Venutius was a 1st-century king of the Brigantes in northern Britain at the time of the Roman conquest . Some have suggested he may have belonged to the Carvetii , a tribe that probably formed part of the Brigantes confederation.
30-671: History first becomes aware of him as husband of Cartimandua , queen of the Brigantes, in about 51 AD. After the British resistance leader Caratacus was defeated by Publius Ostorius Scapula in Wales , he fled north to the Brigantes, only to be handed over to the Romans by Cartimandua. While the Brigantes were nominally an independent kingdom, Tacitus says Cartimandua and Venutius were loyal to Rome and "defended by Roman power". However, after
60-471: A chain shift . The terms P-Celtic and Q-Celtic are useful for grouping Celtic languages based on the way they handle this one phoneme. But a simple division into P- / Q-Celtic may be untenable, as it does not do justice to the evidence of the ancient Continental Celtic languages . The many unusual shared innovations among the Insular Celtic languages are often also presented as evidence against
90-422: A P- vs Q-Celtic division, but they may instead reflect a common substratum influence from the pre-Celtic languages of Britain and Ireland, [1] , or simply continuing contact between the insular languages; in either case they would be irrelevant to the genetic classification of Celtic languages. Q-Celtic languages may also have /p/ in loan words, though in early borrowings from Welsh into Primitive Irish, /kʷ/
120-525: A compound of the Common Celtic roots *carti- "chase, expel, send" and *mandu- "pony". In 51, the British resistance leader Caratacus sought sanctuary with Cartimandua after being defeated by Ostorius Scapula in Wales , but Cartimandua handed him over to the Romans in chains. Having given Claudius the greatest exhibit of his triumph , Cartimandua was rewarded with great wealth. Tacitus wrote: "She had later strengthened her power when she
150-656: A date for Proto-Celtic as early as the 13th century BC, the time of the Canegrate culture , in northwest Italy, and the Urnfield culture in Central Europe, implying that the divergence may have already started in the Bronze Age. The phonological changes from Proto-Indo-European (PIE) to Proto-Celtic (PC) may be summarized as follows. The changes are roughly in chronological order, with changes that operate on
180-554: Is lost in PC, apparently going through the stages * ɸ (possibly a stage *[pʰ]) and * h (perhaps seen in the name Hercynia if this is of Celtic origin) before being completely lost word-initially and between vowels. Next to consonants, PC * ɸ underwent different changes: the clusters * ɸs and * ɸt became * xs and * xt respectively already in PC. PIE * sp- became Old Irish s ( f- when lenited, exactly as for PIE * sw- ) and Brythonic f ; while Schrijver 1995 , p. 348 argues there
210-459: Is possible to reconstruct a Proto-Celtic word for 'iron' (traditionally reconstructed as *īsarnom ) has long been taken as an indication that the divergence into individual Celtic languages did not start until the Iron Age (8th century BC to 1st century BC); otherwise, descendant languages would have developed their own, unrelated words for their metal. However, Schumacher and Schrijver suggest
240-440: Is the hypothetical ancestral proto-language of all known Celtic languages , and a descendant of Proto-Indo-European . It is not attested in writing but has been partly reconstructed through the comparative method . Proto-Celtic is generally thought to have been spoken between 1300 and 800 BC, after which it began to split into different languages. Proto-Celtic is often associated with the Urnfield culture and particularly with
270-642: Is too scanty to allow a secure reconstruction of syntax , though some complete sentences are recorded in the Continental Gaulish and Celtiberian . So, the main sources for reconstruction come from Insular Celtic languages with the oldest literature found in Old Irish and Middle Welsh , dating back to authors flourishing in the 6th century AD. Proto-Celtic is usually dated to the Late Bronze Age , ca. 1200–900 BC. The fact that it
300-526: The Hallstatt culture . Celtic languages share common features with Italic languages that are not found in other branches of Indo-European, suggesting the possibility of an earlier Italo-Celtic linguistic unity. Proto-Celtic is currently being reconstructed through the comparative method by relying on later Celtic languages. Though Continental Celtic presents much substantiation for Proto-Celtic phonology , and some for its morphology , recorded material
330-619: The Brigantes, and during the governorship of Aulus Didius Gallus (52–57) he staged an invasion of the kingdom of the Brigantes. The Romans had anticipated this and sent some cohorts to defend their client queen. The fighting was inconclusive until Caesius Nasica arrived with a legion , the IX Hispana , and defeated the rebels. Cartimandua retained the throne thanks to prompt military support from Roman forces. Tacitus wrote: "She grew to despise her husband Venutius, and took as her consort his squire Vellocatus, whom she admitted to share
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#1732783186218360-659: The Roman emperor Claudius began the organised conquest of Britain in 43: she may have been one of the eleven "kings" who Claudius 's triumphal arch says surrendered without a fight. If not, she may have come to power after a revolt of a faction of the Brigantes was defeated by Publius Ostorius Scapula in 48. Being of "illustrious birth", according to Tacitus, Cartimandua probably inherited her power, as she does not appear to have obtained it through marriage. She and her husband, Venutius , are described by Tacitus as loyal to Rome and "defended by our [Roman] arms". Her name may be
390-561: The Roman poet Juvenal and the Greek geographer Pausanias refer to warfare against the Brigantes in the first half of the second century. Cartimandua Cartimandua or Cartismandua (reigned c. AD 43 – c. 69 ) was a 1st-century queen of the Brigantes , a Celtic people living in what is now northern England . She is known through the writings of Roman historian Tacitus . She came to power during
420-422: The Romans for protection, and in fact some companies of our foot and horse, after meeting with indifferent success in a number of engagements, finally succeeded in rescuing the queen from danger. The throne was left to Venutius; the war to us." Tacitus refers to Cartimandua's dumping of her husband for Vellocatus as scandalous. He Also discusses how Venutius rallies against her, but fails after she secures aid from
450-469: The Romans in exchange for wealth. She also is recorded for her disloyalty to her husband, whom she divorced and replaced with a common military man. She subsequently engaged in extended military conflict with her ex-husband as he staged revolt against her multiple times, eventually losing. Although Cartimandua is first mentioned by Tacitus in AD 51, her rule over the Brigantes may have already been established when
480-423: The Romans. Cartimandua was not as successful in the year 69. Taking advantage of Roman instability during the year of four emperors , Venutius staged another revolt, again with help from other nations. Cartimandua appealed for troops from the Romans, who were only able to send auxiliaries . Cartimandua was evacuated, leaving Venutius in control of a kingdom at war with Rome. After this, Cartimandua disappears from
510-479: The capture of Caratacus, Venutius became the most prominent leader of resistance to the Roman occupation. Cartimandua had apparently tired of him and married his armour-bearer, Vellocatus , whom she elevated to the kingship in Venutius's place. Initially, Venutius sought only to overthrow his ex-wife, only later turning his attention to her Roman protectors. The Romans defended their client queen and Venutius's revolt
540-650: The events of the year of four emperors, that Britain was abandoned having only just been pacified (although some think this is in reference to the consolidation of Agricola 's later conquests in Caledonia (Scotland)). What happened to Venutius after the accession of Vespasian is not recorded. Quintus Petillius Cerialis (governor 71 to 74 AD) campaigned against the Brigantes, but they were not completely subdued for many decades: Agricola (governor 78 to 84 AD) appears to have campaigned in Brigantian territory, and both
570-432: The following evidence: Proto-Indo-European (PIE) voiced aspirate stops * bʰ , * dʰ , * gʰ/ǵʰ , merge with * b , * d , * g/ǵ in PC. The voiced aspirate labiovelar * gʷʰ did not merge with * gʷ , though: plain * gʷ became PC * b , while aspirated * gʷʰ became * gʷ . Thus, PIE * gʷen- 'woman' became Old Irish and Old Welsh ben , but PIE * gʷʰn̥- 'to kill, wound' became Old Irish gonaid and Welsh gwanu . PIE * p
600-667: The outcome of earlier ones appearing later in the list. These changes are shared by several other Indo-European branches. The following sound changes are shared with the Italic languages in particular, and are cited in support of the Italo-Celtic hypothesis. One change shows non-exact parallels in Italic: vocalization of syllabic resonants next to laryngeals depending on the environment. Similar developments appear in Italic, but for
630-872: The parent language. Proto-Celtic is believed to have had nouns in three genders , three numbers and five to eight cases. The genders were masculine, feminine and neuter; the numbers were singular, plural and dual. The number of cases is a subject of contention: while Old Irish may have only five, the evidence from Continental Celtic is considered rather unambiguous despite appeals to archaic retentions or morphological leveling . These cases were nominative , vocative , accusative , dative , genitive , ablative , locative and instrumental . Nouns fall into nine or so declensions, depending on stem. There are * o -stems, * ā -stems, * i -stems, * u -stems, dental stems, velar stems, nasal stems, * r -stems and * s -stems. However, Celtiberian shows -o- stem genitives ending in -o rather than -ī : aualo "[son] of Avalos". Also note that
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#1732783186218660-683: The same exception occurred again in the High German consonant shift .) In Gaulish and the Brittonic languages , the Proto-Indo-European * kʷ phoneme becomes a new * p sound. Thus, Gaulish petuar[ios] , Welsh pedwar "four", but Old Irish cethair and Latin quattuor . Insofar as this new /p/ fills the gap in the phoneme inventory which was left by the disappearance of the equivalent stop in PIE, we may think of this as
690-485: The sources. Common Celtic Pontic Steppe Caucasus East Asia Eastern Europe Northern Europe Pontic Steppe Northern/Eastern Steppe Europe South Asia Steppe Europe Caucasus India Indo-Aryans Iranians East Asia Europe East Asia Europe Indo-Aryan Iranian Indo-Aryan Iranian Others European Proto-Celtic , or Common Celtic ,
720-586: The syllabic nasals *m̩, *n̩, the result is Proto-Italic *əm, *ən (> Latin em ~ im , en ~ in ). The following consonants have been reconstructed for Proto-Celtic (PC): Eska has recently proposed that PC stops allophonically manifest similarly to those in English . Voiceless stop phonemes /t k/ were aspirated word-initially except when preceded by /s/, hence aspirate allophones [tʰ kʰ]. And unaspirated voiced stops /b d ɡ/ were devoiced to [p t k] word-initially. This allophony may be reconstructed to PC from
750-403: The throne with her. Her house was at once shaken by this scandalous act. Her husband was favoured by the sentiments of all the citizens; the adulterer was supported by the queen's passion for him and by her savage spirit. So Venutius, calling in aid from outside and at the same time assisted by a revolt of the Brigantes themselves, put Cartimandua into an extremely dangerous position. Then she asked
780-577: The time period that Rome was campaigning against Britain . She was widely influential during her reign. As ruler of the Brigantes, she united various British tribes that eventually surrendered their loyalty to Rome . Cartimandua is portrayed notoriously in Tacitus's account of her. She is recorded betraying the Celtic chieftain Caratacus , insincerely offering him sanctuary, but instead turning him in to
810-466: Was an intermediate stage * sɸ- (in which * ɸ remained an independent phoneme until after Proto-Insular Celtic had diverged into Goidelic and Brythonic), McCone 1996 , pp. 44–45 finds it more economical to believe that * sp- remained unchanged in PC, that is, the change * p to * ɸ did not happen when * s preceded. (Similarly, Grimm's law did not apply to * p, t, k after * s in Germanic , and
840-564: Was credited with having captured King Caratacus by treachery and so furnished an adornment for the triumph of Claudius Caesar. From this came her wealth and the wanton spirit which success breeds." Tacitus purports that Cartimandua obtained wealth from her betrayal of Caratacus. Cartimandua later divorced Venutius, replacing him with his armour-bearer, Vellocatus . In 57, although Cartimandua had seized his brother and other relatives and held them hostage, Venutius made war against her and then against her Roman protectors. He built alliances outside
870-516: Was defeated by Caesius Nasica during the governorship of Aulus Didius Gallus (52 - 57 AD). Taking advantage of Roman instability during the year of four emperors , Venutius revolted again, this time in 69 AD. Cartimandua appealed for troops from the Romans, who were only able to send auxiliaries. Cartimandua was evacuated and Venutius took the kingdom. This second revolt may have had wider repercussions: Tacitus says that Vespasian , once emperor , had to "recover" Britain. He also says, introducing
900-631: Was used by sound substitution due to a lack of a /p/ phoneme at the time: Gaelic póg "kiss" was a later borrowing (from the second word of the Latin phrase osculum pacis "kiss of peace") at a stage where p was borrowed directly as p , without substituting c . The PC vowel system is highly comparable to that reconstructed for PIE by Antoine Meillet . The following monophthongs are reconstructed: The following diphthongs have also been reconstructed: The morphological (structure) of nouns and adjectives demonstrates no arresting alterations from
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