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86-590: See text Vespoidea is a superfamily of wasps in the order Hymenoptera . Vespoidea includes wasps with a large variety of lifestyles including eusocial , social, and solitary habits, predators, scavengers, parasitoids, and some herbivores. Vespoid wasp females have antennae with 10 flagellomeres, while males have 11 flagellomeres. The edge of the pronotum reaches or passes the tegula . Many species display some level of sexual dimorphism . Most species have fully developed wings, but some have reduced or absent wings in one or both sexes. As in other Aculeata , only

172-504: A controlled vocabulary of contributor roles. Known as CRediT ( Contributor Roles Taxonomy ) , this is an example of a flat, non-hierarchical taxonomy; however, it does include an optional, broad classification of the degree of contribution: lead , equal or supporting . Amy Brand and co-authors summarise their intended outcome as: Identifying specific contributions to published research will lead to appropriate credit, fewer author disputes, and fewer disincentives to collaboration and

258-408: A system outside a human individual (e.g., an information system may have knowledge embedded into its design) from embodied knowledge representing a learned capability of a human body's nervous and endocrine systems . A third proposed framework distinguishes between the exploratory creation of "new knowledge" (i.e., innovation) vs. the transfer or exploitation of "established knowledge" within

344-614: A " universal language " was frequently examined in the 17th century, also notably by the English philosopher John Wilkins in his work An Essay towards a Real Character and a Philosophical Language (1668), from which the classification scheme in Roget 's Thesaurus ultimately derives. Taxonomy in biology encompasses the description, identification, nomenclature, and classification of organisms. Uses of taxonomy include: Uses of taxonomy in business and economics include: Vegas et al. make

430-616: A 1997 article in JAMA , the Journal of the American Medical Association for a radical conceptual and systematic change, to reflect the realities of multiple authorship and to buttress accountability. We propose dropping the outmoded notion of author in favor of the more useful and realistic one of contributor. In 2012, several major academic and scientific publishing bodies mounted Project CRediT to develop

516-400: A certain type (for example, John is a bachelor ), while universally quantified conditionals express the notion that a type is a subtype of another type (for example, " A dog is a mammal" , which means the same as " All dogs are mammals" ). The "has-a" relationship is quite different: an elephant has a trunk; a trunk is a part, not a subtype of elephant. The study of part-whole relationships

602-444: A compelling case to advance the knowledge in the field of software engineering through the use of taxonomies. Similarly, Ore et al. provide a systematic methodology to approach taxonomy building in software engineering related topics. Several taxonomies have been proposed in software testing research to classify techniques, tools, concepts and artifacts. The following are some example taxonomies: Engström et al. suggest and evaluate

688-494: A cycle in which implicit knowledge is 'extracted' to become explicit knowledge, and explicit knowledge is 're-internalised' into implicit knowledge. Hayes and Walsham (2003) describe knowledge and knowledge management as two different perspectives. The content perspective suggests that knowledge is easily stored; because it may be codified, while the relational perspective recognises the contextual and relational aspects of knowledge which can make knowledge difficult to share outside

774-459: A greater focus on the management of knowledge as a strategic asset and on encouraging the sharing of knowledge . KM is an enabler of organizational learning. The most complex scenario for knowledge management may be found in the context of supply chain as it involves multiple companies without an ownership relationship or hierarchy between them, being called by some authors as transorganizational or interorganizational knowledge. That complexity

860-709: A group, organisation, or community. Collaborative environments such as communities of practice or the use of social computing tools can be used for both knowledge creation and transfer. Knowledge may be accessed at three stages: before, during, or after KM-related activities. Organisations have tried knowledge capture incentives , including making content submission mandatory and incorporating rewards into performance measurement plans. Considerable controversy exists over whether such incentives work and no consensus has emerged. One strategy to KM involves actively managing knowledge (push strategy). In such an instance, individuals strive to explicitly encode their knowledge into

946-438: A knowledge audit allows organizations to gain a deeper understanding of their knowledge assets. This includes identifying and defining these assets, understanding their behavior and properties, and describing how, when, why, and where they are used in business processes. Knowledge protection refers to behaviors and actions taken to protect the knowledge from unwanted opportunistic behavior for example appropriation or imitation of

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1032-449: A knowledge audit is to identify the organization's knowledge strengths and gaps, and to develop strategies for leveraging knowledge to improve performance and competitiveness. Knowledge audit helps ensure that an organization's knowledge management activities are heading in the right direction. It also reduces the making of incorrect decisions. Term knowledge audit is often used interchangeably with information audit, although information audit

1118-448: A larger variety of relation types. Mathematically, a hierarchical taxonomy is a tree structure of classifications for a given set of objects. It is also named containment hierarchy . At the top of this structure is a single classification, the root node, that applies to all objects. Nodes below this root are more specific classifications that apply to subsets of the total set of classified objects. The progress of reasoning proceeds from

1204-434: A method based on dichotomy, which was rejected by Aristotle and replaced by the method of definitions based on genus, species, and specific difference. The method of facet analysis (cf., faceted classification ) is primarily based on logical division. This approach tends to classify according to "essential" characteristics, a widely discussed and criticized concept (cf., essentialism ). These methods may overall be related to

1290-503: A part of their business strategy , IT , or human resource management departments. Several consulting companies provide advice regarding KM to these organizations. Knowledge management efforts typically focus on organisational objectives such as improved performance, competitive advantage , innovation , the sharing of lessons learned , integration, and continuous improvement of the organisation. These efforts overlap with organizational learning and may be distinguished from that by

1376-441: A shared knowledge repository, such as a database , as well as retrieving knowledge they need that other individuals have provided (codification). Another strategy involves individuals making knowledge requests of experts associated with a particular subject on an ad hoc basis (pull strategy). In such an instance, expert individual(s) provide insights to requestor (personalisation). When talking about strategic knowledge management,

1462-490: A single child with multi-parents, for example, "Car" might appear with both parents "Vehicle" and "Steel Mechanisms"; to some however, this merely means that 'car' is a part of several different taxonomies. A taxonomy might also simply be organization of kinds of things into groups, or an alphabetical list; here, however, the term vocabulary is more appropriate. In current usage within knowledge management , taxonomies are considered narrower than ontologies since ontologies apply

1548-451: A specification for 'organizational knowledge' as a complementary aspect of quality management within an organisation. KM emerged as a scientific discipline in the early 1990s. It was initially supported by individual practitioners, when Skandia hired Leif Edvinsson of Sweden as the world's first chief knowledge officer (CKO). Hubert Saint-Onge (formerly of CIBC , Canada), started investigating KM long before that. The objective of CKOs

1634-541: A study in 2008, the superfamily Apoidea was found to nest within the Vespoidea, suggesting the dismantling of Vespoidea ( sensu lato ) into many smaller superfamilies: Formicoidea , Scolioidea , Tiphioidea , Thynnoidea , and Pompiloidea in addition to a much more narrowly defined Vespoidea (restricted to Rhopalosomatidae and Vespidae ). Their research also found families Mutillidae, Tiphiidae, and Bradynobaenidae to be paraphyletic . A later study in 2013 confirmed

1720-600: A taxonomy is to help users more easily find what they are searching for. This may be effected in ways that include a library classification system and a search engine taxonomy . The word was coined in 1813 by the Swiss botanist A. P. de Candolle and is irregularly compounded from the Greek τάξις , taxis 'order' and νόμος , nomos 'law', connected by the French form -o- ; the regular form would be taxinomy , as used in

1806-484: A third category is introduced, semi-formal protection, which includes contracts and trade-secrets.   These semi-formal methods are also usually placed under formal methods. Organizations often use a combination of formal and informal knowledge protection methods to achieve comprehensive protection of their knowledge assets. The formal and informal knowledge protection mechanisms are different in nature, and they have their benefits and drawbacks. In many organizations,

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1892-408: Is mereology . Taxonomies are often represented as is-a hierarchies where each level is more specific than the level above it (in mathematical language is "a subset of" the level above). For example, a basic biology taxonomy would have concepts such as mammal , which is a subset of animal , and dogs and cats , which are subsets of mammal . This kind of taxonomy is called an is-a model because

1978-487: Is a significant aspect of content or document management systems, most of which have tools for developing enterprise portals. Proprietary KM technology products such as HCL Notes (Previously Lotus Notes) defined proprietary formats for email, documents, forms, etc. The Internet drove most vendors to adopt Internet formats. Open-source and freeware tools for the creation of blogs and wikis now enable capabilities that used to require expensive commercial tools. KM

2064-447: Is additionally increased by industry 4.0 (or 4th industrial revolution ) and digital transformation , as new challenges emerge from both the volume and speed of information flows and knowledge generation. Knowledge management efforts have a long history, including on-the-job discussions, formal apprenticeship , discussion forums , corporate libraries, professional training, and mentoring programs. With increased use of computers in

2150-416: Is an approach based solely on observable, measurable similarities and differences of the things to be classified. Classification is based on overall similarity: The elements that are most alike in most attributes are classified together. But it is based on statistics, and therefore does not fulfill the criteria of logical division (e.g. to produce classes, that are mutually exclusive and jointly coextensive with

2236-537: Is document-centered strategy, where knowledge is mainly codified as "people-to-document" method. Codification relies on information infrastructure, where explicit knowledge is carefully codified and stored. Codification focuses on collecting and storing codified knowledge in electronic databases to make it accessible. Codification can therefore refer to both tacit and explicit knowledge. In contrast, personalisation encourages individuals to share their knowledge directly. Personification means human-oriented KM strategy where

2322-576: Is driving the adoption of tools that enable organisations to work at the semantic level, as part of the Semantic Web . Some commentators have argued that after many years the Semantic Web has failed to see widespread adoption, while other commentators have argued that it has been a success. Just like knowledge transfer and knowledge sharing, the term "knowledge barriers" is not a uniformly defined term and differs in its meaning depending on

2408-511: Is important to notice that empiricism is not the same as empirical study, but a certain ideal of doing empirical studies. With the exception of the logical approaches they all are based on empirical studies, but are basing their studies on different philosophical principles). (3) Historical and hermeneutical approaches including Ereshefsky's "historical classification" and (4) Pragmatic, functionalist and teleological approaches (not covered by Ereshefsky). In addition there are combined approaches (e.g.,

2494-399: Is not assigned to the concept of France (whatever that might be).” Smith's alternative to concepts as units is based on a realist orientation, when scientists make successful claims about the types of entities that exist in reality, they are referring to objectively existing entities which realist philosophers call universals or natural kinds. Smith's main argument - with which many followers of

2580-399: Is of little use, since we seldom have anything to affirm in common of the plants which have a given number of stamens and pistils." "The ends of scientific classification are best answered, when the objects are formed into groups respecting which a greater number of general propositions can be made, and those propositions more important, than could be made respecting any other groups into which

2666-606: Is part of knowledge management. It helps convert tacit form of knowledge into an explicit form. It is a complex process which aims to reduce the knowledge loss in the organization. Knowledge retention is needed when expert knowledge workers leave the organization after a long career. Retaining knowledge prevents losing intellectual capital. According to DeLong(2004) knowledge retention strategies are divided into four main categories: Knowledge retention projects are usually introduced in three stages: decision making, planning and implementation. There are differences among researchers on

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2752-910: Is referred to is that in biological classification the anatomical traits of organisms is one kind of classification, the classification in relation to the evolution of species is another (in the section below, we expand these two fundamental sorts of classification to four). Hull adds that in biological classification, evolution supplies the theoretical orientation. Ereshefsky (2000) presented and discussed three general philosophical schools of classification: "essentialism, cluster analysis, and historical classification. Essentialism sorts entities according to causal relations rather than their intrinsic qualitative features." These three categories may, however, be considered parts of broader philosophies. Four main approaches to classification may be distinguished: (1) logical and rationalist approaches including "essentialism"; (2) empiricist approaches including cluster analysis (It

2838-434: Is slightly narrower in scope. The requirement and significance of a knowledge audit can vary widely among different industries and companies. For instance, within the software development industry, knowledge audits can play a pivotal role due to the inherently knowledge-intensive nature of the work. This contrasts with sectors like manufacturing, where physical assets often take more important role. The difference arises from

2924-412: Is the classification of items which emphasis the goals, purposes, consequences, interests, values and politics of classification. It is, for example, classifying animals into wild animals, pests, domesticated animals and pets. Also kitchenware (tools, utensils, appliances, dishes, and cookware used in food preparation, or the serving of food) is an example of a classification which is not based on any of

3010-412: Is the systematic classification involved in the design and utilization of taxonomic schemes such as the biological classification of animals and plants by genus and species. Two of the predominant types of relationships in knowledge-representation systems are predication and the universally quantified conditional . Predication relationships express the notion that an individual entity is an example of

3096-503: Is to manage and maximise the intangible assets of their organizations. Gradually, CKOs became interested in practical and theoretical aspects of KM, and the new research field was formed. The KM idea has been taken up by academics, such as Ikujiro Nonaka ( Hitotsubashi University ), Hirotaka Takeuchi (Hitotsubashi University), Thomas H. Davenport ( Babson College ) and Baruch Lev ( New York University ). In 2001, Thomas A. Stewart , former editor at Fortune magazine and subsequently

3182-675: The perspective . KM perspectives include: The practical relevance of academic research in KM has been questioned with action research suggested as having more relevance and the need to translate the findings presented in academic journals to a practice. Different frameworks for distinguishing between different 'types of' knowledge exist. One proposed framework for categorising the dimensions of knowledge distinguishes tacit knowledge and explicit knowledge . Tacit knowledge represents internalised knowledge that an individual may not be consciously aware of, such as to accomplish particular tasks. At

3268-708: The knowledge and information of an organization. It refers to a multidisciplinary approach to achieve organizational objectives by making the best use of knowledge. An established discipline since 1991, KM includes courses taught in the fields of business administration , information systems , management, library , and information science . Other fields may contribute to KM research, including information and media, computer science , public health and public policy . Several universities offer dedicated master's degrees in knowledge management. Many large companies, public institutions, and non-profit organisations have resources dedicated to internal KM efforts, often as

3354-505: The German mathematician and philosopher Gottfried Leibniz , following the work of the thirteenth-century Majorcan philosopher Ramon Llull on his Ars generalis ultima , a system for procedurally generating concepts by combining a fixed set of ideas, sought to develop an alphabet of human thought . Leibniz intended his characteristica universalis to be an "algebra" capable of expressing all conceptual thought. The concept of creating such

3440-593: The Greek reborrowing ταξινομία . Misplaced Pages categories form a taxonomy, which can be extracted by automatic means. As of 2009 , it has been shown that a manually-constructed taxonomy, such as that of computational lexicons like WordNet , can be used to improve and restructure the Misplaced Pages category taxonomy. In a broader sense, taxonomy also applies to relationship schemes other than parent-child hierarchies, such as network structures . Taxonomies may then include

3526-799: The above-mentioned three methods, but clearly on pragmatic or functional criteria. Bonaccorsi, et al. (2019) is about the general theory of functional classification and applications of this approach for patent classification. Although the examples may suggest that pragmatic classifications are primitive compared to established scientific classifications, it must be considered in relation to the pragmatic and critical theory of knowledge, which consider all knowledge as influences by interests. Ridley (1986) wrote: "teleological classification. Classification of groups by their shared purposes, or functions, in life - where purpose can be identified with adaptation. An imperfectly worked-out, occasionally suggested, theoretically possible principle of classification that differs from

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3612-588: The author. Knowledge barriers can be associated with high costs for both companies and individuals. Knowledge barriers appear to have been used from at least three different perspectives in the literature: 1) Missing knowledge about something as a result of barriers for the share or transfer of knowledge. 2) Insufficient knowledge based on the amount of education in a certain field or issue. 3) A unique individual or group of humans' perceptual system lacks adequate contact points or does not fit incoming information to use and transform it to knowledge. Knowledge retention

3698-410: The challenge is to find a good mix of measures that works for the organization. Formal knowledge protection practices can take various forms, such as legal instruments or formal procedures and structures, to control which knowledge is shared and which is protected. Formal knowledge protection methods include for example: patents, trademarks, copyrights and licensing. Technical solutions to protect

3784-462: The class they divide). Some people will argue that this is not classification/taxonomy at all, but such an argument must consider the definitions of classification (see above). These methods may overall be related to the empiricist theory of knowledge. Genealogical classification is classification of items according to their common heritage. This must also be done on the basis of some empirical characteristics, but these characteristics are developed by

3870-422: The close relationship between classification theory and concept theory. A main opponent of concepts as units is Barry Smith. Arp, Smith and Spear (2015) discuss ontologies and criticize the conceptualist understanding. The book writes (7): “The code assigned to France, for example, is ISO 3166 – 2:FR and the code is assigned to France itself — to the country that is otherwise referred to as Frankreich or Ranska. It

3956-436: The concept theory agree - seems to be that classes cannot be determined by introspective methods, but must be based on scientific and scholarly research. Whether units are called concepts or universals, the problem is to decide when a thing (say a "blackbird") should be considered a natural class. In the case of blackbirds, for example, recent DNA analysis have reconsidered the concept (or universal) "blackbird" and found that what

4042-445: The criteria for ordering these basic units into a classification". There is a widespread opinion in knowledge organization and related fields that such classes corresponds to concepts. We can, for example, classify "waterfowls" into the classes "ducks", "geese", and "swans"; we can also say, however, that the concept “waterfowl” is a generic broader term in relation to the concepts "ducks", "geese", and "swans". This example demonstrates

4128-473: The designated subject as being importantly similar to other entities bearing the same designation; that is, we classify them together. Similarly the use of predicative phrases classifies actions or properties as being of a particular kind. We call this conceptual classification, since it refers to the classification involved in conceptualizing our experiences and surroundings" About systematic classification Suppe wrote: "A second, narrower sense of classification

4214-480: The discussion of their relation to the scientific taxonomy can be found in Scott Atran 's Cognitive Foundations of Natural History. Folk taxonomies of organisms have been found in large part to agree with scientific classification, at least for the larger and more obvious species, which means that it is not the case that folk taxonomies are based purely on utilitarian characteristics. In the seventeenth century

4300-486: The editor of Harvard Business Review , published a cover story highlighting the importance of intellectual capital in organizations. The KM discipline has been gradually moving towards academic maturity. First, is a trend toward higher cooperation among academics; single-author publications are less common. Second, the role of practitioners has changed. Their contribution to academic research declined from 30% of overall contributions up to 2002, to only 10% by 2009. Third,

4386-521: The fact that in software development companies, the skills, expertise, and intellectual capital, often overshadow the value of physical assets. Knowledge audits provide opportunities for organizations to improve their management of knowledge assets, with the goal of enhancing organizational effectiveness and efficiency. By conducting a knowledge audit, organizations can raise awareness of knowledge assets as primary factors of production and as critical capital assets in today's knowledge economy. The process of

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4472-550: The females are ever capable of stinging . Research based on four nuclear genes (elongation factor-1α F2 copy, long-wavelength rhodopsin , wingless and the D2–D3 regions of 28S ribosomal RNA —2700 bp in total) suggests the historical view of family relationships need to be changed, with Rhopalosomatidae as a sister group of the Vespidae and the clade Rhopalosomatidae + Vespidae as sister to all other classical vespoids and apoids. In

4558-514: The form of the knowledge and activities to share it defines the concept between codification and personalization. The form of the knowledge means that it's either tacit or explicit . Data and information can be considered as explicit and know-how can be considered as tacit. Hansen et al. defined the two strategies (codification and personalisation). Codification means a system-oriented method in KM strategy for managing explicit knowledge with organizational objectives. Codification strategy

4644-427: The general to the more specific. By contrast, in the context of legal terminology, an open-ended contextual taxonomy is employed—a taxonomy holding only with respect to a specific context. In scenarios taken from the legal domain, a formal account of the open-texture of legal terms is modeled, which suggests varying notions of the "core" and "penumbra" of the meanings of a concept. The progress of reasoning proceeds from

4730-555: The historicist theory of knowledge. One of the main schools of historical classification is cladistics , which is today dominant in biological taxonomy, but also applied to other domains. The historical and hermeneutical approaches is not restricted to the development of the object of classification (e.g., animal species) but is also concerned with the subject of classification (the classifiers) and their embeddedness in scientific traditions and other human cultures. Pragmatic classification (and functional and teleological classification)

4816-505: The ideal, he recognized that his own system (at least partly) represented an artificial classification. John Stuart Mill explained the artificial nature of the Linnaean classification and suggested the following definition of a natural classification: "The Linnæan arrangement answers the purpose of making us think together of all those kinds of plants, which possess the same number of stamens and pistils; but to think of them in that manner

4902-443: The individual level. In the enterprise, early collections of case studies recognised the importance of knowledge management dimensions of strategy, process and measurement . Key lessons learned include people and the cultural norms which influence their behaviors are the most critical resources for successful knowledge creation, dissemination and application; cognitive, social and organisational learning processes are essential to

4988-621: The influence of the cladistic paradigm - and have demanded new classifications. Smith's example of France demands an explanation. First, France is not a general concept, but an individual concept. Next, the legal definition of France is determined by the conventions that France has made with other countries. It is still a concept, however, as Leclercq (1978) demonstrates with the corresponding concept Europe . Hull (1998) continued: "Two fundamentally different sorts of classification are those that reflect structural organization and those that are systematically related to historical development." What

5074-620: The knowledge fall also under the category of formal knowledge protection. Formal knowledge protection from technical viewpoint includes technical access constraints and protection of communication channels, systems, and storage. While knowledge may eventually become public in some form or another, formal protection mechanisms are necessary to prevent competitors from directly utilizing it for their own gain. Formal protection methods are particularly effective in protecting established knowledge that can be codified and embodied in final products or services. Informal knowledge protection methods refer to

5160-495: The knowledge within the boundaries of the organization. Informal protection methods are more effective for protecting knowledge that is complex or difficult to express, articulate, or codify. The balance between knowledge sharing and knowledge protection is a critical dilemma faced by organizations today. While sharing knowledge can lead to innovation, collaboration, and competitive advantage, protecting knowledge can prevent it from being misused, misappropriated, or lost. Thus,

5246-449: The knowledge. Knowledge protection is used to prevent the knowledge to be unintentionally available or useful for competitors. Knowledge protection can be for example a patent, copyright, trademark, lead time or secrecy held by a company or an individual. There are various methods for knowledge protection and those methods are often divided into two categories by their formality: formal protection and informal protection. Occasionally

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5332-765: The larger. Such a hyponym, in turn, may have further subcategories for which it is a hypernym. In the simple biology example, dog is a hypernym with respect to its subcategory collie , which in turn is a hypernym with respect to Fido which is one of its hyponyms. Typically, however, hypernym is used to refer to subcategories rather than single individuals. Researchers reported that large populations consistently develop highly similar category systems. This may be relevant to lexical aspects of large communication networks and cultures such as folksonomies and language or human communication, and sense-making in general. Hull (1998) suggested "The fundamental elements of any classification are its theoretical commitments, basic units and

5418-464: The need for organizational learning must be balanced with the need to protect organisations' intellectual property, especially whilst cooperating with external partners. The role of information security is crucial in helping organisations protect their assets whilst still enabling the benefits of information sharing. By implementing effective knowledge management strategies, organizations can protect valuable intellectual property while also encouraging

5504-556: The need for revision of high-level relationships, and the pattern of sister-group relationships within the putative Vespoidea largely matched the same basic pattern as the 2008 study. This study also noted a paraphyletic Bradynobaenidae and Tiphiidae. The extinct family of Armaniidae also was formerly considered to be a group of "ant-like wasps" and was also classified under Vespoidea. However, additional work by Borysenko in 2017 found these species to be basal members of Formicidae , placing three genera under Sphecomyrminae and considering

5590-462: The notion of explicit knowledge is self-contradictory. Specifically, for knowledge to be made explicit, it must be translated into information (i.e., symbols outside our heads). More recently, together with Georg von Krogh and Sven Voelpel , Nonaka returned to his earlier work in an attempt to move the debate about knowledge conversion forward. A second proposed framework for categorising knowledge dimensions distinguishes embedded knowledge of

5676-437: The number of academic knowledge management journals has been steadily growing, currently reaching 27 outlets. Multiple KM disciplines exist; approaches vary by author and school. As the discipline matured, academic debates increased regarding theory and practice, including: Regardless of the school of thought , core components of KM roughly include people/culture, processes/structure and technology. The details depend on

5762-416: The opposite end of the spectrum, explicit knowledge represents knowledge that the individual holds consciously in mental focus, in a form that can easily be communicated to others. Ikujiro Nonaka proposed a model ( SECI , for Socialisation, Externalisation, Combination, Internalisation) which considers a spiraling interaction between explicit knowledge and tacit knowledge. In this model, knowledge follows

5848-426: The rationalist theory of knowledge. "Empiricism alone is not enough: a healthy advance in taxonomy depends on a sound theoretical foundation" Phenetics or numerical taxonomy is by contrast bottom-up classification, where the starting point is a set of items or individuals, which are classified by putting those with shared characteristics as members of a narrow class and proceeding upward. Numerical taxonomy

5934-531: The rest incertae sedis . Scientific classification Originally, taxonomy referred only to the classification of organisms on the basis of shared characteristics. Today it also has a more general sense. It may refer to the classification of things or concepts, as well as to the principles underlying such work. Thus a taxonomy can be used to organize species, documents, videos or anything else. A taxonomy organizes taxonomic units known as "taxa" (singular "taxon")." Many are hierarchies . One function of

6020-423: The same things could be distributed." "A classification thus formed is properly scientific or philosophical, and is commonly called a Natural, in contradistinction to a Technical or Artificial, classification or arrangement." Ridley (1986) provided the following definitions: Knowledge management Knowledge management ( KM ) is the collection of methods relating to creating, sharing, using and managing

6106-402: The second half of the 20th century, specific adaptations of technologies such as knowledge bases , expert systems , information repositories , group decision support systems , intranets , and computer-supported cooperative work have been introduced to further enhance such efforts. In 1999, the term personal knowledge management was introduced; it refers to the management of knowledge at

6192-510: The sharing of data and code. CRediT comprises 14 specific contributor roles using the following defined terms: The taxonomy is an open standard conformiing to the OpenStand principles, and is published under a Creative Commons licence. Websites with a well designed taxonomy or hierarchy are easily understood by users, due to the possibility of users developing a mental model of the site structure. Guidelines for writing taxonomy for

6278-408: The sharing of relevant knowledge across teams and departments. This active balancing act requires careful consideration of factors such as the level of openness, the identification of core knowledge areas, and the establishment of appropriate mechanisms for knowledge transfer and collaboration. Finding the right balance between knowledge sharing and knowledge protection is a complex issue that requires

6364-427: The so-called evolutionary taxonomy ", which mixes historical and empiricist principles). Logical division (top-down classification or downward classification) is an approach that divides a class into subclasses and then divide subclasses into their subclasses, and so on, which finally forms a tree of classes. The root of the tree is the original class, and the leaves of the tree are the final classes. Plato advocated

6450-451: The specific context in which it is developed. Early research suggested that KM needs to convert internalised tacit knowledge into explicit knowledge to share it, and the same effort must permit individuals to internalise and make personally meaningful any codified knowledge retrieved from the KM effort. Subsequent research suggested that a distinction between tacit knowledge and explicit knowledge represented an oversimplification and that

6536-413: The specific objects are considered as instances of a concept. For example, Fido is-an instance of the concept dog and Fluffy is-a cat . In linguistics , is-a relations are called hyponymy . When one word describes a category, but another describe some subset of that category, the larger term is called a hypernym with respect to the smaller, and the smaller is called a "hyponym" with respect to

6622-430: The specific to the more general. Anthropologists have observed that taxonomies are generally embedded in local cultural and social systems, and serve various social functions. Perhaps the most well-known and influential study of folk taxonomies is Émile Durkheim 's The Elementary Forms of Religious Life . A more recent treatment of folk taxonomies (including the results of several decades of empirical research) and

6708-478: The success of a knowledge management strategy; and measurement, benchmarking and incentives are essential to accelerate the learning process and to drive cultural change. In short, knowledge management programs can yield impressive benefits to individuals and organisations if they are purposeful, concrete and action-orientated. The ISO 9001:2015 quality management standard released in September 2015 introduced

6794-815: The target is to improve knowledge flows through networking and integrations related to tacit knowledge with knowledge sharing and creation. Information technology plays a less important role, as it only facilitates communication and knowledge sharing. Generic knowledge strategies include knowledge acquisition strategy, knowledge exploitation strategy, knowledge exploration strategy, and knowledge sharing strategy. These strategies aim at helping organisations to increase their knowledge and competitive advantage . Other knowledge management strategies and instruments for companies include: Multiple motivations lead organisations to undertake KM. Typical considerations include: Knowledge management (KM) technology can be categorised: These categories overlap. Workflow, for example,

6880-500: The terms of the stages. For example, Dalkir talks about knowledge capture, sharing and acquisition and Doan et al. introduces initiation, implementation and evaluation. Furthermore, Levy introduces three steps (scope, transfer, integration) but also recognizes a "zero stage" for initiation of the project. A knowledge audit is a comprehensive assessment of an organization's knowledge assets, including its explicit and tacit knowledge, intellectual capital, expertise, and skills. The goal of

6966-448: The theory of evolution. Charles Darwin's main contribution to classification theory of not just his claim "... all true classification is genealogical ..." but that he provided operational guidance for classification. Genealogical classification is not restricted to biology, but is also much used in, for example, classification of languages, and may be considered a general approach to classification." These methods may overall be related to

7052-443: The two main such principles, phenetic and phylogenetic classification ". Natural classification is a concept closely related to the concept natural kind . Carl Linnaeus is often recognized as the first scholar to clearly have differentiated "artificial" and "natural" classifications A natural classification is one, using Plato's metaphor, that is “carving nature at its joints” Although Linnaeus considered natural classification

7138-508: The use of a taxonomy to bridge the communication between researchers and practitioners engaged in the area of software testing. They have also developed a web-based tool to facilitate and encourage the use of the taxonomy. The tool and its source code are available for public use. Uses of taxonomy in education include: Uses of taxonomy in safety include: Citing inadequacies with current practices in listing authors of papers in medical research journals, Drummond Rennie and co-authors called in

7224-574: The use of informal mechanisms such as human resource management practices or secrecy to protect knowledge assets. There is notable amount of knowledge that cannot be protected by formal methods, and for which more informal protection might be the most efficient option. Informal knowledge protection methods can take various forms, such as: secrecy, social norms and values, complexity, lead-time and Human resource management. Informal knowledge protection methods protect knowledge assets for example by making it difficult for outsiders to access and understand

7310-405: The web include: Frederick Suppe distinguished two senses of classification: a broad meaning, which he called "conceptual classification" and a narrow meaning, which he called "systematic classification". About conceptual classification Suppe wrote: "Classification is intrinsic to the use of language, hence to most if not all communication. Whenever we use nominative phrases we are classifying

7396-498: Was formerly considered one species (with subspecies) are in reality many different species, which just have chosen similar characteristics to adopt to their ecological niches. An important argument for considering concepts the basis of classification is that concepts are subject to change and that they changes when scientific revolutions occur. Our concepts of many birds, for example, have changed with recent development in DNA analysis and

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