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118-600: The cemetery is landscaped and serves as an important open space , in which people take a stroll, and look at the old graves and monuments. It is located southwest of the city center , between the Carlsberg , Sydhavn , Sjælør and Valby train stations of Copenhagen's S-train network , and right next to the historic Carlsberg neighbourhood . The cemetery is one of five run by Copenhagen municipality. The other cemeteries are Assistens Cemetery , Brønshøj Cemetery , Sundby Cemetery , and Bispebjerg Cemetery . The cemetery has

236-476: A Catholic section, and next to that is a Jewish cemetery (the Jewish Western Cemetery ). Vestre Kirkegård was opened on 2 November 1870 to accommodate an urgent need for adequate burial places for the growing population of Copenhagen. Assistens Cemetery, till then the main cemetery of the city, had long been unable to cope with the increasing number of burials. Hans Jørgen Holm , who was

354-481: A DED-ridden area. These have been tested and some have a very high level of resistance. At Noordplant Nursery new hybrids have been tested since 2013. Ten resistant American elm cultivars are now in commerce in North America. No cultivar is immune to DED; even highly resistant cultivars can become infected, particularly if already stressed by drought or other environmental conditions where the disease prevalence

472-529: A few branches, and had largely died out by 1940 owing to its susceptibility to viruses. In around 1967, a new, far more virulent , strain arrived in Britain, apparently via east coast ports on shipments of rock elm U. thomasii logs from Canada destined for the small-boat industry, confirmed in 1973 when another consignment was examined at Southampton Docks. This strain proved both highly contagious and lethal to European elms; more than 25 million trees died in

590-529: A few decades, a culture of public political gatherings and outdoor cafes emerged. Non-sustainable gardening , including mowing , use of chemical fertilisers , herbicides and pesticides harm green spaces. Contrariwise, one of the conditions for good urban open space is sustainable gardening . At the beginning of the 21st century, studies began to show that living in areas near water (known as " blue spaces ") considerably improved physical and mental health, increasing life longevity. Green space access

708-755: A four-fold pattern called chahar bagh or chahār bāgh . often appearing as fountains, flowing channels, or reflective pools. Modern interpretations of Islamic gardens can be found in various locations, such as the Islamic Gardens at King's Cross in London, which showcase contemporary landscaped spaces representing the diversity of Muslim culture. The concept of Islamic gardens spread widely from Persia to Spain, North Africa, and India, influencing garden design across various Islamic empires. While maintaining core principles, these gardens often incorporated local elements and adapted to regional climate. London has

826-507: A good social network feel socially included, promoting more confidence and well-being in their everyday lives. Overall, the bonding experiences that result from urban green spaces tie in with a child's cognitive and social development. A 2021 study found that higher exposure to woodland urban green spaces or urban forest but not grassland is associated with improved cognitive development and reduced risks of mental problems for urban adolescents . The term "rus in urbe" meaning "country in

944-441: A high risk of prevalence rhinitis, allergic sensitization, wheezing, and asthma among children 7 years-old. More studies are needed to explain the effect of urban green spaces on children relating to air quality. These studies should take into consideration the interconnectedness of tree species, geographic areas, temperature, and other pollutant-like traffic. The adolescent years are extremely important for children due to it being

1062-488: A long history of urban open space, which has significantly influenced development of modern parks, and is still among the greenest capital cities in the world. The basis for many urban open spaces seen today across Europe and the West began its process of development in London in the 17th and 18th centuries. What would eventually become urban open green space began as paved public plazas . Though they were intended to be open to

1180-461: A lower income, explained by the pattern that wealthier individuals reside in areas more concentrated with green space. Urban open spaces in higher socioeconomic neighborhoods were also more likely to have trees that provided shade, a water feature (e.g. pond, lake and creek), walking and cycling paths, lighting, signage regarding dog access and signage restricting other activities as well. This difference in access has been proven, however, further study

1298-530: A neighborhood. Even when physical activity rates are not shown to increase with greater access to green space, greater access to green space has been shown to decrease stress and improve social cohesion. Adequate urban green space access can be associated with better respiratory health outcomes, as long as green space areas meet certain requirements.  A new study showed that mortality due to pneumonia and chronic lower respiratory diseases could be reduced by minimizing fragmentation of green spaces and increasing

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1416-430: A number of methods to control the epidemic, including sanitation , pruning , injecting trees with fungicide and replanting with DED-resistant American elm cultivars (see Ulmus americana cultivars ). The NPS combated the disease's local insect vector , the smaller European elm bark beetle ( Scolytus multistriatus ), by trapping and by spraying with insecticides . As a result, the population of American elms planted on

1534-562: A prevention program initiated in 1981. Alberta and British Columbia are the only provinces that are currently free of Dutch elm disease, although, in an isolated case, an elm tree in Wainwright, Alberta , was found diseased in June 1998 and was immediately destroyed. The presence of DED was monitored in this area during subsequent years but was not seen again. Today, Alberta has the largest number of elms unaffected by Dutch elm disease in

1652-668: A progressive manner throughout the tree, with further dieback of branches. Eventually, the roots die, starved of nutrients from the leaves. Often, not all the roots die: the roots of some species, especially the English elm (formerly Ulmus procera ), can repeatedly put up suckers, which flourish for approximately 15 years before dying off. Dutch elm disease was first noticed in continental Europe in 1910, and spread slowly and eventually extended to all other countries except Greece and Finland. Barendina Gerarda Spierenburg compiled records of trees displaying symptoms from 1900 - 1905 onwards in

1770-529: A protective factor against respiratory disease. Exposure to nature improves the immune system . Contact of the human body with soil , turf , or forest floor , exposes it to many microorganisms which boost the immune system. Improved access to green space is associated with reductions in cardiovascular disease symptoms, improved rates of physical activity , lower incidence of obesity , and improved respiratory health. Lower rates of cardiovascular biomarkers are associated with access to green space, showing

1888-539: A reduction in cardiovascular disease risk in populations living within 1 km of green space. Not only does access to urban green space reduce risk of cardiovascular disease, but increased access has been shown to improve recovery from major adverse cardiovascular events and lower all-cause mortality. Relationships have been found between increased access to green space, improved rates of physical activity, and reduced BMI. The percentage of sedentary and moderately active persons making use of an urban park increased when access to

2006-418: A reprieve from the urban environment and a break from over-stimulation . Studies done on physically active adults middle-aged and older show that there are amplified benefits when physical activities are coupled with green space environments. Such coupling leads to decreased levels of stress , lowers the risk for depression , and increases the frequency of participation in exercise. Green spaces may improve

2124-547: A shipment of logs from the Netherlands destined for use as veneer in the Ohio furniture industry. Quarantine and sanitation procedures held most cases within 150 mi (240 km) of metropolitan New York City until 1941 when war demands began to curtail them. The disease spread from New England westward and southward, almost completely destroying the famous elms in the "Elm City" of New Haven, Connecticut , reaching

2242-549: A small number of wych elms U. glabra surviving in areas of high infectivity, prompting the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh to begin a programme of selecting trees, with a view to determining innate resistance (2009). The Garden is raising and distributing in Scotland seedlings derived from controlled crosses of rare survivors in these areas (2023). In 2001–2004, English elm U. minor 'Atinia'

2360-715: A source of antifungal genes. Early efforts in the USA involved the hybridization of the Siberian elm U. pumila with American red elm U. rubra to produce resistant trees. Resulting cultivars lacked the traditional shape and landscape value of the American elm; few were planted. In 2005, the National Elm Trial (USA) began a 10-year evaluation of 19 cultivars in plantings across the United States. The trees in

2478-528: A time of growth, development, and instillation of habits. When children are given the opportunity to be active, they typically take advantage of it. Children with a greater access to parks and recreational facilities through urban green space have been found to be more active than children who lack access. The access to green spaces has shown an association with recreational walking, increased physical activity, and reduced sedentary time in all ages. In coordination, it has been seen that higher residential green space

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2596-485: A tree has unusual symbolic value or occupies a particularly important place in the landscape. Research to select resistant cultivars and varieties began in the Netherlands in 1928, followed by the United States in 1937 (see Ulmus americana cultivars ). Initial efforts in the Netherlands involved crossing varieties of U. minor and U. glabra , but later included the Himalayan or Kashmir elm U. wallichiana as

2714-512: A trend aided by fungicides . Lignasan BLP ( carbendazim phosphate ), introduced in the 1970s, was the first fungicide used to control Dutch elm disease. This had to be injected into the base of the tree using specialized equipment, and was never especially effective. It is still sold under the name "Elm Fungicide". Arbotect ( thiabendazole hypophosphite ) became available some years later, and it has been proven effective. Arbotect must be injected every two to three years to provide ongoing control;

2832-480: A wind speed of less than five metres per second. The largest concentration of mature elms in Scotland is in Edinburgh , where over 5,000 remained in 2009 from some 35,000 in 1976. The city council gives the overall number of elms as 15,000 (2016). Edinburgh's Leith Links and Meadows have some of the highest concentrations of mature elms among U.K. parks (2014). A policy of sanitary felling has kept losses in

2950-491: Is an umbrella term covering the various factors by which some elms avoid infection in the first place, rather than survive it. A clear example would be the European White Elm ( Ulmus laevis ) which, while having little or no genetic resistance to DED, synthesizes a triterpene , Alnulin, rendering the bark distasteful to the vector beetles, obliging them to look further afield for more suitable elms. Another would be

3068-1013: Is associated with lower BMI scores. If children are given the opportunity to be active and maintain a healthy BMI in their adolescent years, they are less likely to be obese as adults. Children exposed to urban green spaces have the opportunity to expend energy by interacting with their environment and other people through exercise. One study has shown that without access to urban green spaces, some children have problems with hyperactivity, peer interactions, and good conduct. The important interactions with nature, animals, and peers have been positively influential in child development and reduction in behavioral issues such as Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Urban green spaces allow children to expel their extra energy and improve their ability to focus when needed both at school and home. In addition to behavioral problems, and likely connected, access to urban green space has been proven to be helpful for cognitive development. With urban green space giving children

3186-603: Is believed to be in the city of Winnipeg , where close to 200,000 elms remain. The city spends $ 3 million annually to aggressively combat the disease using Dursban Turf and the Dutch Trig vaccine. Dutch elm disease has reached New Zealand . It was found in Napier where it was eradicated and was also found in the Auckland Region in 1989. The Ministry of Agriculture funded a national management programme but it

3304-704: Is high. With the exception of 'Princeton', no trees have yet been grown to maturity; trees cannot be said to be mature until they have reached an age of 60 years. Notable cultivars include: In 2007, the Elm Recovery Project of the University of Guelph Arboretum in Ontario, Canada, reported that cuttings from healthy surviving old elms surveyed across Ontario had been grown to produce a bank of resistant trees, isolated for selective breeding of highly resistant cultivars. The University of Minnesota USA

3422-528: Is higher in populations with a higher percentage of green space in their environments. Urban open space access has also been directly related to reductions in the prevalence and severity of chronic diseases resulting from sedentary lifestyles, to improvements in mental well-being, and to reductions in population-wide health impacts from climate change . Access to urban open space encourages physical activity and reduces ambient air pollution, heat, traffic noise and emissions . All are factors which contribute to

3540-413: Is injected. Alamo is primarily recommended for treatment of oak wilt . Multistriatin is a pheromone produced by female elm bark beetles, which can be produced synthetically. It has potential in being used to trap male beetles, which carry the fungus. Because of the ban on the use of chemicals on street and park trees in the Netherlands, the University of Amsterdam developed a biological vaccine by

3658-470: Is needed to evaluate the exact health impacts. A study conducted in Australia provided insight into how there is a correlation between community development/community safety and natural open space within the community. Open areas allow community members to engage in highly social activities and facilitate the expansion of social networks and friendship development. As people become more social they decrease

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3776-492: Is not sufficient; the quality of the urban green space is important as well. Urban open space is often appreciated for the recreational opportunities it provides. Examples of recreation in urban open spaces include active recreation (such as organized sports and individual exercise) and passive recreation. Research shows that when open spaces are attractive and accessible, people are more likely to engage in physical activity. Time spent in an urban open space for recreation offers

3894-602: Is now hoped that the controlled crossing of the best seven of these (genetically and aesthetically) will produce Ulmus minor hybrids with effective 'field resistance' and market appeal. Similar results are beginning to emerge in trials on surviving field elms in Greece. Much of the work in the United Kingdom is by the Forestry Commission's research arm, which has had Dutch elm disease on its agenda since

4012-414: Is related to health inequality for minority populations.  Neighborhoods with higher percentages of minority residents often have lower access to open space and parks as the result of past red-lining policies and current inequities in funding priorities. Urban open space is under strong pressure. Due to increasing urbanization , combined with a spatial planning policy of densification , more people face

4130-435: Is standard in both continents, its composition reflects the different Ophiostoma species, subspecies and hybrids endemic to the two continents. In Italy for example, two subspecies, americana and novo-ulmi , are present together with their hybrid, whereas in North America, ssp. novo-ulmi is unknown. The differences in method and inocula possibly explain why the American cultivar 'Princeton' , displaying high resistance in

4248-526: Is testing various elms, including a huge now-patented century-old survivor known as "The St. Croix Elm" , which is located in a Minneapolis-St. Paul, MN suburb (Afton) in the St. Croix River valley—a designated National Scenic Riverway. The slippery or red elm U. rubra is marginally less susceptible to Dutch elm disease than the other American species, but this quality seems to have been largely ignored in American research. No cultivars were ever selected, although

4366-527: Is the elm most favoured by the Scolytus beetles. Thirty years after the outbreak of the epidemic , nearly all these trees, which often grew to more than 45 m high, are gone. The species still survives in hedgerows , as the roots are not killed and send up root sprouts ( "suckers" ). These suckers rarely reach more than 5 m tall before dying off from a new attack. However, established hedges kept low by clipping have remained apparently healthy throughout

4484-462: Is the unique example of the European white elm U. laevis , which has little innate resistance to DED, but is eschewed by the vector bark beetles and only rarely becomes infected. Recent research has indicated it is the presence of certain organic compounds, such as triterpenes and sterols , which serves to make the tree bark unattractive to the beetle species that spread the disease. In Europe

4602-645: The Detroit area in 1950, the Chicago area by 1960, and Minneapolis by 1970. Of the estimated 77 million elms in North America in 1930, over 75% had been lost by 1989. The disease first appeared on the planted rows of American elm trees ( Ulmus americana ) on the National Mall in Washington, D.C. , during the 1950s and reached a peak in the 1970s. The United States National Park Service (NPS) used

4720-543: The urban heat island effect. Historically, access to urban green space has favored wealthier and more privileged communities; thus, recent urban greening has increasingly focused on environmental justice concerns, and community engagement in the greening process. In particular, in cities with economic decline, such as the Rust Belt in the United States, urban greening has broad community revitalization impacts. Urban areas have greatly expanded, resulting in over half of

4838-446: The vascular cambium , the other being the phloem ) delivers water and nutrients to the rest of the plant, these plugs prevent them from travelling up the trunk of the tree , starving the tree of water and nutrients, which eventually kills it. The first symptom of infection is usually an upper branch of the tree with leaves starting to wither and yellow in summer, months before the normal autumnal leaf shedding. This morbidity spreads in

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4956-399: The 1920s. In 1994 a Research Information Note (no 252) was published, written by John Gibbs, Clive Brasier and Joan Webber, and in 2010 a Pathology Advisory Note, as well as throughout the period a stream of more academic papers: notable results have been the observation that the progress of the disease through Scotland has been quite slow, and that genetic engineering has been tried to improve

5074-472: The 1940s and 50s; the species last featured in hybridization as the female parent of 'Repura' and 'Revera' , both patented in 1993, although neither has yet appeared in commerce. In Italy , research was initiated at the Istituto per la Protezione delle Piante, Florence, to produce a range of disease-resistant trees adapted to the warmer Mediterranean climate, using a variety of Asiatic species crossed with

5192-572: The 1990s, a programme of antifungal injections of the most prominent 10,000 elms, and of sanitation felling, has reduced annual elm losses in The Hague from 7% to less than 1% (see below: Preventive treatment ). The losses are made up by the planting of disease-resistant cultivars . The largest concentration of mature elm trees remaining in England is in Brighton and Hove , East Sussex , where of

5310-433: The 1990s. The cemetery is noted for its scenery, offers a maze of dense groves, open lawns, winding paths, hedges, overgrown tombs , monuments, tree-lined avenues, ponds and other garden features . Many graves have distinctive gravestones, sculptures or large mausoleums and are eclectically placed. The cemetery's grounds have a variety of trees with many rare species and is a haven to birds and small mammals. Just inside

5428-672: The 30,000 elms in 1983 15,000 still stand (2005 figures), several of which are estimated to be over 400 years old. Their survival is owing to the isolation of the area, between the English Channel and the South Downs , and the assiduous efforts of local authorities to identify and remove infected sections of trees immediately when they show symptoms of the disease. Empowered by the Dutch Elm Disease (Local Authorities) (Amendment) Order 1988, local authorities may order

5546-458: The American elm have been successful; in a six-year experiment with the American elm in Denver, CO, annual Dutch elm disease losses declined significantly after the first year from 7 percent to between 0.4 and 0.6 percent; a greater and more rapid reduction in disease incidence than the accompanying tree sanitation and plant health care programs. Preventive treatment is usually justified only when

5664-596: The British countryside: parent trees are monitored for disease, while saplings were offered free to schools and community groups, who are asked to monitor their trees' progress on the Foundation's online elm map; in London, places with 'elm' in their name were offered a sapling – in an attempt to find out why some elms have survived while others succumbed to Dutch elm disease. Both these projects have been discontinued. The spread of DED to Scotland has focussed attention on

5782-535: The Earth's atmosphere and trees play an essential role in removing human-made pollutants from the air, aka particulate matter (PM). Trees produce oxygen and absorb CO 2 . In urban green spaces, trees filter out man-made pollutants. Air quality data collected on cities with and without urban green space has shown that areas with an abundance of trees have considerably less air pollutants, i.e. O 3 , PM 10 , NO 2 , SO 2 , and CO. As air pollutants accumulate in

5900-740: The French Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique (INRA), which subjected the trees to 20 years of field trials in the Bois de Vincennes , Paris , before releasing them to commerce—-in 2002 and 2006, respectively. Asian species featured in the American DED research programs were the Siberian elm U. pumila , Japanese elm U. davidiana var. japonica , and the Chinese elm U. parvifolia , which gave rise to several dozen hybrid cultivars resistant not just to DED, but also to

6018-528: The Mall and its surrounding areas has remained intact for more than 80 years. DED reached eastern Canada during World War II, and spread to Ontario in 1967, Manitoba in 1975 and Saskatchewan in 1981. In Toronto , 80% of the elm trees have been lost to Dutch elm disease; many more fell victim in Ottawa , Montreal and other cities during the 1970s and 1980s. Quebec City still has about 21,000 elms, thanks to

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6136-470: The Netherlands and USA, identified the sexual stage of the fungal pathogen and also developed methods for experimental infections of elm seedlings that led to selection of resistant trees. In Britain, the disease was first identified in 1927 by T R Peace on English elm in Hertfordshire. This first strain was a relatively mild one, which killed only a small proportion of elms, more often just killing

6254-494: The Netherlands and her publication of this information in 1921 was one part of the start of extensive research and practical measures to try to halt the disease. In addition the fungus that caused the disease was isolated in 1921 in The Netherlands by Bea Schwarz , a pioneering Dutch phytopathologist , and this discovery would lend the disease its name. Following this, in the 1920s and 30s Christine Buisman , working in

6372-495: The North Chapel and South Chapel (1906) as well as an office building the gate at the main entrance. It is unclear who were responsible for the design of the former inspector's house just inside the main entrance. The East Chapel was inaugurated in 1914 to a design by Holger Jacobsen but only remained in use until 1926. First a burial place for the poor, Vestre Kirkegaard became the principal burial place of Copenhagen during

6490-637: The US, has often succumbed to Dutch elm disease in Europe. Many attempts to breed disease-resistant cultivar hybrids have involved a genetic contribution from Asian elm species that are demonstrably resistant to this fungal disease. Much of the early work was undertaken in the Netherlands. The Dutch research programme began in 1928, and ended in 1992. During those 64 years, well over 1000 cultivars were raised and evaluated. Still in use are cultivars such as 'Groeneveld', 'Lobel', 'Dodoens', 'Clusius' and 'Plantijn', although

6608-464: The US, when Dutch elm disease spread away from the Atlantic coast, control focused on controlling the bark beetle by using insecticides such as DDT and dieldrin , which were sprayed heavily across all parts of elm trees, usually twice a year in the spring and again at a lower concentration in the summer. In its early years, it was generally thought by observers that pesticides did slow the spread of

6726-540: The United Kingdom alone, while France lost 97% of its elms. The disease spread rapidly northwards, reaching Scotland within 10 years. By 1990, very few mature elms were left in Britain or much of continental Europe. One of the most distinctive English countryside trees (See John Constable 's painting Salisbury Cathedral from the South-West ), the English elm U. minor 'Atinia' , is particularly susceptible as it

6844-422: The air quality of urban areas and provide habitat for wildlife, improving the overall ecological health of urban environments. They may also reduce the risk of flooding by providing rainwater drainage . The aesthetic value of urban open spaces is self-evident. People enjoy viewing nature, especially when it is otherwise extensively deprived, as is the case in urban environments. Therefore, open space offers

6962-468: The atmosphere, vulnerable populations, such as children, may suffer from increased incidences of respiratory disease. Particulate matter or particle pollution with a diameter of 10 microns (PM10) or 2.5 microns (PM2.5) is associated with heart diseases and respiratory diseases including lung cancer. Globally, particulate matter has increased over 28% in indoor air and 35% in outdoor air. Children spend most of their time at school, around 10 hours daily, and

7080-399: The cities designed to try to solve the problem. The distance an individual lives from a green space or park and the proportion of land designated as open space/parks has been shown to be inversely related to anxiety/ mood disorder treatment counts in the community. Improved mental health may therefore be related to both measures - to distance from open space and proportion of open space within

7198-500: The city to an average of 1,000 a year (2009). Between 2013 and 2020 losses were below 1,000 a year. Elm was the most common tree in Paris from the 17th century; before the 1970s there were some 30,000 ormes parisiens . Today, only 1,000 mature elms survive in the city, including examples in the large avenues (Avenue d'Italie, Avenue de Choisy, Boulevard Lefebvre, Boulevard de Grenelle, Boulevard Garibaldi) and two very old specimens, one in

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7316-651: The city" was used in Rome around the first century C.E. Urban planning in Rome valued the natural landscape and took account for environmental factors. It was thought that by building a city with regard to the local countryside, the people living there would be healthier and happier. English landscapes would later take inspiration from Roman urban planning concepts in their own open spaces. Islamic gardens are distinctive green spaces that blend cultural, religious, and practical elements, serving as earthly representations of paradise. Typically featuring symmetrical designs, often in

7434-422: The counterpart of development, urban open space is a natural and cultural resource, synonymous with neither 'unused land' nor 'park and recreation areas'." Another defines urban open space as "land and/or water area with its surface open to the sky, consciously acquired or publicly regulated to serve conservation and urban shaping function in addition to providing recreational opportunities." In almost all instances,

7552-431: The density of vegetation. Green spaces contribute to the reduction of local heat, decreasing the overall effect of UHIs. The larger the distribution of green spaces, the bigger the area of heat reduction. Green spaces that are clustered together will have an additive heat reduction resulting in a greater decrease in temperature in the local area compared to surrounding areas. Human activity has increased air pollution in

7670-451: The destruction of any infected trees or timber, although in practice they usually do it themselves, successfully reducing the numbers of elm bark beetle Scolytus spp. Sanitary felling has also, to date, preserved most of the 250,000 elms on the Isle of Man , where average temperature and wind speed inhibit the activity of the beetles, which need a temperature of at least 20 degrees to fly and

7788-705: The disease across the United States but as early as 1947, concern was raised that many bird species were killed in large numbers by ingesting poisoned invertebrates. In areas sprayed during the 1950s, local people observed birds such as the American woodcock , American robin , white-breasted nuthatch , brown creeper and various Poecile species dying. Biologist Rachel Carson consequently argued for improved sanitation and against spraying elms, which she saw as having been more effective in areas with earlier and greater experience countering Dutch elm disease. Spraying against elm bark beetles declined very rapidly after 1962,

7906-421: The disease generally cannot be eradicated once a tree is infected. Arbotect is not effective on root graft infections from adjacent elm trees. It is more than 99.5% effective for three years from beetle infections, which is the primary mode of tree infection. Alamo ( propiconazole ) has become available more recently, though several university studies show it to be effective only for the current season in which it

8024-499: The disease was accidentally introduced into America , Europe , and New Zealand . In these regions it has devastated native populations of elms that did not have resistance to the disease. The name "Dutch elm disease" refers to its identification in 1921 and later in the Netherlands by Dutch phytopathologists Bea Schwarz and Christine Buisman , who both worked with professor Johanna Westerdijk . The disease affects species in

8142-402: The early Dutch hybrid 'Plantyn' as a safeguard against any future mutation of the disease. Two trees with very high levels of resistance, 'San Zanobi' and 'Plinio' , were released in 2003. 'Arno' and 'Fiorente' were patented in 2006 and entered commerce in 2012. All four have the Siberian elm U. pumila as a parent, the source of disease-resistance and drought-tolerance genes. 'Morfeo'

8260-443: The effect of surface urban heat islands. Open spaces that include any type of vegetation help offset the high temperatures through the natural process of evapotranspiration. Evapotranspiration releases water into the air therefore dissipating heat. There are many elements of an urban open space that can contribute to the mitigation of urban heat islands including the type of open space (park or nature reserve), type of plant species, and

8378-515: The end of World War I , homeward bound, died at Copenhagen around New Year 1919. Among them were a Canadian, an Indian and an Australian from Tasmania. Each has a Commonwealth War Graves Commission headstone and a fine memorial, given by the Danes, was unveiled in their honour in 1920. There are also buried three British casualties from World War II . In the Faroese section is a monument created by

8496-558: The end of each cross arm is a 9 metre tall rust coloured iron arch. The design of the project is inspired by Bramante 's Tempietto in Rome and the Baroque gardens of Villa Gori in Siena . The latter is characterized by the garden being contained in the two axes of the garden, instead of the axes being the connecting feature of the surrounding gardens as is normally the case. Among

8614-415: The extreme cold of Asian winters. Among the most widely planted of these, both in North America and in Europe, are 'Sapporo Autumn Gold' , 'New Horizon' and 'Rebona' . Some hybrid cultivars, such as 'Regal' and 'Pioneer' are the product of both Dutch and American research. Hybridization experiments using the slippery (or red) elm U. rubra resulted in the release of 'Coolshade' and 'Rosehill' in

8732-474: The fungal pathogen in late May when the tree's growth is at its annual peak. Clones raised for testing are grown to an age of 3 or 4 years. In Europe, the inoculum is introduced into the cambium by a knife wound. However this method, developed in the Netherlands, was considered too severe in America, where the principal disease vector is the bark beetle Scolytus multistriatus , a far less effective vector than

8850-678: The garden of the Tuileries in front of the l'Orangerie and another in the Place Saint-Gervais in front of l'hôtel de ville de Paris . Losses are now being made up with disease-resistant cultivars, especially the Dutch-French research elm 'Nanguen' ( Lutèce ) , named for the ancient Roman name for the city: Lutetia. DED was first reported in the United States in 1928, with the beetles believed to have arrived in

8968-473: The genera Ulmus and Zelkova , therefore it is not specific to the Dutch elm hybrid . Dutch elm disease (DED) is caused by ascomycete microfungi . Three species are now recognized: DED is spread in North America by three species of bark beetles (Family: Curculionidae , Subfamily: Scolytinae): In Europe, while S. multistriatus still acts as a vector for infection, it is much less effective than

9086-538: The health of individuals and communities near the green space. Urban greening policies are important for revitalizing communities , reducing financial burdens of healthcare and increasing quality of life. By promoting the development of parks, green roofs, and community gardens, these policies contribute to cleaner air, mitigate urban heat effects, and create spaces for recreation and social interaction. Most policies focus on community benefits, and reducing negative effects of urban development, such as surface runoff and

9204-440: The inability of the beetles to see elms which did not break the silhouette. 'Weeping' elms are often spared infection owing to the beetles' aversion to hanging upside-down while feeding. In an attempt to block the fungus from spreading farther, the tree reacts by plugging its own xylem tissue with gum and tyloses , bladder-like extensions of the xylem cell wall . As the xylem (one of the two types of vascular tissue produced by

9322-444: The increased temperatures. The average temperature during the day in cities can be 18-27 degrees Fahrenheit higher than in the surrounding rural regions. This is an example of one type of UHI, surface heat islands. Surface heat islands encompass the area from the ground to the top of the tree-line. It is usually higher during the day when direct sunlight reaches urban structures (often with darker materials than natural areas) including

9440-464: The indoor and outdoor air has a large impact on their health. Schools located in urban areas have higher particulate matter than schools in rural areas. Compared with children in schools located in rural areas, children who attend schools located in industrial areas and urban cities have higher levels of urinary PAHs ( polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons ) metabolites, which is linked to air pollution. There are two different ways that green spaces can reduce

9558-459: The large elm bark beetle, S. scolytus . H. rufipes can be a vector for the disease, but is inefficient compared to the other vectors. S. schevyrewi was found in 2003 in Colorado and Utah . Other reported DED vectors include Scolytus sulcifrons , S. pygmaeus , S. laevis , Pteleobius vittatus and Р. kraatzi . Other elm bark beetle species are also likely vectors. 'Field resistance'

9676-474: The larger beetle endemic to Europe, Scolytus scolytus , which is unknown in America. In the method devised by the USDA , the inoculum is introduced to the cambium via a 2 mm-diameter hole drilled through the bark in the lower third of the tree. This method was further refined by the University of Wisconsin team, which drilled holes in the branches to simulate natural infection by the bark beetles feeding in

9794-669: The largest patch percentage of green space. Vegetation type (trees, shrubs and herbaceous layers) and lack of management (pruning, irrigation and fertilization) has been shown to affect a higher capacity to provide the ecosystem services of air purification and climate regulation within green urban spaces. The types of plants and shrubs are important because areas with large tree canopies can actually contribute to asthma and allergic sensitization. Urban areas tend to have higher temperatures than their surrounding undeveloped areas because of Urban Heat Islands , UHIs. Urban heat islands are areas with man-made infrastructure that contribute to

9912-432: The late 1980s. Dutch Trig is nontoxic, consisting of a suspension in distilled water of spores of a strain of the fungus Verticillium albo-atrum that has lost much of its pathogenic capabilities, injected in the elm in spring. The strain is believed to have enough pathogenicity left to induce an immune response in the elm, protecting it against DED during one growing season. This is called induced resistance . Trials with

10030-461: The main contributor, pavement. The other type of UHI, atmospheric heat islands, are from above the tree-line to the level in the atmosphere where the urban area no longer has an effect. This type of heat island has increased heat at night due to the release of heat from infrastructure that built up throughout the day. Green spaces within urban areas can help reduce these increased temperatures through shading and evapotranspiration. Shading comes from

10148-587: The main entrance is Arne Bang's bronze statue En Falden ( "A Fallen" ), which was installed in 1942 to commemorate the Danish soldiers that were killed when Denmark was occupied by Nazi Germany on 9 April 1940. In the North Chapel's courtyard garden are two reliefs by the artist Henrik Starcke , Death and Resurrection , which were installed in 1949. They were a gift from the Albertina Foundation . Nineteen British former prisoners of war released at

10266-575: The natural environment, too. For example, people who were shown pictures of scenic, natural environments had increased brain activity in the region associated with recalling happy memories, compared to people that were shown pictures of urban landscapes. The World Health Organization considers urban green spaces as important to human health. These areas have a positive impact on mental and physical health. Urban open spaces often include trees or other shrubbery that contribute to moderating temperatures and decreasing air pollution . Perceived general health

10384-612: The nearly 40 years since the onset of the disease in the United Kingdom. The largest concentrations of mature elms in Europe are now in Amsterdam and The Hague . In 2005, Amsterdam was declared the "Elm City of Europe": the city's streets and canals are lined with at least 75,000 elms, including several generations of research-elms (see below: Resistant trees ). Some 30,000 of the 100,000 mature trees in The Hague are elms, planted because of their tolerance of salty sea-winds. Since

10502-1220: The notables interred at the cemetery are political and business leaders, philosophers, artists, and musicians: In Nordisk Foraar (1911, " Nordic Spring "), Johannes V. Jensen refers to Vestre Kirkegård as the fairest park in Copenhagen, "taller, more elegant than the city centre" (”Jeg gaar ud på Vestre Kirkegaard en Formiddag og finder mig til Rette./ Det er den smukkeste Park vi har, her er højere end inde i Byen, friere,/ og de unge Træer staar i Luftningen ude fra Søen og gror, svulmer af Frodighed”). 55°39′28″N 12°31′45″E  /  55.65778°N 12.52917°E  / 55.65778; 12.52917 Urban open space In land-use planning , urban green spaces are open-space areas reserved for parks and other "green spaces", including plant life , water features – also referred to as blue spaces – and other kinds of natural environment. Most urban open spaces are green spaces, but occasionally include other kinds of open areas. The landscape of urban open spaces can range from playing fields , to highly maintained environments, to relatively natural landscapes . Generally considered open to

10620-433: The opportunity to get outside and expend energy, children are more focused in school and have a better working memory and reduced inattentiveness. Another facet of urban green space improving mental health is giving children access to a community. Recreational activities and playing at the park gives children opportunities to interact with other children and develop a social circle and social skills in general. Children with

10738-535: The painter Elof Risebye . The monument in the Greenlandic section 19 is from 1963 and was designed by the sculptor Jan Buhl. The Crossroads Project (Danish: Stjernevejsprojektet ), designed by Schønher Landskab , is a landscape project centred on the remains of the South Chapel, now serving as a pavilion for contemplation. It was created in 2003 after Copenhagen Municipality arranged a competition for

10856-559: The park was improved. Mental illness has been a major taboo and concern in the current fast-paced world in which time to relax is undervalued.  Globally, mental illness is linked to eight million deaths each year. In urban areas , limited access to green space and poor quality of green spaces available may contribute to poor mental health outcomes; according to some studies, people living in cities and towns may have weaker mental health in comparison to people living in less crowded areas. Urban green spaces are pieces of nature in

10974-447: The perceptions of fear and mistrust allowing a sense of community bondage. Distant or lack of adequate green space, therefore, may contribute to higher rates of inactivity and greater health effects among minority populations. Dutch elm disease Dutch elm disease ( DED ) is caused by a member of the sac fungi (Ascomycota) affecting elm trees, and is spread by elm bark beetles . Believed to be originally native to Asia ,

11092-413: The pollution of particulate matter including preventing distribution of particulate from pollutants or by reducing the particulate matter from traveling to other places. There is a disagreement about the association of living near green spaces or having high exposure to greenness and illness such as allergies, rhinitis, and eye and nose symptoms. Higher exposure to tree canopy and pollen was associated with

11210-557: The prospect of living in less green residential environments, especially people from low economic strata. This may cause environmental inequality with regard to the distribution of (access) to public green space. The parks that do exist in minority neighborhoods are often small (with lower acreage per person than parks in majority ethnicity neighborhoods), not well maintained, unsafe, or are otherwise ill-suited for community needs. A large epidemiological study. concluded that wealthier individuals were generally healthier than individuals with

11328-407: The public, these spaces began to be re-designated as private parks around the late eighteenth century. It was during this period that the areas became pockets of green in the urban environment, commonly modelled after the natural wild of the countryside. The first parks to reverse the trend of privatization and again be opened to the public were England's royal parks in the nineteenth century. This

11446-495: The public, urban green spaces are sometimes privately owned, such as higher education campuses , neighborhood/community parks/gardens , and institutional or corporate grounds. Areas outside city boundaries, such as state and national parks as well as open space in the countryside, are not considered urban open space. Streets, piazzas , plazas and urban squares are not always defined as urban open space in land use planning. Urban green spaces have wide-reaching positive impacts on

11564-438: The regeneration of an area characterized by the abandoned South Chapel of the cemetery and elm trees dead from Dutch elm disease . The complex is intended to serve a dual purpose both relating to the location's function as a burial place and as an open space and meeting place in the city, for those seeking peace and silence. The complex consists of two intersecting axes with the former Southern Chapel in its centre. The chapel

11682-512: The resident architect for the Copenhagen Burial Services, in collaboration with landscape architect Edvard Glæsel (1858–1915) and city engineer Charles Ambt were responsible for the overall planning and landscaping of the new cemetery. Almost all the buildings in the grounds have been designed by Hans Jørgen Holm or Holger Jacobsen , who succeeded him as resident architect for the Copenhagen Burial Services. Holm designed both

11800-549: The resistance levels in these trees aren't high enough to confer good protection. The programme had three major successes: 'Columella' , 'Nanguen' Lutèce , and 'Wanoux' Vada , all found to have an extremely high resistance to the disease when inoculated with unnaturally large doses of the fungus. Only 'Columella' was released during the Dutch programme's lifetime—-in 1987. Patents for the Lutèce and Vada clones were purchased by

11918-603: The resistance of the English elm . In England the Conservation Foundation had been propagating, distributing and planting clones of surviving indigenous elms, including field elms (but not the highly susceptible English elm ), as part of a scheme to return elms to city and countryside. The Foundation was running two elm programmes: the 'Great British Elm Experiment' and 'Ulmus londinium', an elm programme for London – these use saplings cultivated through micropropagation from mature parent elms found growing in

12036-605: The risks of chronic disease and mental illness. Individuals and families who lived closer to ‘formal’ parks or open space were more likely to achieve the recommended amounts of physical activity. Better respiratory health is associated with cleaner air quality. Cleaner air quality affects rates of chronic disease in populations exposed. “High concentrations of ambient particles can trigger the onset of acute myocardial infarction and increase hospitalization for cardiovascular disease”. Besides an association with lower BMI/obesity rates, this physical activity can increase lung function and be

12154-515: The segmentation of the spaces, displays a situation similar to the privatization of London parks in the eighteenth century, which displayed a desire to make classes more distinct. In the 20th century, places like Scandinavia saw a proliferation of urban open spaces and began adopting a lifestyle supported by the extra urban breathing room. An example of this can be seen in Copenhagen where an area closed to car traffic in 1962 developed, in just

12272-775: The space referred to by the term is green space, focused on natural areas. The spaces that are part of "public space" are broadly construed, including meeting or gathering places that exist outside the home and workplace. These foster resident interaction and opportunities for contact and proximity. This definition implies a higher level of community interaction and places a focus on public involvement rather than public ownership or stewardship. The benefits that urban open space provides to citizens can be broken into four basic forms: recreation , ecology, aesthetic value, and positive health impacts. Psychological research shows that benefits gained by visitors to urban green spaces increased with their biodiversity, indicating that "green" alone

12390-410: The taller plants, such as trees, planted in green spaces that can contribute to lowering the surface heat island effect. The shade provides protection from the sun for vulnerable populations, such as children, during periods of increased temperature, during the summer months or during a heat wave. Tree cover prevents some solar radiation from reaching the ground with its leaves and branches. This reduces

12508-508: The testing of clones of surviving field elms for innate resistance has been carried out since the 1990s by national research institutes, with findings centrally assessed and published. The first results of this ongoing project suggest that in some countries a very small number of native field elm genotypes have comparatively high levels of tolerance to DED. In Spain, for example, of around 5,000 native elms evaluated to 2013, some 25 genotypes (0.5% of those tested) fall into this category; and it

12626-967: The tree was used in hybridization experiments (see above). In 1993, Mariam B. Sticklen and James L. Sherald reported the results of NPS-funded experiments conducted at Michigan State University in East Lansing that were designed to apply genetic engineering techniques to the development of DED-resistant strains of American elm trees. In 2007, AE Newhouse and F Schrodt of the State University of New York College of Environmental Science and Forestry in Syracuse reported that young transgenic American elm trees had shown reduced DED symptoms and normal mycorrhizal colonization. By 2013, researchers in both New York State and North Carolina were conducting field trials of genetically engineered DED-resistant American elms. Among European species, there

12744-658: The trial were exclusively American developments; no European cultivars were included. Based on the trial's final ratings, the preferred cultivars of the American elm ( Ulmus americana ) are ‘New Harmony’ and ‘Princeton’. The preferred cultivars of Asian elms are the Morton Arboretum introductions and ‘New Horizon’. Recent research in Sweden has established that early-flushing clones are less susceptible to DED owing to an asynchrony between DED susceptibility and infection. Elms are tested for resistance by inoculation with

12862-433: The twig crotches, but results from this method were found to exaggerate the genetic resistance of the host. Consequently, tests were conducted on specimens in a controlled environment, either in greenhouses or customized plant chambers, facilitating more accurate evaluation of both internal and external symptoms of disease. Another variable is the composition of the inoculum; while an inoculum strength of 10 spores /  ml

12980-407: The use of urban green rings. Segmentation of urban open spaces was particularly prominent in America during the twentieth century. Since the late 1800s romantic park systems, open space designers have been concerned with guiding, containing or separating urban growth, distributing recreation, and/or producing scenic amenity, mostly within the framework of geometric abstractions." Such segmentation

13098-513: The value of "substituting gray infrastructure." One researcher states how attractive neighborhoods contribute to positive attitudes and social norms that encourage walking and community values. Properties near urban open space tend to have a higher value. One study was able to demonstrate that, "a pleasant view can lead to a considerable increase in house price, particularly if the house overlooks water (8–10%) or open space (6–12%)." Certain benefits may be derived from exposure to virtual versions of

13216-434: The world's population being located in urban locations. As the population continues to grow, this number is predicted to be at two-thirds of people living in urban areas by 2050. The World Health Organization (WHO) defined urban green spaces as "all urban land covered by vegetation of any kind". When doing research, some experts use "urban open space" to describe a broader range of open areas. One definition holds that "As

13334-496: The world. The provinces of Alberta, Manitoba, and Saskatchewan all prohibit the pruning of elm trees during the middle of the year (taking effect in April, and lasting through the end of September, July, and August respectively), which they deem to be the most active time of year for bark beetles. It is also illegal to use, store, sell, or transport elm firewood. The largest surviving urban forest of elm trees in North America

13452-703: Was cancelled to allow more funds to be available for pests of a higher priority. A major outbreak occurred in New Zealand in July 2013, particularly at the site of Kingseat Hospital , south of Auckland . Auckland has 20,000 elms. The first attempts to control Dutch elm disease consisted of pruning trees to remove and burn diseased timber . While this method was effective in New York State and adjacent areas, its cost made it uneconomical except in large cities where elms were considered valuable attractions. In

13570-511: Was done in response to the extensive and unexpected population movement from the country into cities. As a result, "the need for open space was socially and politically pressing… The problems, to which the provision of parks was expected to offer some relief, were easy to describe: overcrowding, poverty, squalor, ill-health, lack of morals and morale, and so on". China's Fourteenth Five-Year Plan's plan 's Climate Change Special Plan emphasizes ecologically-oriented urban planning , including through

13688-455: Was especially prominent in the 1990s, when urban open spaces took a path similar to that of parks, following the modernization trend of segmentation and specialization of areas. As modernity stressed "increased efficiency, quantifiability, predictability, and control… In concert with the additional social divisions", open spaces grew more specific in purpose. Perhaps this increase in division of social classes ' use of open space, demonstrated by

13806-417: Was partly demolished, leaving only the central part as an open pavilion-like domed structure. The building is partly overgrown by ivy . The surrounding garden spaces of the two axes, creating a Greek cross , are confined by tall yew hedges and have a grass surface. Embedded in the lawns of the cross arms are narrow, rust coloured paths made of oxidized iron plates, flanked by rows by cherry trees . At

13924-601: Was released in 2011; it arose from a crossing of the Dutch hybrid clone '405' (female parent) and the Chenmou Elm , the latter a small tree from the provinces of Anhui and Jiangsu in eastern China, The '405' clone is a crossing of an English U. × hollandica and a French U. minor . In the Netherlands a new program has been initiated. From the old proving grounds of the Dorschkamp Research Institute, 10 fourth-generation hybrids survive in

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