and taking captives to be sold into slavery. In 1539, the Turkish fleet attacked and destroyed Limassol . Fearing
9450-454: The Venetian Holy Office were similar to those signalling a bad Christian, notably the failure to show reverence to Christian holy images, to pray the Ave Maria in public, and to attend mass and take communion. But they included more specific charges such as the wearing of Jewish dress, the observing of Jewish dietary laws , and the refraining from work on Shabbat . Sorcery, witchcraft, and superstition accounted for approximately one-eighth of
9600-425: The Venetian Republic over maritime control of the Aegean, the Ionian, and the Adriatic Seas. The wars with Venice resumed after the Ottomans captured the Kingdom of Bosnia in 1463, and lasted until a favorable peace treaty was signed in 1479 just after the troublesome siege of Shkodra . In 1480, no longer hampered by the Venetian fleet, the Ottomans besieged Rhodes and briefly captured Otranto . In February 1489,
9750-416: The Venetian Republic. The republic is often referred to as La Serenissima , in reference to its title as one of the " Most Serene Republics ". The Duchy of Venice was born in the 9th century from the Byzantine territories of Maritime Venice . According to tradition, the first doge was elected in 697, but this figure is of dubious historicity and comparable to that of the exarch Paul , who, similarly to
9900-439: The Venetian government only consented to secret executions, carried out by drowning. The condemned was rowed to the open Adriatic at dawn, and in the presence of a priest who recited prayers for the individual's soul, he was dropped into the sea, weighted by a stone. The secrecy of executions was intended to preserve Venice's international reputation as a tolerant city, open to Protestant merchants. Venice economically relied upon
10050-459: The Venetian possessions in the Balkans as the price of peace (18 April 1797) while France acquired the Lombard part of the state. After Napoleon's ultimatum, Ludovico Manin surrendered unconditionally on 12 May and abdicated , while the Major Council declared the end of the republic. According to Bonaparte's orders, the public powers passed to a provisional municipality under the French military governor. On 17 October, France and Austria signed
10200-404: The Venetian printers arguing that at that time not even in Rome was there a similar index. With the papal index, censorship became more effective. In 1569, following the Venetian acceptance of the decrees of the Council of Trent and the new Tridentine Index (1564), the government made the procedures to obtain the license for publication more stringent. Control over imported books was tightened with
10350-411: The accused individual and discover his motives and intentions. Obtaining a full confession was the principal objective. Torture, primarily strappado but also applying fire to the feet, was rarely used by the Venetian Holy Office, only in roughly three percent of the cases for which documentation survives. In accordance with directives contained in the inquisitor's manual Directorium Inquisitorum , it
10500-448: The anti-Scaliger league and the Scaliger War . The following year the coalition expanded further and Padua returned to the dominion of the Carraresi . In 1338, Venice conquered Treviso , the first nucleus of the Domini di Terraferma , and in 1339 it signed a peace treaty in which the Scaligeri promised not to interfere in Venetian trade and to recognize the sovereignty of Venice over the Trevisan March. In 1343 Venice took part in
10650-433: The appellative "lord" refers to the fact that the doge was still considered like a king, even if elected by the popular assembly. Gaining independence, Venice also began to expand on the coasts of the Adriatic Sea , and so starting from 1109, following the conquest of Dalmatia and the Croatian coast, the doge formally received the title of Venetiae Dalmatiae atque Chroatiae Dux ('Doge of Venice, Dalmatia and Croatia'),
10800-515: The arrival of the Byzantine fleet and the retreat of the Franks. Following the failed Frankish conquest, Doge Obelerio was replaced by the pro-Byzantine nobleman Agnello Participazio who definitively moved the capital to Rivoalto in 812, thus decreeing the birth of the city of Venice . With his election, Agnello Partecipazio attempted to make the ducal office hereditary by associating an heir,
10950-423: The authorized presence of a representative of the inquisition at the customs house . Furthermore, the inquisition was allowed to send inspectors to bookshops and printing houses to confiscate unauthorized books. In general, cases involving prohibited books were quickly resolved; the evidence was tangible, and printers and booksellers preferred to confess to the crime of illegal trafficking in forbidden texts and pay
11100-420: The basis of the depositions, the procurator-fiscal , a member of the inquisition staff, formulated the charges and argued the case before the court. As a crime of thought, heresy was difficult to ascertain. At times, there was evidence in the form of forbidden books, letters, or documents. But the inquisition primarily investigated opinions and ideas, and the inquisitor's role was to probe the intellect and will of
11250-521: The capital. Having taken control of the situation, the doge placed Venezia under Frankish protection, but a Byzantine naval blockade convinced him to renew his loyalty to the Eastern Emperor. With the intention of conquering Venezia in 810, the Frankish army commanded by Pepin invaded the lagoon, forcing the local population to retreat to Rivoalto , thus starting a siege which ended with
11400-492: The cases in the sixteenth century. In the seventeenth century, fifty percent of the cases concerned witchcraft. In the sixteenth century, Venice was Italy's largest centre for printing, with a production of 8,150 titles between 1550 and 1599. Any censorship therefore had potential repercussions for an important sector of the economy. Nevertheless, roughly ten percent of the cases before the Venetian Holy Office in
11550-510: The charge was found to have merit, normally having been confirmed by several witnesses, an arrest warrant for the accused individual was issued in the name of the inquisition, but only with the approval of the savi all'eresia . Proceedings could also continue in absentia . For more serious charges, additional guidance from the Holy Office in Rome was often sought, considerably lengthening
11700-419: The chrysobol of 1082, arousing the reaction of Venice which declared war on the Byzantine Empire in 1122. The war ended in 1126 with the victory of Venice which forced the emperor to stipulate a new agreement characterized by even better conditions than the previous ones, thus making the Byzantine Empire totally dependent on Venetian trade and protection. With the intention of weakening the growing Venetian power,
11850-547: The city by German merchants, circulated freely. A marked increase in censorship aimed at eliminating controversial religious writings inevitably followed the institution of the Roman inquisition and the creation of the savi all'eresia in 1547. Already in July 1548, some 1,400 books were publicly burned, mostly in Saint Mark's Square. Efforts to limit the production and circulation of heretical books were initially hindered by
12000-693: The civil war of the Ottoman Interregnum and established himself as sultan . The conflict escalated until Pietro Loredan won a crushing victory against the Turks off Gallipoli in 1416 . Venice expanded as well along the Dalmatian coast from Istria to Albania , which was acquired from King Ladislaus of Naples during the civil war in Hungary . Ladislaus was about to lose the conflict and had decided to escape to Naples, but before doing so he agreed to sell his now practically forfeit rights on
12150-463: The competition for dominion over the Mediterranean. In 1403, the last major battle between the Genoese (now under French rule) and Venice was fought at Modon , and the final victory resulted in maritime hegemony and dominance of the eastern trade routes. The latter would soon be contested, however, by the inexorable rise of the Ottoman Empire . Hostilities began after Prince Mehmed I ended
12300-630: The consolidation of its Adriatic dominions. The situation culminated in the Battle of Motta in late August 1412, when an invading army of Hungarians, Germans and Croats, led by Pippo Spano and Voivode Miklós Marczali attacked the Venetian positions at Motta and suffered a heavy defeat. At the expiration of the truce in 1420, Venice immediately invaded the Patriarchate of Aquileia and subjected Traù , Spalato , Durazzo , and other Dalmatian cities. In Lombardy , Venice acquired Brescia in 1426, Bergamo in 1428, and Cremona in 1499. In 1454,
12450-526: The course of its 1,100 years of history it established itself as one of the major European commercial and naval powers. Initially extended in the Dogado area (a territory currently comparable to the Metropolitan City of Venice ), during its history it annexed a large part of Northeast Italy , Istria , Dalmatia , the coasts of present-day Montenegro and Albania as well as numerous islands in
12600-537: The danger brought by the eventual destruction of Venice (then the only Italian power able to face kingdoms like France or empires like the Ottomans). The citizens of the mainland rose to the cry of "Marco, Marco", and Andrea Gritti recaptured Padua in July 1509, successfully defending it against the besieging imperial troops. Spain and the pope broke off their alliance with France, and Venice regained Brescia and Verona from France, also. After seven years of ruinous war,
12750-495: The day that the city fell – 9 September 1570 – 20,000 Nicosians were put to death, and every church, public building, and palace was looted. Word of the massacre spread, and a few days later, Mustafa took Kyrenia without having to fire a shot. Famagusta, however, resisted and put up a defense that lasted from September 1570 until August 1571. The fall of Famagusta marked the beginning of the Ottoman period in Cyprus. Two months later,
12900-524: The death of his protector Farnese and the election of Pope Giulio III , Della Casa left Rome and, disappointed at not having been elevated to Cardinal, retired to a reflective life of writing and reading. It is during this period – sometime between 1551 and 1555 – that he conceived and drafted his Galateo , in the Abbey of Nervesa near Treviso. He died a year later, probably in the Farnese palace in Rome, and
13050-572: The delicate situation in Romagna , then one of the richest lands in Italy, which was nominally part of the Papal States , but effectively divided into a series of small lordships which were difficult for Rome's troops to control. Eager to take some of Venice's lands, all neighbouring powers joined in the League of Cambrai in 1508, under the leadership of Pope Julius II . The pope wanted Romagna ; Emperor Maximilian I : Friuli and Veneto ; Spain:
13200-456: The detention period. In the event that the Holy Office in Rome sought the extradition of a suspected heretic for further interrogation and punishment, the authorization of the Council of Ten was necessary. While this was readily granted for foreigners on Venetian territory, the council was more resistant to any attempt to extradite Venetian subjects, particularly members of the elite classes. On
13350-406: The doge in cases of heresy are first mentioned in the coronation oath, promissione ducale , of Doge Marino Morosini , dated 13 June 1249. These magistrates were laymen personally chosen by the doge for their religious devotion and integrity. Although they were given authority to prosecute cases of heresy, the actual interrogation of suspected individuals was carried out by the patriarch of Grado ,
13500-524: The doge retaining the right of proposal. A reform dated 7 June 1556 empowered the Full College with the election which, after 8 April 1595, became the purview of the entire Senate. The term was set at two years with the possibility of renewal. Henceforth, the savi all'eresia were a magistratura senatoriale (senatorial magistracy), a standing subcommittee of the Senate. They were chosen from among
13650-459: The doge, was assassinated in 727 following a revolt. Father Pietro Antonio of Venetia, in his history of the lagoon city published in 1688, writes: "The precise time in which that family arrived in the Adria is not found, but rather, what already an inhabitant of the islands, by the princes, who welcomed citizens, and supported with the advantage of significant riches, in the year 697 she contributed to
13800-618: The ducal chapel. Roughly one third of the proceedings concerned matters directly related to Venice. The tribunal additionally functioned as a district court for the entire Venetian Republic, including the inquisitorial courts in Padua , Treviso , Verona , Rovigo , Vicenza , Udine , and Brescia as well as in the overseas territories . While it did not regularly act as a court of appeal, it could call cases before it for further investigation and retry any case within its jurisdiction. The Venetian Holy Office also maintained routine correspondence with
13950-429: The ecclesiastic tribunal with the objective of defending the sovereignty of the republic and its jurisdiction over its subjects. They were to block any proceedings of the Holy Office that might have violated Venetian laws and customs or had ramifications for the economic, social, and diplomatic interests of the state. Without their participation, the proceedings of the inquisition would be invalid, ipso iure . Although
14100-691: The economic vitality of the Venetian Republic had started to decline since the 16th century with the movement of international trade towards the Atlantic, its political regime still appeared in the 18th century as a model for the philosophers of the Enlightenment . Jean-Jacques Rousseau was hired in July 1743 as secretary by Comte de Montaigu, who had been named ambassador of the French in Venice. This short experience, nevertheless, awakened
14250-493: The election of Pietro II Orseolo . Pietro II Orseolo gave a notable boost to Venetian commercial expansion by stipulating new commercial privileges with the Holy Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empire. In addition to diplomacy, the doge resumed the war against the Narentan pirates that began in the 9th century and in the year 1000 he managed to subjugate the coastal cities of Istria and Dalmatia. The Great Schism of 1054 and
14400-469: The emperor provided substantial commercial support to the maritime republics of Ancona , Genoa and Pisa , making coexistence with Venice, which was now hegemonic on the Adriatic Sea , increasingly difficult, so much so that it was renamed the "Gulf of Venice". In 1171, following the emperor's decision to expel the Venetian merchants from Constantinople, a new war broke out which was resolved with
14550-401: The end of his life, he followed the model of Petrarch, composing some of the most intense lyrics of the sixteenth century. In his Rime, he chose love as his a main theme, along with sadness, disillusionment, and regret. His gravity and solemn style He wrote two sonnets of particular beauty, in which he looks at the vanity of life and to disappearing into nothingness after death. After the death of
14700-511: The ever-expanding Ottoman Empire, the Venetians had fortified Famagusta , Nicosia , and Kyrenia , but most other cities were easy prey. By 1563, the population of Venice had dropped to about 168,000 people. In the summer of 1570, the Turks struck again but this time with a full-scale invasion rather than a raid. About 60,000 troops, including cavalry and artillery, under the command of Mustafa Pasha landed unopposed near Limassol on 2 July 1570 and laid siege to Nicosia. In an orgy of victory on
14850-674: The faculty of appointing the Latin Patriarchate of Constantinople and the possibility of sending a Venetian representative to the government of the Eastern Latin Empire . With the end of the Fourth Crusade, Venice concentrated its efforts on the conquest of Crete, which intensely involved the Venetian army until 1237. Venice's control over the eastern trade routes became pressing and this caused an increase in conflicts with Genoa which in 1255 exploded into
15000-560: The failure to fast and observe abstinence from meat , or the refusal to take communion . Through proclamations in the public squares and sermons in the churches, the populace was encouraged to denounce individuals suspected of heresy. Particularly in the secrecy of the confession, penitents were exhorted to collaborate and identify individuals whose asserted beliefs or religious practices were at odds with Catholic teachings. Parish priests and schoolmasters were also admonished to report any suspicion of heresy. Time and resources were limited, and
15150-644: The frontiers of neutral Venice in pursuit of the enemy. By the end of the year, the French troops were occupying the Venetian state up to the Adige River. Vicenza, Cadore and Friuli were held by the Austrians. With the campaigns of the next year, Napoleon aimed for the Austrian possessions across the Alps . In the preliminaries to the Peace of Leoben , the terms of which remained secret, the Austrians were to take
15300-478: The government suspended the stipend of the inquisitor, but it intensified beginning in the 1530s, largely in response to the Protestant Reformation . The renewal of inquisitorial activity was also consistent with broader efforts to moralize the society and gain the favour of God following the Venetian defeat at the Battle of Agnadello in 1509, a defeat that was interpreted as divine punishment for
15450-612: The government. As a result, only five percent of the cases processed by the Venetian Holy Office in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries involve the Jewish community, mostly Marrano Jews and Judaizers , Christians who had adopted Jewish customs. From a Christian perspective, the Jews who had been forcibly converted to Christianity in the Iberian Peninsula but later reverted to Judaism were apostates and heretics. But despite
15600-557: The hands of about ten families. To avoid the birth of a lordship, the Doge decided to increase the number of members of the Maggior Consiglio while leaving the number of families unchanged and so the Serrata del Maggior Consiglio was implemented in 1297. Following the provision, the power of some of the old houses decreased and in 1310, under the pretext of defeat in the War of Ferrara , these families organized themselves in
15750-510: The influence of the Holy Roman Empire by cultivating relations with England , France , and the league were no longer practicable. Prudence dictated greater support for the empire and the Church. Negotiations between della Casa and the Venetian government for the establishment of the Roman Inquisition in Venice continued. To the Venetian proposal that jurisdiction reside with the Venetian bishops as ordinaries, Paul III countered that
15900-424: The inquisition did not act on all of the denunciations it received: the majority of denunciations was in fact not pursued. The principal criterion for beginning an investigation was the perceived harm to the common welfare. Generally, the inquisition was hesitant to proceed on the basis of an anonymous denunciation, unless of grave interest in which case individuals who could corroborate the charge were subpoenaed. Even
16050-571: The interest of Rousseau to the policy, which led him to design a large book of political philosophy. After the Discourse on the Origin and Basis of Inequality Among Men (1755), he published The Social Contract (1762). Following the Lombard occupation and the progressive migration of the Roman populations, new coastal settlements were born in which the local assemblies, the comitia , elected
16200-516: The island of Cyprus , previously a crusader state (the Kingdom of Cyprus ), was added to Venice's holdings. By 1490, the population of Venice had risen to about 180,000 people. War with the Ottomans resumed from 1499 to 1503. In 1499, Venice allied itself with Louis XII of France against Milan, gaining Cremona . In the same year, the Ottoman sultan moved to attack Lepanto by land and sent
16350-559: The islands of Tinos and Aegina , crossed the isthmus, and took Corinth . Daniele Dolfin, commander of the Venetian fleet, thought it better to save the fleet than risk it for the Morea. When he eventually arrived on the scene, Nauplia, Modon, Corone, and Malvasia had fallen. Levkas in the Ionian islands , and the bases of Spinalonga and Suda on Crete, which still remained in Venetian hands, were abandoned. The Turks finally landed on Corfu , but its defenders managed to throw them back. In
16500-531: The lack of any accepted criteria to identify objectionable texts. Prior to Pope Paul IV's promulgation in 1559 of the Index Librorum Prohibitorum ( List of Prohibited Books ), no compiled list of forbidden books existed in Venice: the Venetian inquisition emanated decrees against single works. An early attempt by the Council of Ten to draw up a list of banned titles in 1549 was unsuccessful,
16650-475: The lagoon for a decade. Following his death, the Byzantines entrusted the government of the province to the regime of the magistri militum , which lasted until 742 when the emperor granted the people the appointment of a dux . The Venetians elected by acclamation Theodato , son of Orso, who decided to move the capital of the duchy from Heraclia to Metamauco . The Lombard conquest of Ravenna in 751 and
16800-666: The last ties with the former Byzantine ruler. The empire was dismembered in the Crusader states and from the division Venice obtained numerous ports in the Morea and several islands in the Aegean Sea including Crete and Euboea , thus giving life to the Stato da Màr . In addition to the territorial conquests, the doge was awarded the title of Lord of a quarter and a half of the Eastern Roman Empire, thus obtaining
16950-476: The long process of detachment of the province from the Byzantine Empire. After Tradonico was killed following a conspiracy in 864, Orso I Participazio was elected and resumed the fight against piracy, managing to protect the Dogado from attacks by the Saracens and the Patriarchate of Aquileia . Orso managed to assign the dukedom to his eldest son Giovanni II Participazio who, after conquering Comacchio ,
17100-603: The meantime, the Turks had suffered a grave defeat by the Austrians in the Battle of Petrovaradin on 5 August 1716. Venetian naval efforts in the Aegean Sea and the Dardanelles in 1717 and 1718, however, met with little success. With the Treaty of Passarowitz (21 July 1718), Austria made large territorial gains, but Venice lost the Morea, for which its small gains in Albania and Dalmatia were little compensation. This
17250-500: The monarchies, in addition to being led by a single ruling family, were more prone to war and religious uniformity. This increasingly noticeable difference between monarchy and republic began to be specified also in official documents, and it was hence that names such as the Republic of Genoa or the Republic of the Seven United Provinces were born. The Lordship of Venice also adapted to this new terminology, becoming
17400-602: The moral dissolution of the Venetians. In 1542, Pope Paul III established the Roman Inquisition as part of the Catholic Church's efforts to repress Protestantism in the period of the Counter Reformation . Unlike earlier inquisitions which tasked secular authorities with the punishment of heretics, the new institution depended directly upon the Holy See and had full authority throughout
17550-462: The nascent mercantile aristocracy gathered in the Great Council , the largest assembly of the Veneciarum municipality . In the 13th century the popular assembly of the concio was progressively stripped of all its powers and, similarly to the Italian city lordships , in Venice too power began to concentrate in the hands of a small number of families. To avoid the birth of a lordship and dilute
17700-520: The naval forces of the Holy League , composed mainly of Venetian, Spanish , and papal ships under the command of Don John of Austria , defeated the Turkish fleet at the battle of Lepanto . Despite victory at sea over the Turks, Cyprus remained under Ottoman rule for the next three centuries. By 1575, the population of Venice was about 175,000 people, but partly as a result of the plague of 1575–76
17850-493: The nomination of the first Prince Marco Contarini, one of the 22 Tribunes of the Islands, who made the election". In 726, Emperor Leo III attempted to extend iconoclasm to the Exarchate of Ravenna, causing numerous revolts throughout the territory. In reaction to the reform, the local populations appointed several duces to replace the Byzantine governors and in particular Venetia appointed Orso as its doge, who governed
18000-554: The occasional removal from the Ghetto of Jewish children who had been baptized, there was little interest on the part of the Venetian Holy Office for the Jewish adults that had been baptized prior to arrival in Venice and chose to live in the Ghetto as Jews. Although occasion denunciations were received, any inquisitorial process would have depended upon the ability to verify events that had occurred in Spain and Portugal. Additionally, in 1589
18150-557: The ordinaries were not sufficient and that time was of the essence. It was also suggested that the Church could try cases for heresy alone, but that all other related offences would be deferred to the state. The solution to the impasse was the creation by the Minor Council of the three savi all'eresia (sages over heresy) on 22 April 1547. These Venetian officials, described as "honest, discreet, and Catholic men" ( "probi, discreti e cattolici uomini" ), were to assist and control
18300-513: The originator of a style, which, if less soft and elegant, was more nervous and majestic than that which it replaced. Della Casa began his literary career as a poet, writing licentious verse in the style of Berni. It was believed that his openly licentious poem, Capitoli del forno , his estrangement from the Medici regime in Florence, and the fact that the French court seemed to desire his elevation, prevented him from being selected cardinal. Toward
18450-485: The outbreak of the investiture struggle in 1073 marginally involved Venetian politics which instead focused its attention on the arrival of the Normans in southern Italy. The Norman occupation of Durrës and Corfu in 1081 pushed the Byzantine Empire to request the aid of the Venetian fleet which, with the promise of obtaining extensive commercial privileges and reimbursement of military expenses, decided to take part in
18600-435: The papal nuncio. As the diplomatic representative of the papacy, he could intervene directly with the Venetian government to defend the interests of the Church and the inquisition, particularly in disputed cases. His participation ensured that the inquisition in Venice remained subject to the Holy Office in Rome and acted with the full authority of the pope. He enjoyed the judicial power of a legate in ecclesiastical matters and
18750-471: The poet in 1558, his Rime would have a great success in literary circles of the time. His use of enjambement, a technique by which the eleven syllable line continues through to the next line, gave his verse a new musicality and power. Two sonnets of particular intensity are O dolce selva solitaria, amica and Questa vita mortal, che ‘n o ‘n due . "All of Della Casa’s poems express a fundamental anxiety and an inquietude about love or ambition, often coupled with
18900-470: The pope, was responsible for conducting the trial and for ascertaining heresy. He was ideally a theologian of at least 40 years of age, and it was desirable that he also be qualified in canon law . In proceedings, he was assisted by the commissario who acted as his deputy. Although the inquisitor was nominated by the pope, a formal grant of the Full College , the executive committee of the Senate ,
19050-404: The population dropped to 124,000 people by 1581. According to economic historian Jan De Vries, Venice's economic power in the Mediterranean had declined significantly by the start of the 17th century. De Vries attributes this decline to the loss of the spice trade , a declining uncompetitive textile industry, competition in book publishing from a rejuvenated Catholic Church, the adverse impact of
19200-487: The power of the old houses, the Lockout of the Great Council took place in 1297, a measure that increased the number of members of the Great Council leaving the number of families unchanged and therefore precluding the entry of the new nobility. Giovanni della Casa Giovanni della Casa (28 June 1503 – 14 November 1556) was an Italian poet, diplomat, clergyman and inquisitor, and writer on etiquette and society. He
19350-424: The relative clauses, was inserted into the papal bull of 28 August 1289 that formally established the Holy Office in Venice. The Venetian government, however, reserved for itself a degree of control to ensure its sovereignty and its jurisdiction in all matters pertaining to the state. Specifically, the doge retained the right to intervene in the proceedings of the inquisition, and the inquisitor, appointed directly by
19500-421: The restoration of the status quo . At the end of the 12th century, the commercial traffic of Venetian merchants extended throughout the East and they could count on immense and solid capital. As in the rest of Italy, starting from the 12th century, Venice also underwent the transformations that led to the age of the municipalities . In that century, the doge's power began to decline: initially supported only by
19650-406: The senators, routinely individuals who had been members of the Council of Ten , responsible for state security, or former ambassadors of the republic to Rome. Excluded were the so-called papalisti , members of those patrician families who maintained close ties with the papal court and often enjoyed ecclesiastical preferments in the form of offices and benefices . The presence of at least one of
19800-439: The sixteenth century concerned the production, distribution, or possession of prohibited books, whereas censorship in the seventeenth century accounted for only four percent of the cases. Within Venice's territories, the riformatori dello studio di Padova , the educational committee of the Senate established in 1517, were administratively responsible for censorship, under the authority of the Council of Ten. As representatives of
19950-608: The state in an effort to win over the Venetian government. A shift in the international balance of power also favoured his cause. The deaths in quick succession of King Henry VIII of England and King Francis I of France strengthened the position of the Church's principal ally, the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V who went on the offensive against the Schmalkaldic League of Protestant princes. In this new reality, Venice's previous efforts to counter
20100-508: The state, they were principally concerned with controlling political writings as well as those moral texts that could erode public mores and, as a result, threaten proper relationships within the society. Little attention was given to religious writings in the early decades of the Protestant Reformation, despite growing pressures from the papacy to eliminate books critical of Catholic doctrine. Limited control began in 1527 when
20250-609: The subsequent conquest of the Lombard kingdom by Charlemagne 's Franks in 774, with the creation of the Carolingian Empire in 800, considerably changed the geopolitical context of the lagoon, leading the Venetians to divide into two factions : a pro-Frankish party led by the city of Equilium and a pro-Byzantine party with a stronghold in Heraclia . After a long series of skirmishes in 805, Doge Obelerio decided to attack both cities simultaneously, deporting their population to
20400-705: The titles attributed to the doge . During the 8th century, when Venice still depended on the Byzantine Empire , the doge was called in Latin Dux Venetiarum Provinciae ('Doge of the Province of Venice'), and then, starting from 840, Dux Veneticorum ('Doge of the Venetians'), following the signing of the Pactum Lotharii . This commercial agreement, stipulated between the Duchy of Venice ( Ducatum Venetiae ) and
20550-413: The witnesses to retaliation. Witnesses who were found to have falsely testified were punished. A formal trial began once sufficient evidence had been garnered. The defendant could choose his own advocate, or a defense advocate, a doctor in canon law, was provided to advise the accused and formulate a defense which could be conducted on legal, theological, historical, or even medical grounds, most often with
20700-472: Was a member of the Holy Inquisition in representation of the interests of the local church. Representing the interests of the state and defending the rights and privileges of Venice were the three savi all'eresia . All laymen, they were initially chosen by the Minor Council, consisting of the doge and six councillors. But legislation of 5 June 1554 reserved the election to the councillors alone,
20850-655: Was born into a wealthy Florentine family near Borgo San Lorenzo in Mugello at Villa La Casa which can be visited. His early education took place in Bologna , his native Florence , and Padua , under the guidance of such distinguished men of letters as Ubaldino Bandinelli and Ludovico Beccadelli. An important year in Della Casa's life was 1526, which he spent at the villa of his family in Tuscany, reading and translating
21000-404: Was lifted after a year, when France intervened and proposed a formula of compromise. Venice was satisfied with reaffirming the principle that no citizen was superior to the normal processes of law. Rivalry with Habsburg Spain and the Holy Roman Empire led to Venice's last significant wars in Italy and the northern Adriatic. Between 1615 and 1618 Venice fought Archduke Ferdinand of Austria in
21150-446: Was limited to situations in which the accused had contradicted himself and strong indications of guilt had already been discovered. More important to obtaining a confession was prolonged imprisonment. Although the accused individual was not given the benefit of a formal defence during the interrogation, he was allowed to review and respond to witness statements, which were provided to the accused devoid of any names that could have exposed
21300-510: Was named the last Captain General of the Sea ( Capitano Generale da Mar ) of the Republic in 1784. By 1796, the Republic of Venice could no longer defend itself since its war fleet numbered only four galleys and seven galiots . In spring 1796, Piedmont (the Duchy of Savoy ) fell to the invading French, and the Austrians were beaten from Montenotte to Lodi . The army under Napoleon crossed
21450-455: Was occupied by Napoleon 's French troops and its territories were divided with the Habsburg monarchy following the ratification of the Treaty of Campo Formio . Throughout its history, the Republic of Venice was characterized by its political order. Inherited from the previous Byzantine administrative structures, its head of state was the doge, a position which became elective from the end of
21600-554: Was refused, he placed Venice under an interdict which forbade clergymen from exercising almost all priestly duties. The republic paid no attention to the interdict or the act of excommunication and ordered its priests to carry out their ministry. It was supported in its decisions by the Servite friar Paolo Sarpi , a sharp polemical writer who was nominated to be the Signoria's adviser on theology and canon law in 1606. The interdict
21750-491: Was required before a newly appointed inquisitor could begin service. Furthermore, he largely served at the pleasure of the Venetian government which could call for his substitution: in 1560 the government demanded the removal of Filippo Peretti, later Pope Sixtus V , for his intransigence. From that date, the inquisitor, since 1289 a Franciscan , was nominated from the Dominican order . The Venetian Holy Office also included
21900-414: Was responsible for all of the inquisitorial tribunals within Venice's subject territories. Often the papal nuncio was substituted by the auditor-general who was a staff member and provided essential continuity from one nuncio to the next. As ordinary, the patriarch of Venice (formerly the patriarch of Grado), or his vicar-general, had jurisdiction in cases of heresy by virtue of his office. Accordingly, he
22050-526: Was strongly advocated by Cardinal Gian Pietro Carafa, later Pope Paul IV , largely on the basis of his personal experiences in Venice. He had taken refuge in the city in 1527, following the Sack of Rome , and remained until 1536. In a missive to Pope Clement VII in 1532, Caraffa lamented the diffusion of heresy in Venice and its territories, noting specifically the presence of itinerant apostates , particularly conventual Franciscans . The inquisition, he proposed,
22200-402: Was the best remedy to restore the honour of the Holy See and to punish those heretics who misled the faithful. On its part, the Venetian government was resistant to the establishment of an inquisitorial tribunal with direct allegiance to Rome. Although it shared the Church's objective of maintaining an orderly society with a hierarchical structure and shared values, its trading interests required
22350-419: Was the last war with the Ottoman Empire. By the year 1792, the once-great Venetian merchant fleet had declined to a mere 309 merchantmen . Although Venice declined as a seaborne empire, it remained in possession of its continental domain north of the Po Valley , extending west almost to Milan. Many of its cities benefited greatly from the Pax Venetiae (Venetian peace) throughout the 18th century. Angelo Emo
22500-450: Was transferred from the Empire to local assemblies, thus sanctioning the beginning of the ducal monarchy which lasted, with ups and downs, until the 11th century. If the first stable form of involvement of the patriciate in the management of power occurred with the institution of the curia ducis , starting from 1141 with the beginning of the municipal age , an unstoppable process of limitation and removal of ducal power from part of
#347652